Microbiology is the study of microorganisms too small to see without a microscope. The document traces the history of microbiology from its beginnings in the late 17th century with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's early observations of bacteria, through major discoveries like Pasteur's germ theory of disease and Koch's isolation of disease-causing pathogens. Key periods included the development phase focusing on morphology from 1687-1895, the rise of molecular microbiology from 1895-1986, and current molecular and genomic research. Many historic figures are highlighted for their pioneering discoveries, including Fleming's discovery of penicillin in 1928.

1. Microbiology
Specialty 241 “Hotel and Restaurant Business”
Topic 1. GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Stabnikov Viktor, PhD
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF FOOD
TECHNOLOGIES

2. Literature
Main:
1. Пирог Т.П. Загальна мікробіологія. К.: НУХТ, 2004. – 471 с.
2. Ситник І.О., Климнюк С.І., Творчо М.С. Мікробіологія,
вірусологія, імунологія. – Тернопіль: Укрмедкнига, 1998. – 390с.
3. Шлегель Г. Общая микробиология. - М.: Мир,1987. – 500 с.
4. Грегірчак Н.М. Мікробіологія харчових виробництв. Лабораторний
практикум. – К.: НУХТ, - 2009. – 302 с.

3. Additional:
1.. Мудрецова-Висс К.А., Кудряшова А.А., Дедюхина В.П. Микробиология,
санитария и гигиена. – М.: 2001. - 375с.
2. Санитарная микробиология /Н.В. Билетова, Р.П. Корнелаева, Л.Г.
Кострикина и др./ Под редакцией С.Я. Любащенко. М.: Пищевая
промышленность, 1980. - 352с.
3. Градова Н.Б., Бабусенко Е.С., Горнова И.Б. Лабораторный практикум по
общей микробиологии. – М.: ДеЛипринт, 2001. – 130с.
4. Сметанин В.И. Защита окружающей среды от отходов производства и
потребления: учебник для вузов. – М.: Колос, 2000. – 232 с.
7. Санітарні норми та правила в Україні. - К.: КНТ, 2004 - 460 с.

4. 1. Scope and target of microbiology
Microbiology is one of the fundamental biological
sciences, which studies cell structure, function,
microbial growth, microbial metabolism, life
conditions, and uses of microorganisms. Term
«microbiology» is coming from Greek words: micros -
small, bios - life, logos – study, so it is science about
small forms of life.
Microbiology studies organisms that are too small to see without the use of a
microscope. For their small sizes, these organisms are called microorganisms or
microbes. Their sizes are so small that in the drop of any liquid there could be
millions of microorganisms. It was calculated that the total number if microbial cells
on the earth are around 5  1030 cells. There are more microorganisms on each
person that there are people living on earth.
Microorganisms include bacteria, microscopic fungi, yeasts, and algae. Most of them
are unicellular organisms, but there are multicellular organisms also.

5. There is no such place in biosphere where
will be impossible to find microorganisms.
Everywhere, where there are any sources
of energy, carbon and nitrogen, you can
find microorganisms.
Microorganisms are widely distributed in the ground, water and air in all climatic zones.
Microorganisms consumes different substrates, easily adapted to changeable life
conditions: heat, cold, lack of water. They reproduce very quickly.
Microorganisms can live in extraordinary conditions, for example, bacteria are found:
in water on a depth 10462 m;
at pressure 60 MPa (in seas);
termperature 104 °С (in thermal springs);
in the salted reservoirs, for example in water of the
Dead sea with the concentration of salts 33 %.

6. 2. Microorganisms in human life
Microorganisms are widely used у житті людини:
in the food industry, housekeeping
• yeasts are used at a production of bread, beer, alcohol

7. • lactic acid bacteria are used at a production of kefir, yoghurt, pickles.

8. Penicillium chrysogenum , міцеліальний гриб , що виробляє пеніцилін.
Medical drugs, particular, antibiotics – penicillin, streptomycin,
gramicidin.

9. Microorganisms are used for production of vaccine for prevention of infectious
diseases.
Genetically modified bacteria are used in the production of insulin.

10. Microorganisms are used for the production of:
biofuel from plant raw material;
• biogas during anaerobic digestion of organic substances from different wastes.

11. Microorganisms are a great importance for sustainable use of natural recourses:
• bacteria are used for recovery of metals such as iron, zinc, uranium;
Cupper bioleaching plant, Uganda
• bioremediation - biological utilization
of organic wastes and neutralization
of pollutants

12. Activity of microorganisms is a base for composting of organic wastes and their
transformation into a fertiliser:
Microorganisms are used for the treatment of waste water:

13. Infecting agents:
Staphylococcus Bacillus
Streptococcus Clostridium
Meanwhile, a lot of microorganisms play a negative role of human’s life. They
can caused infectious diseases of human, animals and plants; spoilage of foods;
destroy of different materials.

14. Brewing was an early
microbiological process
Egyptian wooden model of beer making
in ancient Egypt, Egyptian Museum
Cultures such as those in Mesopotamia, Egypt,
and India developed the process of brewing
beer. It was done by using malted grains
(containing enzymes) to convert starch from
grains into sugar and then adding specific
yeasts to produce beer.
In this process the carbohydrates in the grains
were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol.
3. History of microbiology

15. Microbiology was arisen at the end XVII century due to the discovery
made by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632 -1723). Commonly known as
the father of microbiology and considered the first microbiologist, van
Leeuwenhoek was the first scientist to observe and describe
microorganisms.
Microscope of Leeuwenhoek
He built a simple microscope
during 1671 and started
observing different substances.
He experimented to calculate
the number of microorganisms
in water and examined other
objects like skin, hair and
blood. He also studied physical
structure of ivory and
discovered parasites in flea
using more powerful
microscopes.

17. Accumulation of knowledge about microorganisms lasted long enough,
approximately 100 years. This period is considered as depictive
(morphological).
Works of Louis Pasteur became very important for development of
microbiology. He demonstrated in 1857, that fermentation is caused by
the growth of microorganisms.
Pasteur exposed boiled broths to air
in vessels with air being admitted
via a long tortuous tube that would
not allow dust particles to pass.
Nothing grew in the broths unless
the flasks were broken open.
Therefore, the living organisms that grew in such broths came from
outside, as spores on dust, rather than spontaneously generated
within the broth. This was one of the last and most important
experiments disproving the theory of spontaneous generation.

18. Pasteur created the science of
immunology, showing that certain
diseases could be prevented by what he
called vaccination:
He found that he could make a weak
form of a disease that would cause
people to become immune to the
stronger form of the disease. He called
this weak form a "vaccine."
Pasteur in his laboratory, 1885
Everybody knows term «pasteurization».
It comes from works of Pasteur. Pasteur
showed that microorganisms can cause
spoilage of wine, beer, and milk. This
spoilage could be prevented by heating
the beverages to about 57оС for a few
minutes.
He first discovered this by working with cattle on the disease anthrax. The
first vaccine he gave to a human was the rabies vaccine. He administered it
to a nine year old boy name Joseph Meister in 1885.

19. German microbiologist Robert Koch, who is considered
the founder of modern bacteriology, proposed the
method for the cultivation and isolation of bacteria in
pure culture on a solid nutrient medium (gelatin).
Isolation of bacteriaKoch discovered in1882 Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, the bacterium that causes
tuberculosis.
Colony of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Scanning electron microscopy images
of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

20. Ilya Mechnikov was our compatriot, he was born in 1845
in village neat Kharkoff, but from 1888 he worked in
Paris in Pasteur Institute.
Works of Ilya Mechnikov had a great impact on the
development of microbiology and
immunology. Mechnikov had discovered phagocytes and
phagocytosis as the basis of natural cellular
immunity. For his works he received the Nobel Prize in
1908.
Mechnikov recognized the role of phagocytes,
which are one type of leukocytes, or white blood
cells, in the elimination of pathogens. He showed
that leukocytes destroyed invading
microorganisms (the humoral theory of
immunity).
Cellular elements of blood (scanning electron
microscope image). Biconcave red corpuscles and
spherical white leucocytes with a rough surface are
visible..

21. Nikolay Fyodorovich Gamaleya (1859-1949) was an
Ukrainian scientist who played a pioneering role in
microbiology, immunology, and vaccine research. He introduced
vaccines for prevention of such infection diseases as rabies,
plague, and cholera, created the principals of studies about a
bacteriophage.
Gamaleya worked in Louis Pasteur’s laboratory in France
in 1886. After his return to Odessa, he altogether with I.
Mechnikov opened bacteriological station for rabies vaccination
studies and research on combating cattle plague and cholera,
diagnostic sputum for tuberculosis, and preparing anthrax
vaccines.
Danilo Kirilovich Zabolotny (1866 –1929) was famous
Ukrainian microbiologists and epidemiologist . He studied
such infectious deseases as cholera, plague, diphteria, syphilis
and others. In 1893, studing cholera, D. Zabolorny conducted
on himself a dangerous experiment. To prove the effeciency of
vaccination, he did immunization in advance and then drunk
a living choleric culture.
Kyiv Institute of microbiology and virology carries his
name.

22. Martinus Beijerinck (1851–1931) was a
Dutch microbiologist and botanist. He is
often considered one of the founders
of virology and environmental
microbiology. In 1891 he discovered
fixation of nitrogen from atmosphere by
bacterium Rhizobium, that live in
symbiosis with leguminous plants.
Nitrogen gas is converted by bacteria
into ammonium ions and becomes
available to plants.

23. Tobacco mosaic virus
Dmitri Ivanovsky, Russian microbiologist, in 1892 discovered
tobacco mosaic virus, what put the begining of a new science –
virology.
More that 500 kinds of viruses, whiсh threaten to human,
animals, and plants, are known now.
Martinus Beijerinck was the first who used term
“virus” (лат. virus — яд) to indicate its non-bacterial
nature in 1898.
Tobacco leaves, which are infected
with virus

24. Sergei Winogradsky (1856–1953), Ukrainian
microbiologist, was born in Kyiv. He discovered the
phenomenon of chemosynthesis the process by which
organisms derive energy from a number of
different inorganic compounds in 1892. Winogradsky
is a founder of agricultural microbiology. He isolated
the obligate anaerobe Clostridium pasterianum
capable to fix atmospheric nitrogen in 1895. He also
discovered that some microorganisms can fixes
carbon dioxide (CO2) to make organic compounds -
phenomena of autotrophy.
Omelyansky Vasily Leonidovich (1867 - 1928) discovered
anaerobic bacteria capable to decompose cellulose and
methane producing bacteria.

25. Scientific principles of biological treatment of wastewater have been
developed at the same time. Microorganisms play an important role
in the processes of wastewater treatment.

26. Microorganisms are producers of
enzymes - biological catalysts of different
reactions.
Enzymology was created in that period
and methods of isolation and purification
of enzymes were proposed. Enzymes are
widely used both in food and in
pharmaceutical industry.
A structure of the enzyme
phenylalanine hydroxylase

27. Microbial productions of solvents such as acetone and butanol
(producer bacteria Clostridium acetobytiricus) were developed in 19-
40 years of the XX century.
Aсetone ButanolClostridium acetobutylicum

28. Penicillin inhibits
staphylococcus growth
Alexander Fleming was a Scottish physician-scientist who dicovared
penicillin.
In the Soviet Union Zinaida Ermol'eva and Tatyana Balezina isolated
penicillin in 1942.
The industrial production of this preparation began in 1943
In 1928, Fleming studied staphylococcal
bacteria. An uncovered Petri dish
contaminated with mold he noticed
something unusual. The zone
immediately around the mold—later
identified as a strain of Penicillium
notatum—was clear, as if the mold had
secreted something that inhibited
bacterial growth. Fleming found that his
"mold juice" was capable of killing a
wide range of harmful bacteria, such as
streptococcus, meningococcus and the
diphtheria bacillus. Fleming called this
substance “penicillin”.

29. Insulin
After discovery of DNA structure,
scientists come to the conclusion, that it is
possible to take the segments of DNA -
gene, that take responsibility for the
synthesis of certain substance, and to
carry them into the cells of other
biological organisms.
The first genetically engineered product
approved for human use was human
insulin. The human insulin gene was
inserted into bacteria. Large-scale
production of genetically engineered
human insulin was carried out and
recombinant human insulin first
marketed to diabetics in 1982.
Escherichia coli
It was shown in 1980, that the genetically modified bacteria of genus
Pseudomonas, that is able to slit oil, can be used to control petroleum overflows.
Since then genetically modified bacteria began to use for the synthesis of
medicinal drugs that other living organisms can not product.

30. SUMMARY
All history of microbiology can be divided into three periods:
1. Beginning: Discovery, medical and general microbiology 1687 – 1895.
2. Times of molecular biology/ of general microbiology 1895 – 1986.
3. Molecular microbiology and genome researches.

31. 300 years of microbiology: 1684 - 2000
Year Scientists Discovery
1684 Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Discovery of bacteria
1798 Edward Jenner Vaccination against smallpox
1857 Louis Pasteur Microbiology of lactic fermentation
1869 Louis Pasteur Function of yeasts in alcohol fermentation
1867 Joseph Lister Aseptic technique in surgery
1876 Ferdinand Cohn Discovery of endospores
1882 Robert Koch Pure microbial cultures
1882 Robert Koch Bacterium that causes tuberculosis
1882 Ilya Mechnikov Phagocytosis
1884 Christian Gram Development of the Gram stain
1885 Louis Pasteur Vaccine against the rabies
1889 Sergei Winogradsky Discovery of chemosynthesis
1889 Martinus Beijerinck Induction of the term “virus”
1890 Emil von Behring and
Kitasato
A diphtheria antitoxin
1890 Sergei Winogradsky Discovery of autotrophy
1901 Martinus Beijerinck Method of enrichment culture
1901 Karl Landsteiner Discovery of the blood groups

32. Year Scientists Discovery
1911 Francis Rous Discovery of the first sarcoma virus
1915/
1917
Frederik Twort/Félix d'Hérelle Discovery of bacteriophages (viruses of
bacteria)
1929 Alexander Fleming Discovery of penicillin
1943 Max Delbruck and Salvador
Luria
Discoveries on the replication mechanism and
the genetic structure of viruses
1944 Selman Waksman and Albert
Schatz
Discovery of streptomycin
1953 James Watson and Francis Crick Structure of DNA
1966 Marshall Nirenberg and
Gobind Khorana
Interpretation of the genetic code and its
function in protein synthesis
1967 Thomas Brock Discovery of hyperthermophiles living in hot
springs
1975 Jean Köhler and César Milstein Technique for producing monoclonal antibodies
1977 Frederick Sanger DNA sequencing method
1985 Mullis Kary Invention of the polymerase chain reaction
(PCR)
1995 Hamilton Smith and Craig Venter Whole genome sequencing of bacteria