This master's thesis examines the surface topography of cutting inserts through two work packages. In work package one, uncoated inserts from three variants are analyzed to determine the best parameters for comparison and if the topography correlates with the manufacturing process. In work package two, coated inserts from five variants are studied to understand how the coating outcome relates to pre-treatment and what measurement approach is needed. Statistical analysis methods like average and standard deviation, Spearman's correlation, and ANOVA/t-tests are used to evaluate the surface roughness parameters and compare the variants. The goal is to develop an approach for Sandvik Coromant to characterize different surface textures.
This document provides a summary of chapters from a book on quality management. It discusses definitions of quality, the history and importance of quality, and various quality philosophies and frameworks. It summarizes chapters on total quality in organizations, focusing on customers, leadership and strategic planning, and developing a high performance workforce. The overall document aims to convey key concepts from each chapter in evaluating approaches to quality management.
The document discusses material selection for a disc clutch component in a bicycle flywheel project. It describes using Ashby's material selection method and the CES EduPack software to rank material attributes and select materials based on charts plotting hardness vs specific heat, price vs specific heat, and machinability vs price. This led to selecting cast aluminum alloy as it met desired criteria of hardness, price, heat capacity and machinability. High carbon steel and aluminum/silicon carbide composite were identified as alternative materials.
This document provides information about workshop assignments for group members and processes performed in a fitting shop. It discusses types of metals, safety precautions, and various hand tools used such as different types of files for smoothing, making slots, and rounding edges. It also describes machines like pillar drilling machines and bits used for drilling holes of various sizes. Examples of how different tools are used to shape and drill metal are given.
Abrasive flow machining is a finishing process that uses a viscous abrasive media to deburr and polish complex internal surfaces and passages. It can produce a smooth surface finish on difficult to access areas and remove burrs from holes and intersecting passages. The process involves extruding an abrasive media containing abrasive particles mixed in a viscoelastic polymer through fixtures surrounding the workpiece under pressure. This allows the media to flow through holes and passages to abrade away imperfections. Abrasive flow machining is commonly used in the aerospace, automotive, die and mold industries to improve surfaces, reduce wear and extend component life.
EDM, or electrical discharge machining, is a process that uses electric sparks to erode material by creating a spark between an electrode and workpiece. This spark reaches extremely high temperatures of 8,000-12,000°C and precisely machines complex geometries in hard metals. An EDM drilling machine uses this process to drill micro-holes from 0.3-6mm in diameter and up to 300mm deep in metals. It mounts the workpiece, selects an electrode, and supplies power and dielectric fluid to create a controlled spark and remove material, drilling holes for applications like wire EDM starters, gas escapes, and cooling pins.
The document discusses abrasive waterjet machining (AWJM). It begins by explaining that AWJM uses a high pressure water jet mixed with abrasive particles to cut materials. It then discusses the history and development of AWJM, the types of water jets (pure water jet and abrasive water jet), how AWJM works, its applications in cutting a wide variety of materials, advantages like lack of heat affected zones and ability to cut complex shapes, and comparisons to other machining methods. The document provides examples of materials cut with AWJM and concludes by discussing trends in using more environmentally friendly methods like cryogenic abrasive jet machining.
This document describes the design of a drill jig. It begins with an abstract that outlines the need for techniques to reduce production costs and time. It then provides background on jigs and fixtures and their importance in mass production. The document details the design process for a drill jig for drilling holes in head and cover parts of a cylinder actuator. It includes the methodology, design considerations, force calculations, material selection, and analysis of stresses and deflections in the clamp plates. In the end, it was concluded that the stresses and deformations in the clamp plates are within allowable limits.
This document discusses deburring processes. It defines burrs as sharp edges created during cutting and stamping operations that can cause assembly and safety issues. Deburring is the process of removing burrs, typically through filing, sanding, or newer techniques. The document outlines several common mechanical deburring processes like cutting, power brushing, bonded abrasives, mass finishing and abrasive blasting. It also discusses less common thermal deburring using heat and electro-chemical deburring which dissolves burrs using electrolysis. The goal of deburring is to prepare metal or wood surfaces for further finishing or assembly.
This document provides a summary of chapters from a book on quality management. It discusses definitions of quality, the history and importance of quality, and various quality philosophies and frameworks. It summarizes chapters on total quality in organizations, focusing on customers, leadership and strategic planning, and developing a high performance workforce. The overall document aims to convey key concepts from each chapter in evaluating approaches to quality management.
The document discusses material selection for a disc clutch component in a bicycle flywheel project. It describes using Ashby's material selection method and the CES EduPack software to rank material attributes and select materials based on charts plotting hardness vs specific heat, price vs specific heat, and machinability vs price. This led to selecting cast aluminum alloy as it met desired criteria of hardness, price, heat capacity and machinability. High carbon steel and aluminum/silicon carbide composite were identified as alternative materials.
This document provides information about workshop assignments for group members and processes performed in a fitting shop. It discusses types of metals, safety precautions, and various hand tools used such as different types of files for smoothing, making slots, and rounding edges. It also describes machines like pillar drilling machines and bits used for drilling holes of various sizes. Examples of how different tools are used to shape and drill metal are given.
Abrasive flow machining is a finishing process that uses a viscous abrasive media to deburr and polish complex internal surfaces and passages. It can produce a smooth surface finish on difficult to access areas and remove burrs from holes and intersecting passages. The process involves extruding an abrasive media containing abrasive particles mixed in a viscoelastic polymer through fixtures surrounding the workpiece under pressure. This allows the media to flow through holes and passages to abrade away imperfections. Abrasive flow machining is commonly used in the aerospace, automotive, die and mold industries to improve surfaces, reduce wear and extend component life.
EDM, or electrical discharge machining, is a process that uses electric sparks to erode material by creating a spark between an electrode and workpiece. This spark reaches extremely high temperatures of 8,000-12,000°C and precisely machines complex geometries in hard metals. An EDM drilling machine uses this process to drill micro-holes from 0.3-6mm in diameter and up to 300mm deep in metals. It mounts the workpiece, selects an electrode, and supplies power and dielectric fluid to create a controlled spark and remove material, drilling holes for applications like wire EDM starters, gas escapes, and cooling pins.
The document discusses abrasive waterjet machining (AWJM). It begins by explaining that AWJM uses a high pressure water jet mixed with abrasive particles to cut materials. It then discusses the history and development of AWJM, the types of water jets (pure water jet and abrasive water jet), how AWJM works, its applications in cutting a wide variety of materials, advantages like lack of heat affected zones and ability to cut complex shapes, and comparisons to other machining methods. The document provides examples of materials cut with AWJM and concludes by discussing trends in using more environmentally friendly methods like cryogenic abrasive jet machining.
This document describes the design of a drill jig. It begins with an abstract that outlines the need for techniques to reduce production costs and time. It then provides background on jigs and fixtures and their importance in mass production. The document details the design process for a drill jig for drilling holes in head and cover parts of a cylinder actuator. It includes the methodology, design considerations, force calculations, material selection, and analysis of stresses and deflections in the clamp plates. In the end, it was concluded that the stresses and deformations in the clamp plates are within allowable limits.
This document discusses deburring processes. It defines burrs as sharp edges created during cutting and stamping operations that can cause assembly and safety issues. Deburring is the process of removing burrs, typically through filing, sanding, or newer techniques. The document outlines several common mechanical deburring processes like cutting, power brushing, bonded abrasives, mass finishing and abrasive blasting. It also discusses less common thermal deburring using heat and electro-chemical deburring which dissolves burrs using electrolysis. The goal of deburring is to prepare metal or wood surfaces for further finishing or assembly.
Water jet machining and Abrasive water jet machiningHassan Alrefaey
This document provides an overview of water jet machining (WJM) and abrasive water jet machining (AWJM). It discusses the working principles, history, types of systems and components. Key points covered include: WJM uses high-pressure water only while AWJM mixes abrasives with water to cut harder materials; applications include cutting various soft materials for WJM and metals, glass for AWJM; factors like pressure, abrasives, stand-off distance affect performance; and limitations include high costs and inability to cut very hard materials like diamonds.
The document describes abrasive flow machining (AFM) and summarizes two research papers on the topic. It defines AFM and discusses different types of AFM machines. The first research paper studies the effect of process variables in AFM and develops models to optimize the process. The second paper examines using AFM to finish difficult-to-machine titanium alloy and finds that boron carbide and silicon carbide abrasives most effectively remove surface imperfections within few cycles. Scanning electron microscopy images show the removal of heat-affected layers on the titanium.
This document summarizes friction stir welding (FSW), including its working principle, microstructure analysis, tool design, process parameters, advantages, challenges, and applications. FSW is a solid state welding technique that uses a rotating tool to generate frictional heat and mechanically deform aluminum alloys below their melting point. It produces high quality welds with improved mechanical properties compared to fusion welding. Main applications are in shipbuilding, aerospace, and automotive industries.
Advanced machining processes
Utilize chemical, electrical, and high-energy beams
Situations where traditional machining processes are
unsatisfactory or uneconomical:
– Workpiece material is too hard, strong, or tough.
– Workpiece is too flexible to resist cutting forces or too difficult
to clamp.
– Part shape is very complex with internal or external profiles
or small holes.
– Requirements for surface finish and tolerances are very high.
– Temperature rise or residual stresses are undesirable or
unacceptable.
So to eliminate this disadvantages non conventional machines can be used
Ultrasonic machining (USM) is a mechanical process that uses high frequency vibrations and an abrasive slurry to erode fine holes and cavities in hard or brittle materials. It is well-suited for machining brittle materials like glass, ceramics, and semiconductors. The material removal occurs through abrasion by the particles in the slurry, with no thermal or chemical changes to the workpiece. USM produces intricate shapes and profiles with good surface finish and integrity.
This document discusses plasma arc machining (PAM). PAM uses a high-velocity jet of heated gas at around 50,000°C to melt and remove material. Gases are ionized to form plasma which is directed at the workpiece. Key components of PAM systems include a plasma gun, power supply, and cooling mechanisms. PAM can machine hard metals and is used for applications like tube milling, welding specialty alloys, and nuclear pipe systems. Advantages are high production rates and ability to machine hard metals, while disadvantages include high initial costs and inefficient for large cavities. Various PAM types are also described such as conventional, air, and dual-flow systems.
Conventional machining involves physically removing material from a workpiece using a harder cutting tool, typically through mechanical forces. Non-conventional machining utilizes other forms of energy like thermal, chemical, or electrical instead of mechanical forces and may not require physical contact or chip formation. While conventional machining can be used for most materials economically, non-conventional machining allows for higher precision machining of hard metals and complex parts but requires more advanced equipment and skilled operators.
Spot Welding- Major Project Mechanical EngineeringTosif Mir
The document describes the design of a resistance spot welding machine and investigation of weldability of mild steel. A group of students submitted this as a major project report to fulfill the requirements for a Bachelor of Technology degree. The project involved designing a resistance spot welding machine, fabricating it, and conducting experiments to test the weldability and shear strength of mild steel samples welded using the designed machine and an existing machine.
This document discusses several advanced nano finishing processes including abrasive flow machining, chemo mechanical polishing, magnetic abrasive finishing, magneto rheological finishing, and magneto rheological abrasive flow finishing. It provides details on the working principles, process parameters, advantages, limitations and applications of abrasive flow machining and chemo mechanical polishing. Abrasive flow machining uses a semisolid abrasive media to remove small amounts of material from surfaces. Chemo mechanical polishing combines chemical etching with mechanical polishing to smooth and planarize surfaces.
This document discusses various sheet metal forming processes and their characteristics. It provides tables comparing common sheet metal forming processes such as roll forming, stretching, drawing, stamping, and others. It also discusses specific sheet metal forming operations like bending, flanging, tube bending, and roll forming. Diagrams illustrate the mechanics and terminology used in these various sheet metal forming techniques.
This document provides definitions and explanations of various press tools and manufacturing processes. It discusses different types of press tools like molds, jigs, fixtures, and gauges. It defines common press tool operations like blanking, piercing, cutting, forming, and bending. It also provides details on tool elements, materials, and calculations for determining forces, clearances, and capacities involved in press tool operations.
This document discusses wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) as an additive manufacturing technique. It begins with an overview of additive manufacturing and describes WAAM as using existing welding equipment with an electric arc energy source and welding wire feedstock. WAAM allows for higher deposition rates compared to laser-based methods and is more cost effective. Applications discussed include aluminum and steel components for the aerospace, automotive, and other industries. Research from Cranfield University is also summarized, describing large metallic parts they have produced with WAAM. Compared to powder-based processes, WAAM has lower geometrical accuracy but better mechanical properties and less porosity.
This presentation contain discription about Fine finishing process of complex shape material which cannot be finished by normal processess. three type of finishing process has been described they are Abrasive flow machining, MAgnetic Abrasive Finishing, Magneto Rheological abrasive finishing.
CHEMICAL AND ELECTRO-CHEMICAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSravikumarmrk
The document discusses various chemical and electro-chemical based machining processes. It describes the principles and processes of chemical machining, electro-chemical machining (ECM), electro-chemical grinding (ECG), and electro-chemical honing (ECH). ECM involves removing metal from a workpiece through controlled chemical dissolution using an electrolyte solution, with the workpiece as the anode. ECG combines 90% chemical dissolution with 10% conventional grinding, allowing for high-precision machining of hard materials. ECH similarly combines electro-chemical attack with honing to internally grind with less pressure and tool wear.
The document discusses a presentation on a universal testing machine. It describes how the machine is used to apply tensile, compressive, and shear forces to test materials and measure their properties. It explains that the machine uses load cells, crossheads, and columns to grip specimens and apply and measure forces. The document outlines the working principle of the machine and procedures for tensile and compression tests.
The document describes milling machine operations. It defines milling, the main components of milling machines, and different types of milling machines including horizontal, vertical, and speciality machines. It also explains various milling techniques such as plain milling, face milling, end milling, and gang milling. Key parts of milling machines like the spindle, table, and arbor are identified. Methods like up milling and down milling are compared.
Friction stir welding is a solid state joining process that uses a rotating cylindrical tool to join two facing workpieces without melting them. As the non-consumable tool made of highly wear resistant material is rotated and slowly plunged into the material to be joined, friction generated between the shoulder and pin of the tool and the workpieces produces sufficient heat to cause the material to soften without reaching its melting point. This allows it to be joined by mechanical mixing/forging of the material in the plastic state. Three main zones are affected - the shoulder affected zone, pin affected zone, and thermo-mechanically affected zone. Heat is generated primarily through friction at the tool shoulder and plastic deformation. Material flow occurs as material is
This document discusses electrochemical discharge machining (ECDM), which combines electrochemical machining (ECM) and electric discharge machining (EDM) to machine hard and brittle non-conductive materials like glass, quartz, and ceramics. It provides an introduction to ECDM, describes the working principle involving thermal and chemical material removal, lists the main subsystems of an ECDM setup, and compares ECDM to ECM and EDM in terms of material removal rate, accuracy, surface finish, and other factors. Key application areas of ECDM include micro-holes, grooves, and complex shapes in non-conductive materials for industries like turbines, filters, electronics, and
friction stir welding of aluminium alloymanishmitm
This document presents a study on the effect of friction stir welding on the mechanical properties and formability of thin aluminum blanks. It describes the experimental setup used, including the milling machine, fixture, backing plate, tools, and specimen. It details the experimental procedure and process parameters tested. Results are presented on hardness values, microhardness profiles, and limiting dome height tests of the welded samples. The conclusion is that hardness is higher on the advancing side of the weld due to more grain refinement, and that further tensile tests need to be done to fully analyze formability.
The Development of Mechatronic Machine Vision System for Inspection of Cerami...Waleed El-Badry
This is my Master final thesis for the conducted research that led to build a mechatronic machine vision system for inspection of garnished wall plates.
EFFECT OF NOSE RADIUS ON SURFACE ROUGHNESS DURING CNC TURNING USING RESPONSE ...ijmech
The work and study presented in this paper aims to investigate the effect of nose radius on surface
roughness, in CNC turning of Aluminium (6061) in dry condition. The effect of cutting conditions (speed,
feed and depth of cut) and tool geometry (nose radius) on surface roughness were studied and analysed.
Design of Experiments (DOE) were conducted for the analysis of the influence of the turning parameter on
the surface roughness by using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and then followed by optimization of
the results using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to minimize surface roughness. The nose radius was
identified as the most significant parameter. Surface roughness value decreased with increase in nose
radius.
Water jet machining and Abrasive water jet machiningHassan Alrefaey
This document provides an overview of water jet machining (WJM) and abrasive water jet machining (AWJM). It discusses the working principles, history, types of systems and components. Key points covered include: WJM uses high-pressure water only while AWJM mixes abrasives with water to cut harder materials; applications include cutting various soft materials for WJM and metals, glass for AWJM; factors like pressure, abrasives, stand-off distance affect performance; and limitations include high costs and inability to cut very hard materials like diamonds.
The document describes abrasive flow machining (AFM) and summarizes two research papers on the topic. It defines AFM and discusses different types of AFM machines. The first research paper studies the effect of process variables in AFM and develops models to optimize the process. The second paper examines using AFM to finish difficult-to-machine titanium alloy and finds that boron carbide and silicon carbide abrasives most effectively remove surface imperfections within few cycles. Scanning electron microscopy images show the removal of heat-affected layers on the titanium.
This document summarizes friction stir welding (FSW), including its working principle, microstructure analysis, tool design, process parameters, advantages, challenges, and applications. FSW is a solid state welding technique that uses a rotating tool to generate frictional heat and mechanically deform aluminum alloys below their melting point. It produces high quality welds with improved mechanical properties compared to fusion welding. Main applications are in shipbuilding, aerospace, and automotive industries.
Advanced machining processes
Utilize chemical, electrical, and high-energy beams
Situations where traditional machining processes are
unsatisfactory or uneconomical:
– Workpiece material is too hard, strong, or tough.
– Workpiece is too flexible to resist cutting forces or too difficult
to clamp.
– Part shape is very complex with internal or external profiles
or small holes.
– Requirements for surface finish and tolerances are very high.
– Temperature rise or residual stresses are undesirable or
unacceptable.
So to eliminate this disadvantages non conventional machines can be used
Ultrasonic machining (USM) is a mechanical process that uses high frequency vibrations and an abrasive slurry to erode fine holes and cavities in hard or brittle materials. It is well-suited for machining brittle materials like glass, ceramics, and semiconductors. The material removal occurs through abrasion by the particles in the slurry, with no thermal or chemical changes to the workpiece. USM produces intricate shapes and profiles with good surface finish and integrity.
This document discusses plasma arc machining (PAM). PAM uses a high-velocity jet of heated gas at around 50,000°C to melt and remove material. Gases are ionized to form plasma which is directed at the workpiece. Key components of PAM systems include a plasma gun, power supply, and cooling mechanisms. PAM can machine hard metals and is used for applications like tube milling, welding specialty alloys, and nuclear pipe systems. Advantages are high production rates and ability to machine hard metals, while disadvantages include high initial costs and inefficient for large cavities. Various PAM types are also described such as conventional, air, and dual-flow systems.
Conventional machining involves physically removing material from a workpiece using a harder cutting tool, typically through mechanical forces. Non-conventional machining utilizes other forms of energy like thermal, chemical, or electrical instead of mechanical forces and may not require physical contact or chip formation. While conventional machining can be used for most materials economically, non-conventional machining allows for higher precision machining of hard metals and complex parts but requires more advanced equipment and skilled operators.
Spot Welding- Major Project Mechanical EngineeringTosif Mir
The document describes the design of a resistance spot welding machine and investigation of weldability of mild steel. A group of students submitted this as a major project report to fulfill the requirements for a Bachelor of Technology degree. The project involved designing a resistance spot welding machine, fabricating it, and conducting experiments to test the weldability and shear strength of mild steel samples welded using the designed machine and an existing machine.
This document discusses several advanced nano finishing processes including abrasive flow machining, chemo mechanical polishing, magnetic abrasive finishing, magneto rheological finishing, and magneto rheological abrasive flow finishing. It provides details on the working principles, process parameters, advantages, limitations and applications of abrasive flow machining and chemo mechanical polishing. Abrasive flow machining uses a semisolid abrasive media to remove small amounts of material from surfaces. Chemo mechanical polishing combines chemical etching with mechanical polishing to smooth and planarize surfaces.
This document discusses various sheet metal forming processes and their characteristics. It provides tables comparing common sheet metal forming processes such as roll forming, stretching, drawing, stamping, and others. It also discusses specific sheet metal forming operations like bending, flanging, tube bending, and roll forming. Diagrams illustrate the mechanics and terminology used in these various sheet metal forming techniques.
This document provides definitions and explanations of various press tools and manufacturing processes. It discusses different types of press tools like molds, jigs, fixtures, and gauges. It defines common press tool operations like blanking, piercing, cutting, forming, and bending. It also provides details on tool elements, materials, and calculations for determining forces, clearances, and capacities involved in press tool operations.
This document discusses wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) as an additive manufacturing technique. It begins with an overview of additive manufacturing and describes WAAM as using existing welding equipment with an electric arc energy source and welding wire feedstock. WAAM allows for higher deposition rates compared to laser-based methods and is more cost effective. Applications discussed include aluminum and steel components for the aerospace, automotive, and other industries. Research from Cranfield University is also summarized, describing large metallic parts they have produced with WAAM. Compared to powder-based processes, WAAM has lower geometrical accuracy but better mechanical properties and less porosity.
This presentation contain discription about Fine finishing process of complex shape material which cannot be finished by normal processess. three type of finishing process has been described they are Abrasive flow machining, MAgnetic Abrasive Finishing, Magneto Rheological abrasive finishing.
CHEMICAL AND ELECTRO-CHEMICAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSravikumarmrk
The document discusses various chemical and electro-chemical based machining processes. It describes the principles and processes of chemical machining, electro-chemical machining (ECM), electro-chemical grinding (ECG), and electro-chemical honing (ECH). ECM involves removing metal from a workpiece through controlled chemical dissolution using an electrolyte solution, with the workpiece as the anode. ECG combines 90% chemical dissolution with 10% conventional grinding, allowing for high-precision machining of hard materials. ECH similarly combines electro-chemical attack with honing to internally grind with less pressure and tool wear.
The document discusses a presentation on a universal testing machine. It describes how the machine is used to apply tensile, compressive, and shear forces to test materials and measure their properties. It explains that the machine uses load cells, crossheads, and columns to grip specimens and apply and measure forces. The document outlines the working principle of the machine and procedures for tensile and compression tests.
The document describes milling machine operations. It defines milling, the main components of milling machines, and different types of milling machines including horizontal, vertical, and speciality machines. It also explains various milling techniques such as plain milling, face milling, end milling, and gang milling. Key parts of milling machines like the spindle, table, and arbor are identified. Methods like up milling and down milling are compared.
Friction stir welding is a solid state joining process that uses a rotating cylindrical tool to join two facing workpieces without melting them. As the non-consumable tool made of highly wear resistant material is rotated and slowly plunged into the material to be joined, friction generated between the shoulder and pin of the tool and the workpieces produces sufficient heat to cause the material to soften without reaching its melting point. This allows it to be joined by mechanical mixing/forging of the material in the plastic state. Three main zones are affected - the shoulder affected zone, pin affected zone, and thermo-mechanically affected zone. Heat is generated primarily through friction at the tool shoulder and plastic deformation. Material flow occurs as material is
This document discusses electrochemical discharge machining (ECDM), which combines electrochemical machining (ECM) and electric discharge machining (EDM) to machine hard and brittle non-conductive materials like glass, quartz, and ceramics. It provides an introduction to ECDM, describes the working principle involving thermal and chemical material removal, lists the main subsystems of an ECDM setup, and compares ECDM to ECM and EDM in terms of material removal rate, accuracy, surface finish, and other factors. Key application areas of ECDM include micro-holes, grooves, and complex shapes in non-conductive materials for industries like turbines, filters, electronics, and
friction stir welding of aluminium alloymanishmitm
This document presents a study on the effect of friction stir welding on the mechanical properties and formability of thin aluminum blanks. It describes the experimental setup used, including the milling machine, fixture, backing plate, tools, and specimen. It details the experimental procedure and process parameters tested. Results are presented on hardness values, microhardness profiles, and limiting dome height tests of the welded samples. The conclusion is that hardness is higher on the advancing side of the weld due to more grain refinement, and that further tensile tests need to be done to fully analyze formability.
The Development of Mechatronic Machine Vision System for Inspection of Cerami...Waleed El-Badry
This is my Master final thesis for the conducted research that led to build a mechatronic machine vision system for inspection of garnished wall plates.
EFFECT OF NOSE RADIUS ON SURFACE ROUGHNESS DURING CNC TURNING USING RESPONSE ...ijmech
The work and study presented in this paper aims to investigate the effect of nose radius on surface
roughness, in CNC turning of Aluminium (6061) in dry condition. The effect of cutting conditions (speed,
feed and depth of cut) and tool geometry (nose radius) on surface roughness were studied and analysed.
Design of Experiments (DOE) were conducted for the analysis of the influence of the turning parameter on
the surface roughness by using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and then followed by optimization of
the results using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to minimize surface roughness. The nose radius was
identified as the most significant parameter. Surface roughness value decreased with increase in nose
radius.
The document discusses surface roughness, which refers to the irregularities on a material's surface that influence its functionality and properties. Surface roughness is important to measure for applications in manufacturing, engineering, and science. The techniques for measuring micro- and nano-scale surface roughness are outlined, including their limitations and capabilities. Calculations of surface roughness parameters are also discussed to provide understanding of post-measurement analysis and the importance of surface roughness.
This document summarizes research on optimizing cutting parameters to achieve desired surface roughness in turning operations. The research uses design of experiments to collect data on surface roughness under varying cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut. Regression equations are developed to relate the parameters to surface roughness. Genetic algorithms and particle swarm optimization are then applied to optimize the parameters to minimize surface roughness. The results from genetic algorithms and particle swarm optimization are compared to determine which technique finds a better optimal parameter combination for achieving the desired surface roughness.
Optimization of Cutting Parameters Using Genetic Algorithm and Particle Swar...IJMER
In machining operations, achieving desired surface quality features of the machined product,
is really a challenging job. Because, these quality features are highly correlated and are expected to be
influenced directly or indirectly by the direct effect of process parameters or their interactive effects
(i.e. on process environment). However, the extents of significant influence of the process parameters
are different for different responses. Therefore, optimization of surface roughness is a multi-factor,
multi-objective optimization problem. Therefore, to solve such a multi-objective optimization problem, it
is felt necessary to identify the optimal parametric combination, following which all objectives could be
optimized simultaneously. In this context, it is essential to convert all the objective functions into an
equivalent single objective function or overall representative function to meet desired multi-quality
features of the machined surface. The required multi-quality features may or may not be conflicting in
nature. The representative single objective function, thus calculated, would be optimized finally. In the
present work, Design of Experiment (DOE) with Design of Expect software, Mini Tab & optimized
using genetic algorithm by MAT Lab and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) by “C” program in
straight turning operation. Collected data related to surface roughness have been utilized for
optimization. Due to complexity of this machining optimization problem, a genetic algorithm (GA) and
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) are applied to resolve the problem and the results obtained from
GA and PSO are compared
Reducing Manufacturing Cost through Value Stream MappingEditor IJCATR
To survive in today's competitive world, companies require low costs and high customer service levels. As such,
companies pay more effort to reduce their manufacturing cost. Value stream mapping CVSM) technique has been used on a broad
scale in big companies such as toyato and boeing. This paper considers the implementation of value stream mapping technique in
manufacturing technical spring by railway spring manufacturing company. It focuses on product family, current state map and the
future state map. The aim is to identify waste in the form of non value added activities and processes and than removing them to
improve the performance of the company. Current state map is prepared to describe the existing position and various problem
areas. Future state map is prepared to show the proposed improvement action plans. The achievements of value stream mapping
implementation are reduction in manufacturing cost. It was found that even a small company make significant improvements by
adopting VSM technology. It was concluded that if we adopt the VSM technique the company could reduce the manufacturing
cost from 62.5Cr to 61.88Cr
This document compares two methods for analyzing flexible pavement structures: the mechanistic method using the Everseries computer program and the semi-analytical AASHTO 1993 method. It presents a case study analyzing the Pamanukan-Sewo section of an Indonesian national road using both methods. Deflection data from falling weight deflectometer testing is input to Everseries to determine the resilient modulus of each pavement layer. Both methods are then used to calculate the required overlay thickness, with the mechanistic method indicating a slightly thicker overlay may be needed.
1445003126-Fatigue Analysis of a Welded Assembly.pdfssusercf6d0e
1) The document describes a workflow for fatigue analysis of welded assemblies using ANSYS Workbench. It involves using a global model to identify hot spots, generating submodels at hot spots, interpolating loads from the global to local model, and using an effective notch stress concept (R1MS) to calculate fatigue life.
2) Key steps are meshing the global model with contact elements, identifying hot spots from contact forces, modifying submodels for the R1MS concept with chamfers and radii, interpolating loads using a macro, and refining the mesh locally for stress calculation.
3) The R1MS concept represents welds as chamfers dimensioned by weld size and uses an FAT 225
A Statistical study on effects of fundamental machining parameters on surface...dbpublications
Roughness consists of the irregularities of the surface texture, usually including those irregularities that result from the actions involved in the production process. Surface roughness is an important measure of the quality of a machined product and a factor that greatly determines manufacturing cost. In this work,in order to estimate surface quality and dimensional precision properties in advance, theoretical models are employed making it feasible to do prediction in function of operation conditions and machining parameters such as feed speed and depth of cut etc. The need for statistical method like DOE for studying the relationship between the machining parameters is because of this need for prediction. It is a analysis technique which uses the regression method to find out the relationship between various factors in a DOE setup depending upon the interactions of the predictor variables and the response variables which is performed in the experiments. The research in this domain will help advance further investigations into the relationship between the machining factors and the surface quality of the machined components. The DOE using Taguchi’s method and statistical study of the experimental data helps to understand the interaction between various factors like speed, feed and depth of cut in the machining.
Master Thesis_ AravindKS_Airbus_2-Page SummaryAravind K S
1. The document describes the development of an Abaqus user subroutine to predict orthotropic crack initiation in sheet metal, as done by MATFEM's modular material models.
2. The subroutine was developed in Fortran to recreate MATFEM's material model definition by generating user-defined field outputs like shear fracture risk. Validation was done on a single element and double-edged notch bending specimen.
3. While results were not identical to MATFEM, the subroutine implemented the concept of linear tensorial damage accumulation to model orthotropic behavior. Differences identified will help further optimize the subroutine algorithm.
Mass finishing techniques like vibratory deburring and burnishing can improve the performance and service life of aircraft parts. These techniques produce uniform, isotropic surfaces with beneficial compressive stresses. Studies show these finished surfaces increase metal fatigue resistance compared to conventional methods. Mass finishing is also being used on larger aircraft components and is more economical than manual deburring for complex parts. The uniform stress and surfaces produced by mass finishing improve part quality, durability, and consistency over single-point finishing methods.
This document describes an implementation of extended finite element method (X-FEM) in Abaqus for 3D fatigue crack growth and life prediction analysis. A level set representation is used to model evolving crack geometry without remeshing. Stress intensity factors are extracted on static and growing cracks to predict fatigue life using fracture mechanics criteria. Several examples are presented to validate the technique.
This document summarizes a study that used the Dynamic Relaxation method coupled with finite differences to analyze the deflection of laminated composite plates. The Dynamic Relaxation method was used to solve first-order shear deformation equations for the nonlinear bending response of rectangular plates. The accuracy and convergence of Dynamic Relaxation solutions for isotropic, orthotropic, and laminated plates were established by comparison to exact and approximate solutions, showing fairly good agreement. Factors like boundary conditions, mesh size, damping coefficients, and applied load were found to influence the accuracy and convergence of the Dynamic Relaxation solution.
The document discusses fatigue analysis of welded assemblies using ANSYS Workbench. It proposes a workflow involving 6 steps: 1) importing the CAD model and defeature it, 2) solving the global model to identify critical spots, 3) generating submodels from the CAD at critical spots, 4) meshing and interpolating loads to the submodel, 5) solving the submodel to determine the stress state, and 6) using an effective notch stress concept and the Fatigue tool to calculate fatigue life. The key strengths are maintaining geometric consistency between models, running the global model once to enable multiple submodels, and the ability to efficiently study design variants.
Process parameter optimization of SLM process and application of Taguchi appr...ijsrd.com
Selective Laser Melting (SLM) is an emerging powder based additive layer manufacturing technology that used to fabricate three-dimensional fully functional parts from metal powders by fusing the material in a layer by layer manner as per a CAD model. The quality of SLM produced parts is significantly affected by various manufacturing parameters of SLM machine. Hence optimization of SLM process parameters is necessary in order to improve the quality of parts. The purpose of this paper is to explore the reviews for various optimization methods used for process parameter optimization of SLM process and application of Taguchi approach. This review of work can be helpful to the other researchers to carry out further work in the same era.
This document discusses methods for reducing the stair step effect in additively manufactured surfaces. It begins with an introduction to rapid prototyping and additive manufacturing processes. It then discusses common form errors in additive manufacturing, including flatness/straightness errors, cylindricity errors, and stair step errors. The document focuses on stair step errors, explaining that they occur due to the layered manufacturing process approximating surfaces. It then discusses several methods for reducing stair step errors, including adaptive slicing to vary layer thicknesses based on geometry, and ball burnishing as a post-processing technique to smooth layer edges through plastic deformation. Finally, it discusses factors that influence the effectiveness of ball burnishing, such as ball diameter, rolling pressure, and
This document provides a comprehensive literature review on buckling analysis of laminated composite plates. It discusses the effects of boundary conditions, lamination arrangements, and plate theories on buckling load prediction. Both exact and numerical methods have been used to analyze buckling of laminated plates, with higher-order shear deformation plate theories providing more accurate results than classical plate theory. The review covers past research on various plate theories and analytical and numerical techniques for buckling analysis of laminated composite plates.
Application and development of numerical simulation technology in CastingIJRES Journal
The basic theory of the numerical simulation of casting and casting process, also the development and application of numerical calculations in the foundry engineering. Outlined the main feature of the softwares of numerical simulation of casting both here and abroad , analyzes the softwares played a significant role in actual casting and research, meanwhile pointed out the problems and development direction of the casting simulation softwares. Description reasonable use of simulation software can improve the quality of castings, Optimize the casting process, shorten the duration of the casting design and reduce costs.
Sandia National Laboratories is conducting laboratory and potential underground tests to better understand shear stresses and strains along discontinuities in salt formations. Upcoming laboratory tests in 2017 will apply controlled shear stresses to salt samples containing clay seams and measure the effects on shear and fracture strength. The results will be used to improve models of shear behavior along interfaces. Potential future underground tests in a salt alcove in 2018 would apply stresses to a salt pillar containing a clay seam using pressurized flatjacks to directly observe shear deformation responses in situ. The aim is to reduce modeling uncertainties regarding permeability and deformation of salt near discontinuities.
Shobin John-solar pv cell utilization and chargingShobin John
In the present scenario of world is energy driven and batteries have turned into an essential part as an energy source considering the mechanical advances in electric and frameworks. Batteries are requiring recharging because of energy limitation. Recharging batteries with solar powered vitality by methods for sunlight-based cells can offer an advantageous alternative for shrewd customer hardware. In the interim, batteries can be utilized to address the discontinuity worry of photovoltaics.
The technology lead-acid battery capable of long cycle and most efficiently recycled commodity metal. Over a 99% of battery recycled in USA and Europe. Even though Li-ion and other types of battery have advantages in terms of specific energy and energy density, but selection of lead-acid battery depend on its sustainability of chemistry, completely recycled energy storage system and partially recycled metal parts [1]. In addition, that electrochemical models have been computationally complex in terms of parameter identification and constant phase element dynamics [2].
Battery charging control system play important role of stabilized power supply. The maximum power point tracking (MPPT) and pulse width modulation along with smart charging methods helps to get maximum power, intelligent utilization of energy and reduce battery charging time [3].
Battery thermal management system (BTMS) is performance and design bottle neck of many electric vehicles mechatronic and energy system. Advanced storing solar energy shift towards sustainable transportation system. Oil pumps in the electric vehicles capable to manage effective cooling system of battery and used for lubrication of various metallic bearings. This paper proposes a solar driven oil management system in electric vehicle.
In this paper discussed about (a) PV and IV characteristics of solar panel based on Simulink simulation (b) Designed a MPPT controller (Easy EDA). The generic algorithm was designed to MPPT and PWM control battery system. Compare different battery charge method. The design consists of four stages which include current booster, battery level indicator, battery charge controller and power supply unit. (c) Solar energy data log by LabVIEW interface (d) tested and optimized best PWM controlled charging method (e) implemented proposed model in oil pump test rig.
Shobin John completed a course in FRP Composites Engineering and Manufacturing held at Högskolan In Halmstad Sweden between 2015 week 45 and 2016 week 11. The course was instructed by Carl-Johan Lindholm and Håkan Johansson of CCG Europe.
This document summarizes an experiment that used Taguchi methods to optimize diesel engine parameters to reduce NOx emissions and improve fuel economy. A single cylinder diesel engine was tested across four levels of five parameters: clearance volume, valve opening pressure, injection timing, nozzle hole area, and load torque. Testing was conducted according to an orthogonal array experimental design. Results showed that valve opening pressure, clearance volume, and injection timing had the greatest impact on NOx emissions and fuel consumption. Optimal parameter settings were identified that minimized both NOx emissions and fuel consumption. A confirmation test found good agreement between predicted and actual results.
Just nu pågår ett flertal rekryteringar till Krohne Inor. De är inne i en positiv tillväxtfas med framgångar inom
både nationella och internationella projekt. Tillsammans med koncernledningen har de satt mål för vidare
expansion av Krohne Inor så att nya krav från deras kunder kan bemötas och ge nya framgångar.
Krohne Inor är framför allt i behov av att förstärka sina teknikresurser för att exekvera avancerade projekt i
internationell miljö samtidigt som de har ett utvecklingsprogram med många produktprojekt framför sig. De
pågående rekryteringarna är ett steg för att föra företaget vidare i deras internationella expansion.
Vi ser fram mot att få träffa dig som söker en utmaning i ett teknikföretag med stor teamanda och hög dynamik
som skapar utveckling för både företaget och deras medarbetare.
The PESTEL analytical tool normally conducted from a Chevalier perspective (Fig ) to help plan for future direction based on macro-environmental factors. The framework consists of six main macro-environmental influences political, economic, social, technological, environmental and legal Johnson, Scholes and Whittington (2008). Ihsan (2012) mentions that it is not possible for a company to survive in the long run without knowledge of the changes in their macro-environment.
The document is a mechanical engineering student's design notebook containing various homework assignments and exercises. It includes reflections on studying the design process, exercises on generating ideas for producing electricity and moving vehicles without engines, and a homework assignment to read the ASME Code of Ethics.
This certificate certifies that the recipient has completed the Sandvik Coromant Academy Knowledge Test: Metal Cutting Technology E-learning program. The program covered fundamentals of metal cutting, application areas, choosing the right cutting tool, production economics, improving productivity and profitability, cutting data formulas, optimizing tool life, tool wear identification and remedies, and solving metal cutting problems. The program was developed by Sandvik Coromant based on production needs worldwide and aims to help customers improve profitability through improved metal cutting competence.
The document analyzes surface roughness profiles for different cutoff values of 0.8, 2.5, and 8. Tables show that as the cutoff value increases from 0.8 to 2.5 to 8, the waviness (Wa, Wq, Wz) decreases slightly while the roughness (Ra, Rq, Rz) increases slightly. Charts of the surface profiles are also provided for each of the cutoff values.
The document describes the design and optimization of an airplane bearing bracket using Inspire software. The initial design was optimized to reduce the mass by 23% while meeting the design envelope requirements and withstanding three load cases. Modifications made during optimization included allowing movement of fastener footprints and modifying cross-sectional changes. The final optimized design had a mass of 228 grams and stress levels under 100% of the yield stress. The bracket is intended to be manufactured using additive manufacturing.
This master's thesis investigates the surface topography of cutting inserts using two work packages. In work package 1, three variants of uncoated inserts were analyzed and it was found that variant MSG158 had the most texture while MSG160 was smoothest. In work package 2, five coated variants were examined and variants MSG189 and MSG187 showed the highest texture. Parameters like average height and void volume were selected to characterize the topography and compare the variants. Future work involves machining tests and analyzing texture propagation between the two work packages.
Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoringIJECEIAES
Car accident rates have increased in recent years, resulting in losses in human lives, properties, and other financial costs. An embedded machine learning-based system is developed to address this critical issue. The system can monitor road conditions, detect driving patterns, and identify aggressive driving behaviors. The system is based on neural networks trained on a comprehensive dataset of driving events, driving styles, and road conditions. The system effectively detects potential risks and helps mitigate the frequency and impact of accidents. The primary goal is to ensure the safety of drivers and vehicles. Collecting data involved gathering information on three key road events: normal street and normal drive, speed bumps, circular yellow speed bumps, and three aggressive driving actions: sudden start, sudden stop, and sudden entry. The gathered data is processed and analyzed using a machine learning system designed for limited power and memory devices. The developed system resulted in 91.9% accuracy, 93.6% precision, and 92% recall. The achieved inference time on an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense with a 32-bit CPU running at 64 MHz is 34 ms and requires 2.6 kB peak RAM and 139.9 kB program flash memory, making it suitable for resource-constrained embedded systems.
Rainfall intensity duration frequency curve statistical analysis and modeling...bijceesjournal
Using data from 41 years in Patna’ India’ the study’s goal is to analyze the trends of how often it rains on a weekly, seasonal, and annual basis (1981−2020). First, utilizing the intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curve and the relationship by statistically analyzing rainfall’ the historical rainfall data set for Patna’ India’ during a 41 year period (1981−2020), was evaluated for its quality. Changes in the hydrologic cycle as a result of increased greenhouse gas emissions are expected to induce variations in the intensity, length, and frequency of precipitation events. One strategy to lessen vulnerability is to quantify probable changes and adapt to them. Techniques such as log-normal, normal, and Gumbel are used (EV-I). Distributions were created with durations of 1, 2, 3, 6, and 24 h and return times of 2, 5, 10, 25, and 100 years. There were also mathematical correlations discovered between rainfall and recurrence interval.
Findings: Based on findings, the Gumbel approach produced the highest intensity values, whereas the other approaches produced values that were close to each other. The data indicates that 461.9 mm of rain fell during the monsoon season’s 301st week. However, it was found that the 29th week had the greatest average rainfall, 92.6 mm. With 952.6 mm on average, the monsoon season saw the highest rainfall. Calculations revealed that the yearly rainfall averaged 1171.1 mm. Using Weibull’s method, the study was subsequently expanded to examine rainfall distribution at different recurrence intervals of 2, 5, 10, and 25 years. Rainfall and recurrence interval mathematical correlations were also developed. Further regression analysis revealed that short wave irrigation, wind direction, wind speed, pressure, relative humidity, and temperature all had a substantial influence on rainfall.
Originality and value: The results of the rainfall IDF curves can provide useful information to policymakers in making appropriate decisions in managing and minimizing floods in the study area.
Discover the latest insights on Data Driven Maintenance with our comprehensive webinar presentation. Learn about traditional maintenance challenges, the right approach to utilizing data, and the benefits of adopting a Data Driven Maintenance strategy. Explore real-world examples, industry best practices, and innovative solutions like FMECA and the D3M model. This presentation, led by expert Jules Oudmans, is essential for asset owners looking to optimize their maintenance processes and leverage digital technologies for improved efficiency and performance. Download now to stay ahead in the evolving maintenance landscape.
Optimizing Gradle Builds - Gradle DPE Tour Berlin 2024Sinan KOZAK
Sinan from the Delivery Hero mobile infrastructure engineering team shares a deep dive into performance acceleration with Gradle build cache optimizations. Sinan shares their journey into solving complex build-cache problems that affect Gradle builds. By understanding the challenges and solutions found in our journey, we aim to demonstrate the possibilities for faster builds. The case study reveals how overlapping outputs and cache misconfigurations led to significant increases in build times, especially as the project scaled up with numerous modules using Paparazzi tests. The journey from diagnosing to defeating cache issues offers invaluable lessons on maintaining cache integrity without sacrificing functionality.
Redefining brain tumor segmentation: a cutting-edge convolutional neural netw...IJECEIAES
Medical image analysis has witnessed significant advancements with deep learning techniques. In the domain of brain tumor segmentation, the ability to
precisely delineate tumor boundaries from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
scans holds profound implications for diagnosis. This study presents an ensemble convolutional neural network (CNN) with transfer learning, integrating
the state-of-the-art Deeplabv3+ architecture with the ResNet18 backbone. The
model is rigorously trained and evaluated, exhibiting remarkable performance
metrics, including an impressive global accuracy of 99.286%, a high-class accuracy of 82.191%, a mean intersection over union (IoU) of 79.900%, a weighted
IoU of 98.620%, and a Boundary F1 (BF) score of 83.303%. Notably, a detailed comparative analysis with existing methods showcases the superiority of
our proposed model. These findings underscore the model’s competence in precise brain tumor localization, underscoring its potential to revolutionize medical
image analysis and enhance healthcare outcomes. This research paves the way
for future exploration and optimization of advanced CNN models in medical
imaging, emphasizing addressing false positives and resource efficiency.
Applications of artificial Intelligence in Mechanical Engineering.pdfAtif Razi
Historically, mechanical engineering has relied heavily on human expertise and empirical methods to solve complex problems. With the introduction of computer-aided design (CAD) and finite element analysis (FEA), the field took its first steps towards digitization. These tools allowed engineers to simulate and analyze mechanical systems with greater accuracy and efficiency. However, the sheer volume of data generated by modern engineering systems and the increasing complexity of these systems have necessitated more advanced analytical tools, paving the way for AI.
AI offers the capability to process vast amounts of data, identify patterns, and make predictions with a level of speed and accuracy unattainable by traditional methods. This has profound implications for mechanical engineering, enabling more efficient design processes, predictive maintenance strategies, and optimized manufacturing operations. AI-driven tools can learn from historical data, adapt to new information, and continuously improve their performance, making them invaluable in tackling the multifaceted challenges of modern mechanical engineering.
2008 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION Illustrated - Ching Chapter 02 The Building.pdf
Master Thesis by Shobin John
1. MASTERTHESIS Master´s Programme in Mechanical Engineering, 60 credits
Surface Topographical Analysis Of Cutting
Inserts
Zoel-fikar El-ghoul , Shobin John
Master Thesis 15 credits
Halmstad 2016-10-10
2. Preface
i
Preface
This study is a result of master’s thesis in mechanical engineering at Halmstad University in
collaboration with Sandvik Coromant during spring term 2016.
The main contribution of the present work focus on the development of a significant approach
to identify best possible surfaces finish strategy in terms of topographical study. The aim of
the thesis was to analyze, compare differently pre- and post-treated cutting tool inserts, and
correlate surface properties with the different treatment methods and to work out a method for
such analysis to be used by the company in the future.
We would like to emphasize our thanks Professor Bengt-Göran Rosén for his support
guidance, opportunely posed questions that raised new lines of thought and motive to get
good work on the thesis.
We would like to emphasis sincere thanks and gratitude to Isabel Källman to guide
throughout the thesis and support during urgent need.
We are grateful to other dissertation committee members Dr. Z. Dimkovski and Dr. Sabina
Rebeggiani for enlightening and inspiring discussion and their advice provided us guidelines
in difficult times.
We would like as a final word of appreciation to thank the people of functional surfaces
research group at Halmstad University for their thoughtful comments and suggestion, which
continually improve the quality of the dissertation.
Zoel-fikar El-ghoul Shobin John
3. Abstract
ii
Abstract
The following report conducted with collaboration of the University of Halmstad and AB
Sandvik Coromant.
The focus of the project is characterizing the surface topography of different surface treatment
variants before and after chemical vapor deposition (CVD).
As a part of improving the knowledge about the surface area characterization and accomplish
a better knowledge and understanding about surfaces and its relation to wear of uncoated
WC/Co cutting tools The project initiated in February 2016 and end date was set to May
2016.
The methodology used in this thesis based on the statistical analysis of surface topographical
measurements obtained from interferometer and SEM by using Digital-Surf-MountainsMap
software.
The finding from this thesis showed that Mean and Standard deviation method, Spearman’s
correlation analysis and Standard deviation error bar followed by ANOVA and T-test are
effective and useful when comparing between different variants.
The thesis resulted in a measurement approach for characterizing different surface
topographies using interferometer and SEM together with statistical analysis.
Keywords: 3D-Surfaces Texture, CVD coating inserts, Interferometer, Spearman’s correlation and
ANOVA & T-test.
4. Tables of Contents
iii
Tables of Contents
Preface ............................................................................................................................... i
Abstract.............................................................................................................................ii
Tables of Contents ...........................................................................................................iii
Symbols and Abbreviations.............................................................................................. v
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background .......................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1. Presentation of the client............................................................................... 3
1.2 Aim of the study................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Problem definition................................................................................................ 4
1.4 Limitations ........................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Individual responsibility and efforts during the project....................................... 4
1.6 Study environment ............................................................................................... 5
2. METHOD ................................................................................................................ 6
2.1 Alternative methods ............................................................................................. 6
2.1.1 Average and Standard Deviation Method .................................................... 6
2.1.2 Spearman’s rank order correlation method .................................................. 7
2.1.3 Standard deviation error bar followed by Anova and T-test........................ 8
2.2. Chosen methodology for this project ................................................................... 11
2.3. Preparations and data collection........................................................................... 11
3. THEORY ............................................................................................................... 12
3.1. Summary of the literature study and state-of-the-art ........................................... 12
3.1.1 Function ...................................................................................................... 13
3.1.2 Manufacturing............................................................................................. 15
3.1.3 Characterization.......................................................................................... 15
4. RESULTS .............................................................................................................. 20
4.1 Presentation of experimental results of work package 1....................................... 20
4.1.1 Parameters Selection Methods.................................................................... 20
4.1.2 Average and Standard Deviation method................................................... 20
4.1.3 Spearman’s rank correlation method.......................................................... 23
4.1.4 Standard deviation Error Bar (EB) followed by Anova &T-test method .. 23
4.3. Presentation of experimental results of work package 2...................................... 25
4.3 Methods for selecting the parameters................................................................ 25
5. iv
5. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK............................................................ 27
5.1 Conclusions........................................................................................................ 27
5.1.1 Work Package 1.......................................................................................... 27
5.1.2 Work Package 2.......................................................................................... 32
5.1.3 Recommendation to future activities .......................................................... 37
6. CRITICAL REVIEW ............................................................................................ 38
6.1 What factors affect the work been done differently........................................... 38
6.2 Environmental and sustainable development..................................................... 38
6.3 Health and Safety ............................................................................................... 38
6.4 Economy............................................................................................................. 39
6.5 Ethical aspects.................................................................................................... 39
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 40
TABLE OF CONTENT FOR APPENDICES................................................................ 43
6. Symbols and Abbreviations
v
Symbols and Abbreviations
WP 1: Work Package1
WP 2: Work Package 2
MSG: Name to represent different variants
CNMG120408-MM: Cutting inserts Specification
SEM: Scanning Electron Microscope
3D: Three Dimension
316L: Sanmac 316/316L is a molybdenum-alloyed austenitic chromium-nickel steel with
improved machinability
Ti(C, N): Titanium Carbon nitride
Al2O3: Aluminum Oxide
TiN : Titanium Nitride
Co : Cobalt
ANOVA: Analysis of Variance named for Fisher
WC: Tungsten carbide
SE: Standard Error
S.D: Standard Deviation
E.B: Error Bar
V: Number of Variants
NEBNO: Number of error Bar Not Overlapping
Si: Significant Values in ANOVA test
TRUES: Parameter is disjunct for variants with 95 percentage confident interval
CVD: Chemical Vapor Depositio
7. INTRODUCTION
1
1. INTRODUCTION
Surface integrity is defined as the inherent or enhanced condition of a surface produced by
machining or other generating operation. It contains not only the geometry consideration,
including surface roughness and accuracy, but also another surface/subsurface microstructure.
The success of the transformation is dependent on a number of variables such as surface
texture, wetting properties of the solid surface by the liquid and coating viscosity. Coatings
and painting applied to the surface; the purpose of such operations may be to improve their
chemical and mechanical properties. The existence of the correct functional groups in an
accessible position is an important factor to be identified and controlled. Thus, surfaces are
produced with a texture resembling a landscape, the determination and control the surface
area and surface composition are essential for the study of catalysts, even small variation of
properties may lead to unwanted results in production and can cause the rejection of the batch.
It is useful to modify the surface performance when it does not possess the specified
requisites; it is possible to change mechanical or visual properties of surfaces improvement
in sliding, thermal properties, corrosion, adhesion, wear, yield and appearance.
The wide variety of parameters that used in the characterization of surface finishing is a piece
of evidence of its magnitude. The characterization of surface finishing is usually
accomplished defining numerical 3D surface texture parameters (ISO-25178). Today
selections of appropriate parameters for analyzing the surfaces are widely investigated. The
detailed study about the surface (relation between manufacturing processes, directionality
etc.) by using the selected parameters is also highlighted of this study.
1.1 Background
The precise characterization of surface roughness is of paramount importance because of its
considerable influence on the functionality of manufactured products [1]. Modern technologies
depend for the Satisfactory functioning of their processes on special properties of some solids,
mainly the bulk properties, as an important group of these properties [2]. The behavior of
material depends on the surface of the material, surface contact area and environment under
which the material operates, to make a better understanding for the surface properties and their
influence on the performance of the various components, machines and units, surface science has
been developed. Surface science defined as a branch if science dealing with any type and any
level of surface and interactions between two or more entities, these interactions could be
chemical, physical mechanical, thermal and metallurgical [3]. Our important concern area is the
surface engineering which provides on the of most important means of engineering product
differentiations in terms of quality, lifecycle cost and performance, it is the definition of the
design of the surface and substrate together as a functionally graded system as a functionally
graded system to give a cost effective enhancement. The various manufacturing processes
applied in industry produce the desired shapes in the components within the prescribed
dimensional tolerances and surface quality requirements. Surface topography and texture is a
foremost characteristic among the surface integrity magnitudes and properties imparted by the
tools used in the processes, machining mostly, and especially their finishing versions. Surface
8. INTRODUCTION
2
quality and integrity can be divided in three main fields: surface roughness, microstructure
transformations and residual stress.
Surface integrity describes not only the topological (geometric) features of surfaces and their
physical and chemical properties, but also their mechanical and metallurgical properties and
characteristics [4]. Surface integrity is an important consideration in manufacturing
operations, because it influences such properties as fatigue strength, resistance to corrosion,
and service life. Most manufacturing process will have some impact on surface integrity,
when these processes performed using poor techniques, this can be responsible for inadequate
surface integrity and can lead to significant changes and defects, and these defects usually
caused by a combination of factors, such as:
Improper control of the process parameter, (which can result surface deformation,
excessive stress, excessive heat, cold or speed or work can also lead to significant
changes).
Defects in the original material.
The method by which the surface produced, and manufactured.
More invasive procedures usually have some permanent effect on surface integrity. Almost
any chemical treatment, as well as excessive heat, can alter the material at its molecular level,
bringing about irreversible changes to its very structure. These changes can be positive or
negative. Positive changes are those that give the material the desired finish or appearance
also include those that improve properties like strength and hardness, while negative change
could mean that the material no longer be used as intended.
The surface topography and material characteristics can affect how two bearing part slide
together, how fluids interact with the part and how it looks and feel, the need to control and
hence measure surface become increasingly important [5]. The various manufacturing
processes applied in industry produce the desired shapes in the components within the
prescribed dimensional tolerances and surface quality requirements for the last five decades
the complex relationship between surface texture and adhesion has interested scientists and
engineers. Authors identify that types and degrees of surface texture appear to have
beneficial effects on adhesion. Surface profile parameters may potentially be restrictive and
misleading, In Particular cases of tribology the surface roughness influences adhesion,
brightness, wear, friction in wet and dry environment [6]. Very few adhesion researchers
have considered areal surface texture parameters to characterize surface texture over the
last ten years, a period of time within which equipment, data processing software and
published texts have provided access to the use of areal parameters. Whilst an example of the
use of the Arithmetic mean surface texture (Sa) parameter can be cited in the context of
adhesion little attempt has been made to consider the breadth of parameters (and consequently
surface disruption) available.
Surface topography greatly influences not only the mechanical and physical properties of
contacting parts, but also the optical and coating properties of some non-contacting
components. The characteristics of surfaces topography in amplitude, spatial distribution and
pattern of surface feature dominate the functional application, surface in contact, residual
stresses in the surface layer and oxides on the metal surface [7] as shown in Figure 1.
9. INTRODUCTION
3
Figure1.1: Metallic outer surface layers displaying the complex structure machined surface superimposed on
the base metal [8].
The areal characterization of surface texture plays an increasing important role in control the
quality of the surfaces of a work piece. Surface texture parameter, which is the profile
parameter, which developed to monitor the production process, as assessment we do not
usually see field parameter values but pattern of features such as hills and valleys. The
relationship between them and by detecting and the relationships between them, it can
characterize the pattern in surface texture, parameter that characterize surface features and
their relationships are termed feature parameter [9].
1.1.1. Presentation of the client
Sandvik Coromant headquartered in, Sweden. A Swedish company supplies cutting tools and
services to the metal cutting industry. It is part of the business area of Sandvik Machining
Solutions, which is within the global industry group Sandvik. In 2012 Sandvik was #58 on
Forbes list of the world's most innovative companies. Sandvik Coromant is a global company
with production facilities connected worldwide to three distribution centers in the US, Europe
and Asia. Sandvik Coromant is represented in more than 130 countries with some 8,000
employees worldwide; with extensive investments in research and development, they create
unique innovations and set new productivity standards together with their customers. These
include the world's major automotive, aerospace and energy industries. Their metal working
operations of Coromant mainly focus on milling, turning, boring and drilling.
Figure1.2: Sandvik product
Sandvik Coromant its large investment in research and development, as much as twice the R&D
spending every year of the average company in its industry.
10. INTRODUCTION
4
1.2 Aim of the study
The main objective of this study is the characterization of cutting insert (CNMG120408-MM)
surface topography. The geometry of the inserts is CNMG120408-MM; the characterization
divided into work packages one and two, which presented below:
Work package 1: Surface characterization of uncoated WC-Co inserts surfaces
Which parameters describing the topography of the variants are important to
look at when comparing the different variants?
How well does the study of surface topography of variants correlate to the
manufacturing process?
Is there any predominant direction of the topography of the different variants?
Work package 2: Analysis of CVD coated surface treatment variants.
Which parameters are important for comparing the different variants to each
other?
Can a connection found between the treatment prior to coating and the outcome
of the treatment after coating?
Is there any different measurement approach needed to evaluate the surface
roughness on variants in Work Package 2 compared to Work Package 1?
1.3 Problem definition
In the first meeting with Sandvik Coromant, the tasks were assigned and the authors started to
investigate about the surface topography of the variants by finding the appropriate method in
order to select the parameters when comparing between different variants.
In work package one, before the chemical vapor deposition; they manufactured three variants
MSG 157, MSG158 and MSG160. Variants MSG 157 and MSG158 had treated with two
different processes in order to find the effects of adhesion of the CVD coating. While the
variant MSG 160 treated by polishing in order to investigate if any predominant direction of
the topography.
In work package two, it is required to investigate the surface texture between five different
variants with different kinds of treatment.
1.4 Limitations
Due to the time limitation, the variants were measured by using Interferometer only, the
methods were found in order to compare surfaces of different variants after the coating. The
limitations consist of:
Only discussed methodology and quantitative study of the surface integrity of the
variants
Machining test needs more investigation.
1.5 Individual responsibility and efforts during the project
Both authors have put the same amount of the effort in this thesis. The amount of time spent
for measurements, analyzing the measurements and gathering information regarding the
11. INTRODUCTION
5
project, also the presentation with Sandvik Coromant including research and writing the
report.
1.6 Study environment
Both of the authors have worked on this thesis at different locations, practical and theoretical
framework of the thesis including writing the report at the Halmstad University.
12. METHOD
6
2. METHOD
This study (Quantitative and qualitative) is based on the topographic analysis of the Work
Package One (WP1) and Work Package 2 (WP2) of cutting inserts supplied by Sandvik
Coromant and surface topographical analysis occurring at Halmstad University. The impact of
surface topography on the performance in machining not fully understood and this is an
attempt to investigate and gain knowledge on the effect in a specific segment, turning in 316L
with CNMG120408-MM inserts. This work will mainly focus on characterizing the different
surface treatment variants before and after coating deposition. Variants MSG157, MSG158
and MSG 160 are the cutting inserts before coating and MSG186, MSG18, MSG189 and
MSG190 is the cutting inserts after the coating process.
The analysis of reading from the interferometer has different kind of methods. The methods
are:
Average and Standard Deviation method
Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient method
Error bar followed by ANOVA and t-test method
The 3D surface texture parameters used in this thesis computed by MountainsMap 7software
from Digital Surf. 3D Roughness parameters defined by the following standards: ISO 25178-
2 define 30 parameters, the selected parameter. This section of results considered to single out
the surface topographical analysis of coated and uncoated cutting inserts. 3D surface texture
parameter and image analysis obtained from the equipment’s interferometer (readings with
10X and 50X magnifications) and SEM.
2.1 Alternative methods
2.1.1 Average and Standard Deviation Method
The average and standard deviation method analyses the variation of each parameter based on
the standard deviation and confidence intervals [10]. This method explained by using the
readings from the interferometer. The method summarized in the following steps:
For each parameter s'i = ( s'i . . . s1n
i of class G and s′′
i =(s′′
i …s′′n
i ) of
class B, the average B, the average µ and the standard deviation σ is
calculated
𝜇′
𝑖 =
1
𝑛
∑ 𝑠′ 𝑘
𝑖
𝑛
𝑘=1
(1)
𝜇′′
𝑖 =
1
𝑛
∑ 𝑠′′ 𝑘
𝑖
𝑛
𝑘=1
(
(2)
𝜎′
𝑖 = √𝑣𝑎𝑟(𝑠′ 𝑖)
(
(3)
𝜎′′
𝑖 = √𝑣𝑎𝑟(𝑠′′ 𝑖).
(
(4)
13. METHOD
7
For each parameter, an interval for good parts and for bad parts is calculated
with the coverage factor K,
𝐼′
𝑖 = 𝜇′
𝑖 ∓ 𝑘𝜎′
𝑖
(
(5)
𝐼′′
𝑖 = 𝜇′′
𝑖 ∓ 𝑘𝜎′
′𝑖 (6)
If the intervals 𝐼′
and 𝐼′′
for a parameter Si are disjunctive, this parameter can
be used for thresholding and the significance Si of this parameter can be
computed
The parameter with the highest significance value is that which can be used for classification.
To find the most significant surface texture parameter, the significance values must be
comparable. This could achieve by normalizing them with the average values. The
significance S; is computed on the basis of the intervals and the means
𝑆 =
𝑑(𝐼′
𝑖, 𝐼′′
𝑖)
1
2
(𝜇′ 𝑖 + 𝜇′′ 𝑖)
(
(7)
Check the ‘+’ significant value (disjunct entry-level) parameter. These non-
overlapping intervals of the parameters indicate highly significant for the
study. Select the parameters highly significant, analysis the parameter with
surface characteristics.
2.1.2 Spearman’s rank order correlation method
Spearman’s correlation coefficient is a statistical measure of the strength of a monotonic
relationship between paired data see figure 2.1, is denoted by
𝑟𝑠 − 1 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 1
A monotonic function is one that either never increases or never decreases as its independent
variable increases. The following graphs illustrate monotonic functions: [13]-[14]
𝑃 = 𝑟𝑠 = 1 −
6 ∑ 𝑑𝑖
2
𝑁3 − ∑ 𝑑𝑖
2
𝑁
(8)
Where: P= Spearman rank correlation, di= the difference between the ranks of corresponding
values Xi and Yi, n= number of value in each data set
The formula to use when there are tied ranks is
P=
∑ (𝑋 𝑖𝑖 −𝑋)̅̅̅̅(𝑌 𝑖− 𝑌)̅̅̅
√∑ (𝑋 𝑖𝑖 −𝑋)̅̅̅̅2(𝑌𝑖− 𝑌)̅̅̅2
(
(9)
Where i = paired score.
14. METHOD
8
Fig 2.1 monotonically increasing monotonically decreasing not monotonic
If the correlation coefficient, 𝑟𝑠 , is positive, then an increase in X would result in an increase
in Y, however if r was negative, an increase in X would result in a decrease in Y. Larger
correlation coefficients, such as 0.8 would suggest a stronger relationship between the
variables, whilst figures like 0.3 would suggest weaker ones.
Correlation is an effect size and so we can verbally describe the strength of the correlation
using the following guide for the absolute value of 𝑟𝑠
00 -0,19 Very weak
0, 20-0,39 Weak
0, 40 -0, 69 Moderate
0, 70-0,89 strong
0.90 1, 0 very strong
However, the correlation coefficient does not imply can satisfy that is it may show that two
variables which strongly correlated; however, it does not mean that they are responsible for
each other see figure 2.2.
Significance of Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient
Figure 2.2: The significance f the spearmen’s rank correlation coefficients and degree of freedom
http://geographyfieldwork.com/SpearmansRankSignificance.htm
2.1.3 Standard deviation error bar followed by Anova and T-test
Standard Deviation (SD) is the measure of spread of the numbers in a set of data from its
mean value. It has also called as SD and represented using the symbol σ (sigma). This can
15. METHOD
9
also be as a measure of variability or volatility in the given set of data (n). A low standard
deviation indicates that the data points tend to be very close to the mean, whereas high
standard deviation indicates that the data which spread out over a large range of values.
𝜎 = √
∑ (𝑋 − 𝜇)2𝑛
𝑖=1
𝑁
(
(10)
Error bars used on graphs to indicate the error, or uncertainty in a reported measurement.
Error bars often indicate one standard deviation of uncertainty, but may also indicate the
standard error. These quantities are not the same and so the measure selected should state
explicitly in the graph or supporting text. Error bars used to compare visually two quantities if
various other conditions hold. This can determine whether differences are statistically
significant. Error bars can also show how good a statistical fit the data has to a given function.
Standard error of the mean: The standard error of the mean (SE of the mean) estimates the
variability between Sample means that you would obtain if you took multiple Samples from
the same population [48]. The standard error of the mean estimates the variability between
Samples whereas the standard deviation measures the variability within a single Sample
σ 𝑀 =
𝜎
√𝑁
(
(11)
Where σ is the standard deviation of the original distribution and N is the Sample size. The
formula shows that the larger the Sample size, the smaller the standard error of the mean.
Confidence interval error bars: Error bars that show the 95% confidence interval (CI) is
wider than SE error bars. It does not help to observe that two 95% CI error bars overlap, as
the difference between the two means may or may not be statistically significant. Useful rule
of thumb: If two 95% CI error bars do not overlap, and the Sample sizes are nearly equal, the
difference is statistically significant with a P value much less than 0.05 [48].
Posttest following one-way ANOVA (Analysis of variance) it accounts for multiple
comparisons, so the yield higher P values than t -tests comparing just two groups. Therefore,
the same rules apply. If two SE error bars overlap, you can be sure that a posttest comparing
those two groups will find no statistical significance. However, if two SE error bars do not
overlap, you cannot tell whether a post-test will, or will not, find a statistically significant
difference
The T-test: T-test used to determine whether the mean of a population significantly differs
from a specific value (called the hypothesized mean) or from the mean of another population.
This analysis is appropriate whenever you want to compare the means of two groups, and
especially appropriate as the analysis for the posttest-only two-group randomized
experimental design. The formula for the t-test is a ratio. The top part of the ratio is just the
difference between the two means or averages. The bottom part is a measure of the variability
or dispersion of the scores [46]
t − value:
Signal
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒
=
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
=
𝑋 𝑇̅̅̅̅−𝑋 𝑐̅̅̅̅
𝑆𝐸(𝑋 𝑇̅̅̅̅−𝑋 𝑐̅̅̅̅)
((12)
On the other hand, alternate formula for paired sample t-test is:
t =
∑ 𝑑
√ 𝑛(∑ 𝑑2) − (∑ 𝑑) 2
𝑛 − 1
(
(13)
16. METHOD
10
Figure.2.3: Flow chart, which explained the Error Bar, followed by ANOVA and t-test applied on WP 1 and WP 2 (Readings:
obtained from interferometer (50 X magnification) and MountainsMap software).
• V: Number of Variants
• NEBNO: Number of error Bar Not Overlapping
• Si: Significant Values in ANOVA test
• TRUE: Parameters are disjunctive for variants with 95% confident interval
17. METHOD
11
The procedure followed for this study explained in the above flow chart in Fig.2.3.
First, find all the mean and standard deviation of each variant by using the readings from the
interferometer. Draw the mean graph for each variants and apply the custom Error Bars
(Analysis on Microsoft excel 2010). For WP 1 check the condition NEBNO=V, then reject
the parameter otherwise select. WP2 shows all the error bars are overlapping, and then go to
the ANOVA test followed by t-distribution test.
Analysis of variance:
Find the sum of parameters for each variant
Find the mean(average) for each variant
Find the difference between the observation and the mean (X-mean)
Find the variance (X-mean)2
Sum of the square
Find the total sum of the observation of the variants
Find the total sum of the square between group and the sum within the group
Find the degree of freedom between the group as well as with the group
Divide the sum of squares between groups by the degree of freedom between groups
MSw, divide the sum of squares within groups by degree of freedom within groups
MSB
Find F statistic ratio equal = MSw/ MSB
F > (F Critical) and P value less than 0.05 (p < 0.05) with (95% confidence), and
degree of freedom between group <F < degree of freedom within group, means
variants interval are “disjunct” for particular parameter (TRUE).
2.2. Chosen methodology for this project
The different methods within the area evaluated accordance to the requirements and the goals
of the project. For analyzing work package one (WP 1), by using the method mean and
standard deviation method, Error Bar analysis and Spearman’s rank Correlations method are
used for select the relevant parameters. Error Bar followed by ANOVA and T-test,
Spearman’s correlation method used for analyzing the work package two (WP 2).
2.3. Preparations and data collection
Appropriate literature study, articles, international journal and other study of similar
study.
Collect the cutting insert (CNMG120408-MM) of work package 1 and work package
from Sandvik Coromant.
Clean (Ultrasonic sterilizations) the surfaces of cutting inserts and take the
measurement by using interferometer and scanning electron microscope (SEM). Then
import the measurement to digital surf mountain software and analyze these readings
by different statistical method (ANOVA, T-test, Spearman’s rank correlation, F-test
etc. and software’s (IBM SPSS, MATLAB etc.).
Plan for weekly meeting with Sandvik Coromant and data collected from experts from
Sandvik Coromant as well as Halmstad University.
18. THEORY
12
3. THEORY
The authors started with a literature research regarding the task topography and how
simulated surface topography being measured, the authors make a deep investigation relates
to the surface integrity. Surface texture and 3D surface texture parameter. Select the
appropriate parameters to analyses the surfaces and the literature research including books,
and other relevant documentation regarding measuring of surface structure and their analysis
Surface Texture characterization and evaluation related to machining.
3.1. Summary of the literature study and state-of-the-art
Surface integrity is an important consideration in manufacturing operations, because it
influences such properties as fatigue strength, resistance to corrosion, and services life,
which- strongly influenced, by the nature of the surface produced. Surface integrity achieved
by the selection and control of manufacturing processes, estimating their effects on the
significant engineering properties of work materials, such as fatigue performance.
Surface integrity is a measure of the quality of a machined surface that describes the actual
structure of both surface and subsurface. Severe failures produced by fatigue, creep and stress
corrosion cracking start at the surface of components. Therefore, in machining any
component, it is necessary to satisfy the surface integrity requirements. Micro hardness, micro
crack, surface roughness, and metallurgical structure are features that used to determine the
surface integrity as shown in Figure3.
.
Schematic section through a machined surface [15]
Therefore, in machining any component, it is necessary to satisfy the surface integrity
requirements. This study based on the idea of Surface integrity loop (figure 3.2) where
focusing on the post coated and pre coated surfaces. The loop introduced to highlight the
connection between function, manufacturing, and characterization of the surfaces. Function
gives an idea about impression of products, tribological properties [16]. Manufacturing
methodology influence the surface layer of inserts which have influence on practical
properties [17]. Characterization of the surface integrity stands for types of measurement
takes and analysis occurred.
19. THEORY
13
Figure.3.2: “The surface integrity loop explained the relationship between function, manufacturing, measurement
and characterization of surface” [18]
The surface control loop can explain the complexity of surface design, the three facets
manufacturing, Characteristics and Functions. The characterization and measurement of
surface is very complex because the character of a machined surface involves three dimension
of space, any numerical assessment of a surface finish will be influenced by the direction in
which measurements are taken in relation to the lay and arbitrary distinguish between
roughness and waviness.
The engineering surface achieves, after the relevant process, new properties and
characteristics compared to the initial one that constitute what we call surface integrity.
Surface integrity can be express by Surface character, which the integrity can be judged by
four main elements [8]
1. Topography and texture, which describes the geometric characteristics
2. Chemical properties such as reactivity at the surface
3. Metallography such as structure, orientation and grain size
4. Mechanics, describing states of stress at the surface
The quantitative 3D surface description and analysis gives an effective understanding of
phenomena. The detailed analysis of loop leads to the solution of WP 1 & WP2. The
directional properties affect the tribological function of the surface (frictional behavior, wear,
lubricant retention, etc.) also the state of anisotropy can change during function. The surface
integrity loop consists of three sections (Functions, Manufacturing and Characterization) is
explained below.
3.1.1 Function
Surface Integrity Issues on Coated Cemented Carbides
Successful functionality of a hard coating system depends not only on composition,
microstructure and architecture of the layer itself [19-20], but also on the surface integrity of
the supporting substrate as well as on the interface nature and strength. On the other hand,
only a few investigations address the influence of surface topography or subsurface integrity
resulting from changes induced at different manufacturing stages, particularly regarding those
implemented prior to coating deposition, i.e., grinding, lapping, polishing, blasting and
peening [21]-[22].
A cutting insert must have the following properties in order to produce economical and good
quality parts:
Function
Manufacturing Characterization
20. THEORY
14
Hardness – The strength and hardness of inserts must maintain at elevated temperature
(hot hardness).
Toughness– to resistance chip, fracture and crack during the manufacturing and
cutting operations.
Wear resistance – to attain acceptable tool life.
Corrosion resistance – to withstand from chemical reactions.
Heat treatment capacity – to maintain the dimension stability while applying the heat
treatment.
T series (Tungsten type) cutting inserts are one of the commonly used in cutting inserts.
Titanium nitride is deposited on the tool does not affect the hardness (heat treatment) of the
tool being coated but it can extend the life or to allow the higher speed operations. The
hardness, tool life and high-speed operations of cemented tungsten carbide are greater than
other tool materials. In order to get better strength cobalt (Co) added as a binding agent to
Tungsten carbide (WC). The most commonly used coating materials are:
Titanium Carbo- Nitride Ti(C,N)
Ceramic coating
Titanium Nitride
Titanium carbo-nitride black color coating, Titanium carbo nitride is commonly used
intermediate layer of multilayered coating. The duty of Ti (C, N) maintains the strong bond
between the other coating layer and cutting inserts. The Ceramic coating (Aluminum oxide)
is the one of the mainly used ceramic coating because of its higher hardness and brittleness,
less chances for producing scaly cut and hard spot in the work piece. Because of outstanding
resistance to abrasive wear, heat and chemical reaction of ceramic coating provide higher
cutting speed. The main disadvantage of ceramic coating is it subjected to failure by chipping.
The main advantages of Titanium nitride coating are resistance to cratering, abrasive wear
resistance, and high heat resistance at high cutting speed (cutting interface with less friction-
produce a smooth surface of the coating).
The condition of cutting inserts determined by the following factors [23]
Microstructure – to maintain uniform crystal or grain structure, it is normally
recommended but is any variation in microstructure affects the machinability.
Grain size- – Small and undistorted grains are more ductile and gummy. Hardness
of the material generally correlated with grain size. Large grain size is generally
associated with low strength, low ductility, and low hardness.
Heat treatment – a material may be treated with cooling and heating leads to
reduce brittleness, remove stress, obtain ductility and toughness, to increase the
strength and to obtain definite microstructure.
Lay means for any predominant directionality of the surface texture of the cutting insert
surfaces. Usually the production method and geometry are determining the directionality
(lay). Surfaces produced having no characteristic directions are peening and grit blasting
(sometimes it has non-directional or protuberant lay). A smooth surface looks like more rough
21. THEORY
15
if it has strong lay and the rough surface looks like the more uniform weather it has no lay
[24].
3.1.2 Manufacturing
Abrasive slurry blasting is the type of wet abrasive slurry blasting of cutting insert coating
process. Fracture strength, hardness, the presence of impurities, density, type, and shape
(depends on the erosion and lubrication Properties-Void parameters) and size of abrasive
media has key roles in material selection of blasting process. The major problem related to
shot blasting related to method of process, defect of original materials and improper control of
parameters (stress temperature and surface deformations). The coating surfaces also depend
on the selection and matching of abrasive, nozzle, air pressure and abrasive/air mixing ratio
[25]-[26]. More Detail about the treatment, tool geometry and wear see appendix.7.
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is the generally used coating process in which coating
material introduced in the environmentally controlled chamber as a chemical vapor. Another
commonly used coating process is the Physical vapor deposition (PVD). The normal
thickness of CVD coating is 2µm to 15µm. Because of the high temperature 1000 ℃ using in
the CVD operations have high bonding between the tungsten carbide cutting inserts and
coating materials. The highest bonding leads to increase in toughness results in minimal
chipping and good surface finish [27].
The experienced polishers prepare coating by high-speed hand held rotary tools, abrasive
brushes and self-prepared carriers used for producing the smooth coated surfaces. Robot
assisted multi axis equipment’s are the ongoing development to achieve the effective surface
finish. Even though using different types of finishing process, the fine grain process is the
mandatory for producing smooth surfaces. This is the kind surface flow treatment in which
little hard rough particles are leads to small grooves and pits leads to the one directional
scratch. Now a days polishing treated as wear process in which abrasion, erosion, adhesion
and surface fatigue are normally occurred defects [28]. The grooves occurring on the surface
is mainly depends on the abrasive grain shapes of polishing. The angular shaped abrasive has
a higher wear rate with narrower and sharper grooves than the round edge shaped. Abrasive
rolling behavior (high load with low abrasive density) also effect on the groove formations
[29].
3.1.3 Characterization
The characterization of this study explained by following areas:
a. Region of interest:
All treatments had done on the rake face of the inserts; a worn edge of an insert as shown in
fig 3.3 and figure 3.4 below.
22. THEORY
16
’
Figure.3.3” The region of interest in rake face”.
Figure.3.4: “LOM image of worn edge of insert in region of interest”
b. Measurement Instrument:
In this thesis, there are two types of instruments used: optical interferometer and Scanning
Electron microscope (SEM).
Interferometer:
The MICROXAM 100 HR with objective of 10X and 50X magnification her were used
giving a measuring area of 0.8*0.6mm and 162*123μm. Interferometer is an instrument
taking the pictures with good accuracy and resolution. This is an optical technique providing
quantitative 3D data up to nanometer level. Interferometer meant dimensional metrology
rather than surface metrology. 5 X magnifications are overlapped the surfaces on rake face
[1]-[37]. The optical profilometer is an instrument that uses the interference patterns of light
to scan through a range of heights and create a three-dimensional profile of a desired surface
without physically touching it.
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
A SEM of type JEOL JSM-6490LV used for taking images where produced by the secondary
electron detector and electron magnets with maximum of 5nm lateral resolution. Higher
resolution and large depth of field are the advantages of SEM [30]. SEM is intensively used
characterize surface topography and cross-sectional structure, as well as fractography of the
(coated) hard metals. SEM permits the observation of a variety of materials from micrometer
to nanometer scale. SEM capabilities variants extend from high resolution topographic
imaging to both qualitative and quantitative chemical analysis, the types of signals collected
from the interaction of the electron beam and the Sample surface include secondary electrons,
backscattered electrons, characteristic x-rays, and other photons of various energies, coming
from specific emission Sample volume [31].
23. THEORY
17
Figure 3.5 A SEM instrument of type JEOLJSM-6490LV
The table below explained about the summary of used instruments to measure the surfaces in
which mentioned about the magnifications, merit & demerits and comments of the equipment
Instrumentation Magnification Merits/Demerits Comments
Profilometric
3-D
measurement
Optical no contact
instrument:
Scanning
differential
interferometry
50 X and 10 X
magnification;
resolution in
micrometer
Measure small
area, easy to tune
the fringes
5 X
magnification
overlap the
edges
Scanning Electron
Microscope(SEM)
1KX,5KX & 10KX
magnification;
resolution in
micrometer
Better results; take
time for scanning
and operating
No need of
any
optimization
technique to
analysis
Table 3.1: Summary of used instruments for measurements [32]
c. Software used:
The software used for 3 D Surface texture parameters, profile and image analysis of SEM
pictures was the Digital surf MountainsMap 7 surface imaging and metrology [33] For
selecting the appropriate parameters of the surface having usage of several methods including
IBM SPSS, MATLAB and Microsoft excel. MountainsMap software is surface imaging and
metrology software published by the company Digital Surf. Its main application is micro-
topography, the science of studying surface texture and form in 3D at the microscopic scale.
24. THEORY
18
The software used mainly with stylus-based or optical Profilometer, optical microscopes and
scanning probe microscopes (SEM’s) and Raman and FT-IR spectrometers. These new
solutions added to an enhanced range of existing imaging and metrology software solutions
for areal 3D optical microscopes, scanning probe microscopes, 3D and 2D surface
Profilometer, and form measuring systems.
In this thesis used MountainsMap software Version 7 which introduces new imaging and
metrology solutions for scanning electron microscopes. All functions organized in groups and
sub-groups that clearly labeled. Groups and sub-groups associate related studies, operators
and editing tools.
d. Measuring Procedure and Analytical techniques
All the measurement (Reading) was precondition according to the software installation as
following:
First step the inserts carried out by ultrasonic sterilization and then dried by using hair
dryer.
The insets placed at the interferometer table and then take reading of 10 X and 50X
magnification see appendix 6, 20 readings taken for each inserts.
The analysis computed by Mountains Map 7software.
In MountainsMap7 load the reading
Fill the non-measured points.
Further, a form removal for 3D profiles by fitting a 2nd
degree polynomial to measured
data carried out.
Filtering using cutoff wavelengths of 80 micrometers and the robust Gaussian filter
see appendix 2. The measurement located on the rake face of the cutting inserts
toward both co-linear direction of nose radius from the nose [34].
e. Featured characterization:
Surface texture parameter, which is the profile parameter and the real field parameters, use a
statistical basis to characterize the cloud of measurement points.
Profile parameter in particular were developed primarily to monitor the production process, as
assessment we do not usually see field parameter values but pattern of features such as hills
and valleys, and the relationship between them. By detecting and the relationships between
them, it can characterize the pattern in surface texture, parameter that characterizes surface
features and their relationships are termed feature parameters [35].
ISO 25178: Geometric Product Specifications (GPS) – Surface texture: areal is an
International Organization for Standardization collection of international standards relating to
the analysis of 3D areal surface texture [8]. Particularly in the academic field, there is a
growing number of works, which advocate the usage of three-dimensional measuring
elements. The search of a higher precision and resolution in measures, reduction in costs of
processing and storing systems and continuous progress in microscopy techniques are the
reasons of the emergence of these works.
25. THEORY
19
3D roughness parameters are defined by the following Standards: ISO 25178 define 30
parameters (appendix 1), EUR 15178N also define 30 parameters but some are identical to
those of ISO 25178. Only 16 parameters are the latest ones, however Sz (maximum height of
surface roughness) and Std (texture direction) are calculated differently in both standards [36]
26. RESULTS
20
4. RESULTS
Measurements with 10 X respectively 50 X magnification used, 20 different measurements
performed with each magnification on every sample. The data was collected and analysis
performed by MountainsMap to evaluate the surfaces more closely. The results had a few
unmeasured points, which easily solved in the software. The Same filter and operations later
performed for the other Samples this can followed in appendix 3. The analysis of reading
from the interferometer has different kind of methods.
The methods used in this thesis, Average and Standard Deviation method, Error bar followed
by ANOVA and t-test method, Spearman’s correlation matrix method. The standard ISO
25178 used for selecting the parameters from MountainsMap Software. This section of results
considered to single out the surface topographical analysis of coated and uncoated cutting
inserts. 3D surface texture parameter and image analysis obtained from the equipment’s
interferometer and SEM.
4.1 Presentation of experimental results of work package 1
4.1.1 Parameters Selection Methods
The parameter selected by using the methods, which explained in the methodology. The
methods are used for the optimizing the parameters of variants MSG157, MSG158 and MSG
160.
4.1.2 Average and Standard Deviation method
Parameters - According
To ISO 25178
Comparison between MSG157 and MSG 158
MSG157 MSG158
Mean SD Imax Imin Mean SD' I´max I´min
Smc (p = 10 %) 0,39 0,01 0,42 0,36 0,52 0,04 0,59 0,44
Vv (p = 10 %) 0,40 0,02 0,43 0,37 0,54 0,04 0,62 0,46
Vmc (p = 10 %, q = 80
%)
0,27 0,01 0,29 0,24 0,34 0,02 0,38 0,31
Vvc (p = 10 %, q = 80
%)
0,35 0,01 0,38 0,32 0,47 0,03 0,53 0,41
SD&SD': Standard deviation of MSG157 and MSG158 respectively
Table 4.1: shows the mean, standard deviation and I value for MSG157 and MSG158
A zoom in the comparison in table 4.1, highlights on the selected parameter . The variation of
each parameter based on the standard deviation, mean and confidence intervals. Where the
interval 𝐼′
and 𝐼′′
for the factor Si are disjunctive.
The mean or average calculated from the equation (1) and (2), as well as the variance from the
equations (3) and (4). The interval for good parts and for bad parts calculated from the
equations (5) and (6) with the coverage factor K (k=2). Then the significant factor computed
in equation (7).
27. RESULTS
21
Si between MSG157 and MSG158
Parameters - According
to ISO 25178
Description of
Selected Parameter
Significant
Factor
Significant factor is '+'
and disjunct interval
Smc (p = 10%) Inverse areal material
ratio
0,054 Accepted
Vv (p = 10%) Void volume 0,049 Accepted
Vmc (p = 10%, q=80%) Core material volume 0,065 Accepted
Vvc (p = 10%, q =80%) Core void volume 0,092 Accepted
Table 4.2: shows the significant factor and accepted conditions for selected parameters
Table 4.2 showing the significance factor Si; is computed on the basis of the intervals and the
mean, the Select parameter have ´+´ve (disjunct) significant factor (Accepted).
Parameters - According to
ISO 25178(157and 160)
Comparison between MSG157 and MSG 160
MSG157 MSG160
Mean SD Imax Imin Mean2 SD2 I´´max I´´min
Sa 0,25 0,01 0,28 0,23 0,19 0,01 0,22 0,16
Smc (p = 10%) 0,39 0,01 0,42 0,36 0,29 0,02 0,32 0,25
Sxp (p = 50%, q =96.5%) 0,71 0,04 0,79 0,63 0,52 0,04 0,61 0,44
Vv (p = 10%) 0,40 0,02 0,43 0,37 0,30 0,02 0,34 0,26
Vmc (p = 10%, q = 80%) 0,27 0,01 0,29 0,24 0,20 0,01 0,22 0,17
Vvc (p = 10%, q = 80%) 0,35 0,01 0,38 0,32 0,26 0,01 0,29 0,23
Table 4.3: Shows the mean, standard deviation and I value for MSG157 and MSG160
Table 4.3 shows the comparison between MSG 157 and MSG 160 on the selected parameter.
The variation of each parameter based on the standard deviation, mean and confidence
intervals. Where the interval 𝐼′
and 𝐼′′
for the factor Si are disjunctive. The mean or average
calculated from the equation (1) and (2), as well as the variance from the equations (3) and
(4). The interval for good parts and for bad parts calculated from the equations (5) and (6)
with the coverage factor K (k=2). Then the significant factor computed in equation (7)
Comparison between MSG157 and MSG 160
Parameters According to ISO
25178-2
Description Of Selected
Parameters
Significant
Factor
Accepted/
Rejected
Sa Arithmetic Mean height 0,05 Accepted
Smc (p = 10 %) Inverse areal material ratio 0,1 Accepted
Sxp (p = 50 %, q = 97.5%) Extremepeak height 0,04 Accepted
Vv (p = 10 %) Void Volume 0,1 Accepted
Vmc (p = 10 %, q = 80 %) Core material volume 0,11 Accepted
Vvc (p = 10 %, q = 80 %) Core void volume 0,12 Accepted
Table 4.4 showing the Accepted parameter has ´+´ve (disjunct) significant factor
28. RESULTS
22
The above table (4.4) shows the selected parameters of the variants MSG157 and MSG 160
from equation (7), the results from equation (7) has ´+´ve (disjunct) significant factor, that
mean select the parameter or accept the parameters which has ´+´ve (disjunct) significant
factor. Table 4.5 and table 4.6 shows the comparison between MSG 158 and MSG 160, the
selected parameters calculated from the equation (1) and (2), as well as the variance from the
equations (3) and (4). The interval for good parts and for bad parts calculated from the
equations (5) and (6) with the coverage factor K (k=2). Then the significant factor computed
in equation (7).
Parameters -
According To ISO
25178
Comparison Between MSG158 and MSG160
MSG158 MSG160
Mean SD I´max I´min Mean2 SD2 I´´max I´´min
Sa 0,33 0,03 0,40 0,27 0,19 0,01 0,22 0,16
Smc (p = 10%) 0,52 0,04 0,59 0,44 0,29 0,02 0,32 0,25
Sxp (p= 50%,q =96.5%) 0,88 0,09 1,07 0,70 0,52 0,04 0,61 0,44
Vv (p = 10%) 0,54 0,04 0,62 0,46 0,30 0,02 0,34 0,26
Vmc(p=10%,q=80%) 0,34 0,02 0,38 0,31 0,20 0,01 0,22 0,17
Vvc(p=10%,q= 80%) 0,47 0,03 0,53 0,41 0,26 0,01 0,29 0,23
Table 4.5: Shows the mean, standard deviation& I value for MSG158 and MSG15
Parameters - According
to ISO
25178(MSG157and
MSG160)
Description of selected
parameters
Comparison Between MSG158
and MSG160
Significant
Factor
Accepted/Rejected
Sa Arithemetic Mean Height 0,20 Accepted
Smc (p = 10%) Inverse areal material ratio 0,29 Accepted
Sxp (p = 50%,q =97.5%) Extreme Peak height 0,13 Accepted
Vv (p = 10%) void volume 0,29 Accepted
Vmc (p = 10%, q =80%), Core material volume 0,32 Accepted
Vvc (p = 10%, q = 80%) Core void volume 0,35 Accepted
Table 4.6: Shows the Significant factor and accepted conditions for selected parameter
29. RESULTS
23
Parameters - According
to ISO 25178
Significant factor
between MSG157 and
MSG158
Significant Factor
between MSG158
and MSG160
Significant Factor
between MSG157 and
MSG160
Sa (Arithemetic Mean
Height)
Si Factor ´-´ve Rejected 0,2 0,05
Smc (p = 10%) (Inverse
Areal Material Ratio
0,05 0,29 0,11
Sxp (p=50%,q=96.5%)
Extreme Peak Height
Si Factor ´-´ve Rejected 0,13 0,04
Vv (p = 10%)(Void
Volume)
0,05 0,29 0,1
Vmc (p = 10%, q = 80%
Core Material Volume
0,07 0,32 0,11
Vvc (p = 10%, q = 80%)
Core Void Volume
0,09 0,35 0,12
Table4.7: shows the significant values for selected parameters
The parameters selected from the above table according to significant value with disjunct
interval (‘+’ve value). Sa and Sxp shows ´-´ve Si factor in this case reject the parameters,
while comparing between MSG 157 and MSG158.The selected parameters gives idea about
topographical difference between three variants.
4.1.3 Spearman’s rank correlation method
Spearman’s rank correlation method to select the parameters explained in method section
2.1.2. The selected Parameters as shown in table 4.8, which has highest correlation factor
calculated from the equation (8).
Selected parameters correlations Smc Sq Vm Vv Vmc Sdq
Sxp 0,96
Sa 0,96
Vmp 1
Vmc 0,96
Vvc 0,99 0,99
Sdr 0,99
Table 4.8 the correlation for selected parameters in work package 1
The Parameters Sxp and Smc have very strong correlation (0, 96) means that these parameters
are significant for comparison between the variants. The parameters Sa and Sq shows highly
correlation in which select the Sa because both readings represent the Same sense. Vmp Vm,
Sdr and Sdq show strong correlations. Again, the parameters Vmc and Vv, Vvc and Vv, Vmc
are also showing strong correlation, more details explained in appendix 5.
4.1.4 Standard deviation Error Bar (EB) followed by Anova &T-test method
The error bar method can use as primary analyzing method to optimize the parameters. The
EB method involves calculating the mean, standard deviation (SD) from equation (10) for
each parameter, and 20 readings from interferometer.
30. RESULTS
24
Table 4.9: Error-Bar method for selecting 3D parameters (Mean and SD).
Tables 4.9 highlight the selected parameters, by using Excel to plot the mean graph for each
parameter then plot the custom error of each variant by using excel sheet as shown down in
Figure 4.1, or by using equation (10), (11) and (12) explained in Method.
Figure 4.1: Custom Error Bars on the different Variants of mean graph for selected parameters
In the above graphs Error Bar (Dark caped lines) with mean graphs of parameters having
disjunctive (Non-overlapped Error bar) can be selected. Standard deviation used to measure
the dispersion of the mean value. The low SD value indicates data are close to the mean,
while large values of SD indicate data has spread out over a wide range. Error bars give an
idea about statically significant parameters in which experimental data are falling far outside
of the range of standard deviation are considered as significant (Example Software Version:
Microsoft ® Excel 2010 in Windows® 7). The parameters Sa, Smc, Sxp, Vv, Vmc and Vvc
Sa
Smc (p =
10%)
Sxp (p =
50%, q =
97.5%)
Vv (p =
10%)
Vmc (p =
10%, q =
80%)
Vvc (p =
10%, q =
80%)
MSG157 0,25 0,39 0,71 0,40 0,27 0,35
MSG158 0,33 0,52 0,88 0,54 0,34 0,47
MSG160 0,19 0,29 0,52 0,30 0,20 0,26
0,00
0,20
0,40
0,60
0,80
1,00
1,20
Mean
Standard Deviation Error Bar chart for WP 1
Parameters -
According to
ISO 25178-2
DescriptionF
or Selected
parameter
Units
Error Bar Method
Mean Standard Deviation
MSG
157
MSG
158
MSG
160
MSG
157
MSG
158
MSG
160
Sa
Arithmetic
mean height
µm 0,25 0,33 0,19 0,01 0,18 0,01
Smc(p=10%)
Inverse areal
material ratio
µm 0,39 0,52 0,29 0,01 0,04 0,02
Sxp(p=50%,
q = 96.5%)
Extreme peak
height
µm 0,71 0,88 0,52 0,04 0,09 0,04
Vv(p= 10%) Void Volume µ3
/µ2
0,4 0,54 0,3 0,02 0,04 0,02
Vmc(= 10%,
q = 80%)
Core material
volume
µ3
/µ2
0,27 0,34 0,2 0,01 0,02 0,01
Vvc(p=10%,
q = 80 %)
Core void
volume
µ3
/µ2
0,35 0,47 0,26 0,01 0,03 0,01
31. RESULTS
25
are the chosen parameters which have disjoint Error Bar; remaining parameters are explained
in the appendix 1.
.
4.3. Presentation of experimental results of work package 2
4.3 Methods for selecting the parameters
While applying Custom error bar on variants of work package two show that most of the error
bars are overlapping. Then we shift to our study to one-way analysis of variance followed to
t-test. Procedures are:
Check the Error Bars of different variants are overlapped
Find the variance and analysis of variance for single factor
Check the condition that F value >> F critical value; F between the degree of freedom
and p<0, 05, if parameter show this condition means that variants are significantly
varied between each other.
All these values calculated from excel sheet. F=Mean square of the model/mean
square of the error (large value indicates that not over lapping), P value indicates the
likelihood of observing a value of the F condition statistics as or more extreme.
Then make the table which showing below in which find the probability value for t-
test in which TRUE means P (T=t) two tail < (0, 05 /5) (condition from t test) which
indicates comparison between the variants are highly significant (95% confident entry-
level). FALSE indicates comparisons between the variants are not significant.
Selected parameters have highest number of trues (greater than variant number, 5)
The important comparison between the variants also can find out by using this method
(show in the green highlight) see table 4.10.
PARAMETERS
MSG186and187
MSG186and189
MSG186and190
MSG186and191
MSG187and189
MSG187and190
MSG187and191
MSG189and190
MSG189and191
MSG190and191
Sq F T F F F F F T T F
Ssk T F T F F T T T T F
Sku F F T T F T T T T F
Sp F T F F F F F T T F
Sv F T F F T F F T T F
Sz F T F F T F F T T F
Sa F T T T F T T T T F
Smr T T F F T T F T T F
Smc T T T T F T T T T F
Sxp F T F T F F F T T F
Sal T F T F T T T F F F
Str F T T F F F F T T F
Std F F F F F F F F F F
32. RESULTS
26
Sdq F T F F T F F T T F
Sdr F T F F T F F T T F
Vm F T F F F F F T T F
Vv T T T T F T T T T F
Vmp F T F F F F F T T F
Vmc T T T T F T T T T F
Vvc T T T T F T T T T F
Vvv F T F F T F F T T F
Spd F F T T F T T T T F
Spc F T T T T F F T T F
F: FALSE T: TRUE
Table 4.10: show the result from ANOVA &t-test (Selected parameters and important comparisons are in green color)
TRUE P(T<=t) two-tail
<(0,05)
Parameter is disjunct for variants with
95%confident interval
FALSE P(T<=t) two-tail
>(0,05)
Parameter is non-disjunct for variants with 95%
confident interval
Table 4.11: show physical meaning of TRUE and FALSE values in Table 11
PARAMETERS (ISO25178,WP2) NumberTRUES
(Row)>6
Accept/ Reject
Sa(Arithemefic Mean Height) 7 Accept
Smc (InverseAreal Material Ratio) 8 Accept
Vv(Void Volume) 8 Accept
Vmc (Core Material Volume) 8 Accept
Vvc(Core Void Volume) 8 Accept
Table4.12: Selected Parameters in which number of TRUES (row)>6
ComparisnBetweenDifferentVariants(WP2) Number of
TRUES(Coulumn)
>15
SignificantI
Not Significant
Comparison between NESG186& 189 18 Significant
Comparison between MSG189& 190 22 Significant
Comparison between MSG189& 191 22 Significant
Table 4.13: Significant comparison in which number of TRUES >15
Table 4.11 and table 4.12 explained the results obtained from the ANOVA followed by the T-
test in which plotted the number of TRUES and FALSE of each parameters with different
types of comparison. Table 4.13 explained about how pick the important parameters to
compare between different variants in which number of trues greater than 6 are selected
(Statistically significant different to compare between different parameters). Here chose
number six is arbitrary, once need more parameters change the limits and pick the more
parameters for comparison. The significant comparison between the variants also find out by
using the Same method that explained in table 4.13 The comparison between the variants
having number of trues greater than 15 selected.
33. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
27
5. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
5.1 Conclusions
5.1.1 Work Package 1
Which parameters describing the topography of the variants are important to look at
when comparing the different variants?
The parameters which are important to look at when comparing the different
variants to each other are arithmetic mean height(Sa), extreme peak height(Smc),
void volume(Vv), Core material volume(Vmc), Core void volume(Vvc) and Area
height difference(Sxp).
The methods used for selecting the appropriate parameters are Mean and standard
deviation method, Error bar method and Spearman’s correlation method
Table 5.1 described the effect of selected parameters on different variants in work package
one. The comparison of different variants with selected parameters also explained below. The
colour code of the table is based on the visual estimations [47].
Table 5.1: Comparison between different variants with selected parameters (comparison based on the visual estimation,
B: blasting, FGB: fine grain blasting, P: polishing) [47]
SURFACE
TEXTURE ANALYSIS
Comparison only for WP 1
variants
Description for highest
values
Paramete Selected IS025178)
Sa
Arithemetic
Mean
Height
Sxp
(p = 50%),
(q=97.5%)
Smc
(P=10%)
Vv
(p =10%)
Vmc
(p=10%)
(q=80%)
Vvc
(p=10%,
q= 80%)
Units µm µm µm µm³/µm² µm³/µm² µm³/µm²
Smooth <0,20 <0,60 <0,30 < 0,30 <0,02 <0,30
Medium 0,20-0,30 0,6-0,80 0,30-0,40 0,30-0,50 0,20-0,30 0,30-0,40
Rough >0,30 >0.80 >0.50 >0,50 >0,30 >0,40
MSG157
( B)
Higher bearing
of the material
frompeak, More
Texture.
0,25 0,71 0,39 0,40 0,27 0,35
MSG158
(B-FGB)
Higher overall
texture, Higher
Bearing area.
Higher amount
fluid retention.
0,33 0,88 0,52 0,54 0,34 0,47
MSG160
(B.P)
Widespace
texture,
Comparatively
smooth
0,19 0,52 0,29 0,30 0,20 0,26
34. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
28
Arithmetic Mean Height, (Sa)
The arithmetic mean height or Mean surface roughness defined as the arithmetic mean of
the absolute value of the height within Sampling area and which show measure of overall
texture. In the observation MSG158 and MSG157 shows more overall texture (Sa).
MSG160 show more surface finish (less value of Sa) as shown below in figure 5.1
Figure 5.1 Sa parameter with the values for work package 1
Peak Extreme Height, (Sxp)
Peak extreme height is defined the peak characterized difference between two material
ratio between 2.5% and 50% (ISO25178-3 2011). The peak height characterized upper
part of the surface without taking account of small percentage of peak height. The peak
extreme height is high for MSG157 and MSG158 and low for MSG160.
Inverse Areal Material Ratio, (Smc)
Inverse material ratio is the just opposite of the material ratio in which evaluates the
height value c corresponding to the material ratio p.
Void Volume (Vv)
The parameter stands for the surface texture of component, which contact with other
surface. For MSG158, Vv=0,5 µ3/µ2 which means 0,5µm thick film over the measured
area would provide the Same volume fluid needed to fill to the lowest valley
corresponding to the material ratio.
Core Material Volume (Vmc)
MSG 157,Sa=0,31µm MSG158,Sa=0,34 µm MSG 160,Sa=0,23µm
35. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
29
This parameter gives an idea about part of the material, which does not interact with other
surface in contact and not significant for lubrication. Core Material Volume can be
defined as the difference between material volume at mr2=80% and mr1=10%. This
parameter stands for amount of material removed from the peaks of the surface (Figure
4.2). Variants MSG157 and MSG158 have value Vmc=0,3 µ3/µ2 means these variants
have high material is available for load support once the top levels of a surface are worn
away.
Core Void Volume (Vvc)
The core void volume is the difference in void volume between the mr1=10% (Void
volume corresponding to the peak at 10% of material ratio) and mr2=80% (Void volume
corresponding to the material ratio 80%). For MSG158, Vvc= 0, 5 µ3/µ2 means high
amount of material available for seal engagement (more fluid entrapment). The variants
MSG157 and MSG160 are Same Vvc value (Figure 5.2).
Figure 5.2: Core Parameters for MSG157, MSG158 and MSG160’
In the above figure 5.2, Vmc curve stands for the bearing curve (material beard from the
peaks during the operations) provide the idea about the wearing occurring on the variants
surfaces. MSG158 variants show higher curve values (figure 5.2) indicates higher wear
occurred on that surface.
How well does the study of surface topography of variants correlate to the
manufacturing process?
MSG158 (Blasted followed by fine grain blasting) show more texture, MSG160
(blasting followed by the polishing) shows smoother Surface and MSG157
(Blasted) surface characteristics in between MSG158 and MSG160. Materials are
brittle so hardness test does not work for comparing the variants. Machining test
preferred to get exact result see table 5.2
Variants Manufacturing Process pre
treatment
Comments obtained from the
parameter
MSG157 Blasting Higher bearing of the material from peak,
More Texture.
MSG158 Blasting followed by fine grain
blasting
Higher overall texture, Higher Bearing
area. Higher amount fluid retention.
MSG160 Blasting followed by polishing Wide space texture, Comparatively
smooth
Table 5.2 show variants and comments obtained from the parameter
Is there any predominant direction of the topography of the different variants?
0 20 40 60 80 100 %
µm
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Vmp
Vmc
Vvc
Vvv
10.0 %
80.0 %
0 20 40 60 80 100 %
µm
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Vmp
Vmc Vvc
Vvv
10.0 %
80.0 %
0 20 40 60 80 100 %
µm
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Vmp
Vmc Vvc
Vvv
10.0 %
80.0 %
36. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
30
Spatial Parameters (Directionality) [9], [28], [2]
Variants (WP 1)
Description for
parameters
Spatial Parameters(IS025178)
Sal(S=0.2) (Auto
correlation length
Str (S=0.2)
(Texture
aspect ratio)
Std
(Reference
angle = 0')
UNIT um Degree
MSG157(Blasting)
Texture as suggesting
highly isotropic
texture, without any
lay. Uniform surfaces
texture in all direction
3,5 0,7 93
MSG158
(Blasting-Fine
Grain Blasting)
Surface has a medium
anisotropic texture,
indicates or the
presence of a
dominating pattern in
certain directions.
3,6 0,4 94
MSG160
(Blasting-
Polishing)
Surface shows a high
amount of
directionality,
Antistrophic
which again points to a
high amount of wear
on the surface
4,3 0,3 33
Table 5.3: Spatial Parameters of variants MSG157, MSG158 and MSG160 (50X magnification)
SEM image Analysis from interferometer.
Figure 5.3: Shows grooves occurred on MSG160 readings (50 X magnifications)
MSG160 extracted area (SEM image analyzed from interferometer by Mountain Map software.)
The spatial parameters Std, Sal and Str are of variants in work package 1 explained in Table
5.1. The descriptions of parameters mentioned below. Figure 5.3, shows the highest grooves
occurring on MSG160 (Extracted area). The SEM image shows that there is no predominant
lay in direction of the three variants but in MSG 160 shows some scratches over the surfaces.
37. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
31
Autocorrelation Length, Sal
The Sal parameter is a quantitative measure of the distance along the surface in which a
texture that is statically different from the original location. MSG 160 shows higher
value, MSG157 and MSG158 are almost same value. It is the horizontal distance of the
Auto Correlation Function (ACF) (tx, ty) which has fastest decay to specified values
“S”. ACF (tx, ty) is the autocorrelation function which is used for studying periodicity
and check the isotropy of a surface. The specified value for smooth surface is taken as
(0,2) (ISO25178-2) for a practical application. Sal is perpendicular to the surface lay for
anisotropic surface.
Texture Aspects Ratio, Str
Texture aspects ratio, Str is defined as the ratio between rmin and rmax where rmin and rmax
are the minimum and maximum radius on the central lobe of the ACF respectively. The
Str value lies between 0 and 1(0% and 100%). Str is used for evaluating surface texture
isotropy. Str varies in between 0 and 1, with values closer to 1 suggest isotropic features
without any lay and values close to 0 suggest directionality of the surface texture [41].
Experts agree that a Str > 0.5 means a surface has an isotropic texture whereas a value
below 0.3 shows a high amount of directionality. MSG 157 surface has an isotropic
texture while MSG 160 shows a high amount of directionality see figure 5.4a, figure
5.4b and figure 5.5 for more details.
Figure 5.4a show the texture isotropy direction of variants in WP 1 (readings from interferometer)
Figure 5.4b SEM images (Source Sandvik Coromant) for WP1 showing texture directions
0.200
Parameters Value Unit
Isotropy 90.3 %
Periodicity ***** %
Period ***** µm
Directionof period ***** °
0.200
Parameters Value Unit
Isotropy 59.1 %
Periodicity ***** %
Period ***** µm
Direction of period ***** °
0.200
Parameters Value Unit
Isotropy 84.5 %
Periodicity ***** %
Period ***** µm
Directionof period ***** °
MSG 160MSG 157 MSG 158
38. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
32
Figure 5.5 MSG 157 shows isotropy (Str=0,7) MSG 158 showsanisotropy(Str=0,4)
MSG160 shows high amount of directionality (Str=0,3)
Texture Direction, Std
The texture direction is the angle between 0degree and 180degree of the spectrum,
which derived from the Fourier spectrum. Std parameters showing scratches and
oriented texture direction, which gives idea about the directionality of the variants.
Three variants MSG157, MSG158 and MSG160 show almost same Texture direction
(Std almost equal to 90 degree). Appendix “3”explain Fourier polar spectral graph of
directionality.
For MSG157, MSG158 show Same Surface texture direction.
MSG 157 shows larger ratio values i.e. Str 0.5, indicate isotropy or uniform
surface texture in all directions.
MSG 158 indicates anisotropy or the presence of a dominating pattern in certain
directions.
MSG 160 Str= 0,3 value shows small value; indicate anisotropy or the presence of
a dominating pattern in certain directions. It shows high amount of directionality.
See appendix 4. The surface shows high amount of directionality.
5.1.2 Work Package 2
Which parameters are important for comparing the different variants to each other?
Parameters Sa, Smc, Vv, Vmc and Vvc are selected by using the Error bar
followed by ANOVA and t-test.
The parameters which are important to look at when comparing the different
variants to each other are arithmetic mean height (Sa) see figure 5.6 for more
explanation extreme peak height (Smc), void volume (Vv), Core material
volume (Vmc) and Core void volume (Vvc) , more about core parameter see
figure 5.7 and figure 5.8.
0 50 100 150 200 µm
µm
0
50
100
µm
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 50 100 150 200 µm
µm
0
50
100
µm
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
39. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
33
Figure 5.6 Sa parameters for work package 2
µm
3.865
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Roughness (Gaussian filter, 80 µm)
µm
7.706
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Roughness (Gaussian filter, 80 µm)
µm
11.736
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Roughness (Gaussian filter, 80 µm)
µm
5.378
0
1
2
3
4
5
Roughness (Gaussian filter, 80 µm)
µm
5.005
0
1
2
3
4
Roughness (Gaussian filter, 80 µm)
MSG186, Sa=0,20 µm medium texture properties MSG187, Sa =0,32 µm higher texture properties
MSG189, Sa =0,37 µm higher texture properties MSG190, Sa =0,17 µm medium texture properties
MSG191, Sa =0,19 µm medium texture properties as MSG 190
40. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
34
Figure 5.7: Core Parameters for MSG 186, MSG 187and MSG 189
Figure 5.8: Core Parameters for MSG 190 and MSG 191
Error bar followed by the ANOVA and T-test and Spearman’s correlation
method can use for selecting the parameters.
Table 5.4 describes the effect of selected parameters on different variants in work package
two. The comparison of different variants with selected parameters also explained below.
Color in the table based on visual estimation
PARAMETERS Selected From ISO 25718-2
Sa Smc (p =
10%)
Vv (p = 10%) Vmc (p
= 10%,
q =
80%)
Vvc (p =
10%, q =
80%)
SURFACE TEXTURE ANALYSIS
Comparison only for WP2 variants
Description for highest values
Units µm µm µm³/µm² µm³/µm² µm³/µm²
Smooth <0,2 <0,25 <0,25 <0,20 <0,20
Medium 0,2-0,35 0,25-0,45 0,25 -0,50 0,2-0,30 0,20-0,35
Rough >0,35 >0,45 >0,50 >0,30 >0,35
Variant Surface
MG186 B-0-B
High bearing of
materials from peak
0,20 0,30 0,32 0,19 0,26
0 20 40 60 80 100 %
µm
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Vmp
Vmc Vvc
Vvv
10.0 %
80.0 %
0 20 40 60 80 100 %
µm
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Vmp
Vmc Vvc
Vvv
10.0 %
80.0 %
0 20 40 60 80 100 %
µm
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Vmp
Vmc Vvc
Vvv
10.0 %
80.0 %
0 20 40 60 80 100 %
µm
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Vmp
Vmc Vvc
Vvv
10.0 %
80.0 %
0 20 40 60 80 100 %
µm
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Vmp
Vmc Vvc
Vvv
10.0 %
80.0 %
41. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
35
MSG187 B-FGB-B
High fluid retention
and scrap entrapment,
Much material beard
away during process,
high bearing area
0,32 0,46 0,47 0,28 0,39
MSG189 B-P-B
High overall texture,
high bearing of
material from peaks,
more fluid retention,
more wetted surface
0,37 0,49 0,52 0,26 0,40
MSG190 B-P-B, P
Surface in good
condition, smooth flat
surfaces
0,17 0,26 0,24 0,15 0,19
MSG191 B-0-B,P
Surface in good
condition, smooth
and flat surfaces
0,19 0,22 0,21 0,15 0,17
B: Blasting; FGB: Fine Grain Blasting; P: Polishing
Table 5.4: Comparison between different variants with selected parameters (The comparison based
On visual estimation) [47]
Highlights at the selected parameters of work package two in table 5.4. Compare between the
different variants, the parameter arithmetic mean height (Sa) means the overall texture of the
surface. Sa is insensitive in differentiating peaks, valleys and the spacing of the various
texture features. The remaining volume parameter (Vv, Vmc and Vvc) indicates the material
beard from the highest peak and entrapped in the valley, fluid retention, wetted surface etc.
The comparison is in the decimal place are not that much stable but we can say the
comparison is important because most of the parameters shows the same result. Out of the
five variants MSG190 and MSG 191 shows more smooth and flat surfaces. The variants
MSG190, MSG189 and MSG186 show area, which has more bearing from the peaks and
more fluid retention.
If any connection found between the treatment prior to coating and the outcome of the
treatment after coating?
The table 5.5 below shows variants MSG 186, MSG 187, MSG 189, MSG 190 and MSG
191and the manufacturing process, also the comments obtained from the selected parameter
from work package two.
42. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
36
Variants
ER
Method
Pre coating
treatment
Post coating
treatment
Comments obtained from the
parameter
MSG 186 Blasting Blasting High bearing of materials from peak
MSG 187 Blasting
Fine grain
blasting Blasting
High fluid retention and scrap
entrapment, Much material beard away
during process, high bearing area
MSG 189 Blasting Polishing Blasting
High overall texture, high bearing of
material from peaks, more fluid
retention, more wetted surface
MSG 190
Blasting Polishing
Blasting,
Polishing
Surface in good condition, smooth flat
surfaces
MSG 191
Blasting
Blasting,
Polishing
Surface in good condition, smooth and
flat surfaces
Table 5.5 shows the comments obtained from the parameter
MSG 186 shows medium texture as shown in figure 5.5
MSG189 and MSG187 show higher texture properties out of five variants see
Figure 5.5
MSG190 and MSG191 show same surface property see figure 5.5
The comparison between the MSG186M-MSG189, MSG189-SG190 and
MSG189-MSG191 are the highly significant comparison
Is there any different measurement approach needed to evaluate the surface roughness
on variants in Work Package 2 compared to Work Package 1?
Spearman’s correlation methods followed by ANOVA and T-test and
Spearman’s correlation method are effective to compare roughness between
different variants between the work packages
PHASE 1 PHASE 2 PHASE 3
cc
Flow chart representing a process for variants surface treatment
𝑆 𝑎 = 0,31um
MSG 157
Blasting,
MSG 158
Blasting-Fine Grain
Blasting
Sa=0,34um
𝑆 𝑎 = 0,23um
MSG 160
Blasting-Polishing
𝑆 𝑎 = 0,2um
MSG 186
Blasting-0-Blasting
MSG 187
Blasting-Fine Grain
Blasting-Blasting
Sa=0,32um
MSG 189
Blasting-Polishing-
Blasting
𝑆 𝑎 =0,37um
𝑆 𝑎 = 0,19um
MSG 190
Blasting-Polishing-
Blasting, Polishing
𝑆 𝑎 = 0,17um
MSG 191
Blasting-0-Blasting,
Polishing
43. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
37
In the above chart, in phase 1 MSG 160 shows less texture (Sa=0,23um) value compare to
MSG 157 (Sa=0,31um) and MSG 158 (Sa=0,34um).
In phase 2, MSG189 (modification of MSG 160) shows higher texture (Sa=0,37um) while
MSG 186 (modification of MSG 157) shows lower texture (Sa=0,2um). MSG
187(modification of MSG 158) show almost the same surface texture value (Sa=0,32um).
In Phase 3 MSG 191(modification of MSG 186) shows almost the same surface texture
(Sa=0,19um) as MSG 190 (modification of MSG 189), maybe because of both surfaces were
polished. For a proper conclusion before and after machining test, analysis is required.
5.1.3 Recommendation to future activities
Factors need consideration, to specify the same point during measuring by either the
white interferometer or SEM, it is important to have enough constraints to avoid error.
Identify the changes in displacement characteristics due to tool wear condition for
worn tool by online tool condition monitoring.
Further detail study about the manufacturing process, we recommended for fix the
measurement approaches to measure the surface roughness on variants in WP 1 and
WP2.
Investigate the Same texture properties propagated from WP 1 to WP2 by regression
method
Without pre-coating polishing process lead to get good result.
MSG187 showing better surface finish than MSG186 (Post treatment of MSG187
may get good surface finish than MSG191.
44. CRITICAL REVIEW
38
6. CRITICAL REVIEW
This critical review of thesis based on the self-emphasize, explained following:
6.1 What factors affect the work been done differently
The environmental aspect has not taken into consideration during the study. The choose
equipment’s are used for a long time may be affect the measurement accuracy and drying of
specimen after the cooling using normal procedure. The equipment table should be more
stable because some equipment’s are sensitive to vibrations. Mostly journals and Scientific
articles have been reviewed and a few books. The subject is good new research area; thus, it is
still in the experimental future. Other critical point of view the software is which used for the
study. The interferometer readings and SEM image analysis are obtained from the
interferometer software started with no knowledge within the area has emerged during the
studies. SPSS software, which helps to analyzing the parameters readings and work with
different analytical methods, more reasonable idea about the software helps, is necessary to
maintain reliable data.
6.2 Environmental and sustainable development
Understand the effect of the cutting parameters on surface finish, material removal rate and
energy consumption. The surface roughness influenced by cutting environment and the kind
of tool, in many studies; it was found that the tool type, feed and cutting velocity, influences
the material removal rate. In order to obtain this result our purpose was to investigate the
surface roughness and to evaluate the manufacturing process of the cutting inserts, which
cutting inserts had the better surface finish that will affect the cutting inserts tool life as well
as the lubrication of the process. The lubrication has its role both for the electrical power
consumption of the machining process than for the treatment of the scraps at the end of the
machining Process. By achieving the desired surface quality is of great importance for the
functional behavior of a part, that will lead to a significant design specification, which
influence on the properties such as wear resistance, coefficient of friction, wear rate, etc. The
quality of surface finish is a factor of importance in the evaluation of machine tool
productivity
6.3 Health and Safety
This part is very important and being sensitive due to the responsibility of human life. It is
very important to indicate this part, it is a multidisciplinary field concerned with the health,
Safety of people at work. Workplace hazards also present risks to the health and Safety of
people at work. Machining leads to environmental pollution mainly because of use of cutting
fluids [42, 43]. Fluids often contain chlorine (Cl), sulfur (S), or other extreme-pressure
additives to improve the lubricating performance. These chemicals present health hazards.
Furthermore, the cost of treating the waste liquid is high and the treatment itself is a source of
air pollution.
Skin exposure to cutting fluid can cause various skin diseases [44]. Inhalation of mists or
aerosols, airborne inhalation diseases have been occurring with cutting fluid aerosols exposed
workers for many years. Bennett and Bennett [45] stated that during machining operations,
45. 39
workers could be exposed to cutting fluids by skin contact and inhalation, in response to these
health effects through skin contact or inhalation, Diseases include lipid pneumonia, asthma,
acute airways irritation, chronic bronchitis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis and impaired lung
function [44].
6.4 Economy
The cost of preparing these materials into cutting inserts is relatively high and continuing to
increase, as well as the cost of carbide and other tool material. It is very important to choose
tool inserts wisely. Surface roughness is a widely used index of product quality, performance
and surface life of any machined component is influencing by surface integrity of that
component.
Tool life improvement is essential to reduce the cost of production as much as possible.
6.5 Ethical aspects
The ethical value is one of the most important factors in human being life not only in the field
of science, as a member of this profession; the authors exhibit the highest standards of
honesty and integrity, the authors handled the equipment’s and the data collected carefully.
This considered from a critical point of view since the knowledge of the software and the
equipment is limited.
46. REFERENCES
40
REFERENCES
[1] Whitehouse D. J. 1982. The parameter rash — is there a cure? Wear 83(1):75-78. ]
Whitehouse D. J. (2011). Handbook of Surface and Nano-meteorology, New York:
CRC Press, Taylor & Francis.
[2])J. Paulo Davim (2010) - Technology & Engineering surface integrity in machining.
[3]). R. Heidenerich, Shockkelyw (1948), Structure of metals-Report, strength of solid
physics. Soc. Of London, 57, London UK.
[4] S. Kalpakjian, and Schmid, S. (2006) Manufacturing engineering and technology,
6th ed. Singapore: Prentice Hall
[5] l Optical Measurement of Surface Topography Editors: Leach, Richard 2013
[6] C. Yang (2008), Role of Surface Roughness in Tribology: From Atomic to
Macroscopic.
[7] Stout & Blunt 01 Jun 2000 Three Dimensional Surface Topography, 1st Edition
[8] B-G-Rosen (1991), Interactive surface modeling and representation of surface
roughness & topography, Chalmers University. Department of production engineering.
[9] Scott p J 2009 feature parameter wear 458-551
[10] R. Leach, Characterization of Areal Surface Texture, Chapter 7 Choosing the
Appropriate Parameters.
[11] H. Motulsky (President of Graph Pad Software) Graph Pad software (1995-2002).
[12] H. Myoung Park (2005) Comparing Group Means: The t-test and One-way
ANOVA using STATA, SAS, and SPSS.
[13] B-G Rosen, C Anderberg, and R Ohlsson (2008) Parameter correlation study of
cylinder liner roughness for production and quality control, DOI:
10.1243/09544054JEM1201.
[14 ]Q. Qi, T. Li, P. J Scott, X. Jiang(2015) A correlated study of areal surface texture
parameters on some typical machined surfaces, 13th CIRP conference on Computer
Aided Tolerencing.
[15] M. Field and J. F. Kahles, "Review of Surface Integrity of Machined
Components," Annals of CIRP, vol. 20, pp. 153-162, 1971
[16] Dean N. Tishler (1970), Introduction to Surface integrity, from Material & process
technology laboratory.
[17] A. Javidi, U. Rieger, W. Eichlseder (2008) the effect of machining on the surface
integrity and fatigue life, International Journal fatigue.
47. REFERENCES
41
[18] K.J. and Davis, J. (1984) Surface topography of cylinder bores – the relationship
between manufacture, characterization and function. Wear, 95 (2), pp. 111-125.
[19] Bouzakis KD, Vidakis N, David K. The concept of an advanced impact tester
supported by evaluation software for the fatigue strength characterization of hard
layered media. Thin Solid Films. 1999;355–356:322-9.
[20] Bouzakis KD, Michailidis N, Skordaris G, Bouzakis E, Biermann D, M'Saoubi R.
Cutting with coated tools: coating technologies, characterization methods and
performance optimization. CIRP Ann-Manuf Techn. 2012; 61:703-23.
[21] Bromark M, Larsson M, Hedenqvist P, Olsson M, Hogmark S. Influence of
substrate surface topography on the critical normal force in scratch adhesion testing of
TiN-coated steels. Surf Coat Tech. 1992; 52:195-203
[22] Breidenstein B, Denkena B. Significance of residual stress in PVD-coated carbide
cutting tools. CIRP Ann-Manuf Techn. 2013; 62:67-70.
[23] J. P. Kaushish (2010) Manufacturing process, ISBN-968-81-203-4082-4.
[24] Z. Dimkovski (2006) Characterization of a cylinder linear surface by roughness
parameters analysis-BTH-AMT-EX—2006-05—SE
[25] Han-Jin Bae et al (2010) Achieving Efficiency in Abrasive Blast Cleaning, chapter
1-Improving Blasting Productivity by Optimizing Operation Parameters-Journal of
Protective Coatings & Linings (JPCL) on abrasive blasting, and is designed to provide
general guidance on the efficiency of abrasive blasting and maintenance of the
associated equipment.
[26] Fang, C.K., Chuang, T.H. (2013) "Erosion of SS41 Steel by Sand Blasting."
Metallurgical and Materials TranSactions A. 1999/Vol. 30A, p. 944.
[27] N. Balasubramanyam, G. PraSanthi2 and M. Yugandhar,(2015) Study of Coated
TiN and TiC on Cutting Tools for the PVD and CVD Coated Tungsten Carbide by Sand
Blasting Pretreatment of Nickel and Carbon, International Journal of Advanced Science
and Technology Vol.75 (2015), pp.51-58).
[28] A.W. Batchelor, G.W Stachowiak (1993) Tribology series 24,
engineeringtribologyP455-P766(J.A. Williams (1999 Wear modelling: analytical,
computational and mapping: a continuum mechanics approach Wear 225–229
Cambridge UniÍersity Engineering Department, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, CB2
1PZ, UK
[29] R.I. Trezona, D.N. Allsopp, I.M. (1999) Hutchings Transitions between two-body
and three-body abrasive wear: influence of test conditions in the microscale abrasive
wear test, Volumes 225–229, Part 1, Pages 205–214.
[30,] Sabina R. (2013) On Polishability of Steel Tool (Chalmers University of
technology).
48. REFERENCES
42
[31] C. Anderberg, F. Cabanettes, Z. Dimkovski, R. Ohlsson & B.-G.Rose’n Cylinder
Liners and Consequences of improved Honing at Halmstad University.
[32,] Sabina R. (2013) On Polishability of Steel Tool (Chalmers University of
technology).
[33] Digital surf Mountains Surface imaging & metrology software (version 7) and
ISO25178 parameters.
[34] K J Stout, P J Sullivan, W P Dong, E MainSah, N Luo (1993), The Development
Of Methods For Characterization of Roughness in Three Dimensions (P90 toP300) The
university of Birmingham,U,K.
[35] %ISO 25178 part 2: 2012 Geometrical product specification (GPS) surface texture
areal- part 2: Teams, Definitions and surface texture parameter, international
organizational for standardization.
[36] J. Hola, L. Sadwski, J. Reiner, Sebastian Stach (2015) Usefulness of 3D surface
roughness parameters for nondestructive evaluation of pull-off adhesion of concrete
layers.
[37] H. Schulz, (1995) "High-Speed Milling of Dies and Moulds - Cutting Conditions
and Technology," CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, vol. 44, pp. 35-38.
[38] T. Childs, K. Maekawa, T. Obikawa, Y. Yamane. Metal Machining – Theory and
Applications. Arnold: 2000, ISBN: 0-340-69159-X.
[39]. S.S. Ingle. The micromechanisms of cemented carbide cutting tool wear. Doctoral
thesis, McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario. 1993.
[40] P.K. Wright, A. Bagchi. Wear mechanisms that dominate Tool-life in Machining.
Journal of Applied Metalworking. 1981, vol. 1, p. 15-23
[41] R. K. Leach, “Surface Topography Characterization,” in Fundamental Principles of
Engineering Nanometrology
[42] Ding, Y., and Hong, S.Y. (1998). “Improvement of Chip Breaking In Machining
Low Carbon Steel by Cryogenically Precooking the Workpiece”, Trans. of the ASME,
J. of Manuf. Science and Engg., Vol. 120, pp. 76-83
[43] NIOSH [1998]. Criteria for A Recommended Standard: occupational Exposure to
Metalworking Fluids. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health. DHHS (NIOSH) Pub. No. 98-102, [http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/98-102.html]
49. TABLE OF CONTENT FOR APPENDICES
43
[44] Thornburg, J., Leith, D. (2000). “Mist Generation During Metal Machining”,
[45] Bennett E.O., Bennett D.L. (1987). “Minimizing Human Exposure to Chemicals in
Metalworking Fluids”, J. Am. Soc. Lub. Eng. Vol. 43(3), pp. 167-175
[46] http://www.statstutor.ac.uk/resources/uploaded/paired-t-test.pdf
[47] Sabina Rebeggiani Polish-ability of Tool Steels, characterization of High Gloss
Polished Tool Steels
[48] http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC524673/
TABLE OF CONTENT FOR APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1 Surface Parameter -ISO25178
APPENDIX 2 Template used in MountainsMap 7 software
APPENDIX 3 Fourier Polar Spectrum of Work Package
APPENDIX 4 ANOVA & T-test for Work Package 2
APPENDIX 5 Spearman’s rank correlation for WP 1 and WP2
APPENDIX 6 Interferometer Readings
APPENDIX 7 Insert Geometry and wear
50. Appendix: 1 Surface Parameter -ISO25178
44
Appendix: 1 Surface Parameter -ISO25178
Surface texture Parameters according ISO25178)
Function Parameters unit Name of parameter
Height Parameter ( amplitude) Uits
Sq μm Root mean square height
Ssk _ Skewness
Sku _ Kurtosis
Sp μm Maximum peak height
Sv μm Maximum pit height
Sz μm Maximum height
Sa μm Arithmetical mean height
Functional Parameter (stratified Surfaces)
Smr (c = 1 µm under the highest peak) μm Inverse areal material ratio
Smc (p = 10%) μm Extreme peak height
Sxp (p = 50%, q = 97.5%) μm Areal height difference
Spatial parameters
Sal (s = 0.2) μm Auto-correlation length
Str (s = 0.2) Texture-aspect ratio
Std (Reference angle = 0°) ° Texture direction
Hybrid parameters
Sdq _ Root mean square gradient
Sdr ° Sdr % Developed interfacial area ratio
Spatial parameters
Sal (s = 0.2) μm Auto-correlation length
Str (s = 0.2) Texture-aspect ratio
Std (Reference angle = 0°) ° Texture direction
Function Parameter (Volume)
Vm (p = 10%) μm³/ μm² Material volume
Vv (p = 10%) μm³/ μm² Void volume
Vmp (p = 10%) μm³/ μm² Peak material volume
Vmc (p = 10%, q = 80%) μm³/ μm² Core material volume
Vvc (p = 10%, q = 80%) μm³/ μm² Core void volume
Vvv (p = 80%) μm³/ μm² Pit void volume
Feature Parameter
Spd (pruning = 5%) 1/ μm ² Density of peaks
Spc (pruning = 5%) 1/ μm Arithmetic mean peak curvature
S10z (pruning = 5%) μm Ten point height
S5p (pruning = 5%) μm Five point peak height
S5v (pruning = 5%) μm Five point pit height
Sda (pruning = 5%) μm ² Mean dale area
Sha (pruning = 5%) μm ² Mean hill area
Sdv (pruning = 5%) μm ² Mean dale volume
Shv (pruning = 5%) Mean hill volume
Table 1.2: 3D roughness parameters calculated and analyzed in this study
51. Appendix: 1 Surface Parameter -ISO25178
45
3D roughness parameters defined by the following Standards: ISO 25178 define 30
parameters, EUR 15178N also define 30 parameters but some are identical to those of ISO
25178. Only 16 parameters are the latest ones, however Sz (maximum height of surface
roughness) and Std (texture direction) are calculated differently in both standards.
The 3D roughness parameters (see Table 1) can be classified into the following groups:
a. Height Parameter(Amplitude)
Sq Root
mean square height
Standard deviation of the height distribution or RMS surface roughness
Computes the standard deviation for the amplitudes of the surface (RM
Ssk Skewness Skewness of the height distribution. Third statistical moment, qualifying the
symmetry of the height distribution. A negative Ssk indicates that the surface
is composed with principally one plateau and deep and fine valleys. In this
case, the distribution is sloping to the top. A positive Ssk indicates a surface
with lots of peaks on a plane. The distribution is sloping to the bottom. Due to
the big exponent used; this parameter is very sensitive to the Sampling and to
the noise of the measurement.
Sku Kurtosis Kurtosis of the height distribution. Fourth statistical moment, qualifying the
flatness of the height distribution. Due to the big exponent used, this
parameters very sensitive to the Sampling and to the noise of the measurement
Sp Maxiumu peak
height
Height between the highest peak and the mean plane.
Sv Maximum pit height Depth between the mean plane and the deepest valley.
Sz Maximum height
Height between the highest peak and the deepest valley.The definition of the
(ISO 25178) Sz parameter is different from the definition of the (EUR
15178N) Sz parameter. The value of the (EUR 15178N) Sz parameter is
always smaller than the value of the (ISO 25178) Sz parameter. The (ISO
25178) Sz parameter replaces the (EUR 15178N) St parameter.
Sa
Arithmetical mean
height
Mean surface roughness. is parameter is
deprecated and shall be replaced by Sq in the
future
52. Appendix: 1 Surface Parameter -ISO25178
46
b. Spatial parameter Parameters (ISO 25178) (Surface)
Spatial parameters describe topographic characteristics based upon spectral analysis.
They quantify the lateral information present on the X- and Y-axes of the surface.
Sal Auto-
correlation
length
Horizontal distance of the autocorrelation function (tx, ty) which
has the fastest decay to a specified value s, with 0 < s < 1. The
default value for s in the software is 0.2.This parameter
expresses the content in wavelength of the surface. A high value
indicates that the surface has mainly high wavelengths (low
frequencies).
Str Texture-
aspect
ratio
This is the ratio of the shortest decrease length at 0.2 from the
autocorrelation; on the greatest length. This parameter has a
result between 0 and 1. If the value is near 1, we can Say that the
surface is isotropic, i.e. has the Same characteristics in all
directions. If the value is near 0, the surface is anisotropic, i.e.
has an oriented and/or periodical structure.
53. Appendix: 1 Surface Parameter -ISO25178
47
Std Texture
direction
This parameter calculates the main angle for the texture of the
surface, given by the maximum of the polar spectrum. This
parameter has a meaning if Str is lower than 0.5.
If the surface has a circular texture (turning, Sawing), this
parameter will give a wrong direction near to the tangential of
the circle. In case the surface has two or more main directions,
the Std parameter will give the angle of the main direction.
The angle is given between 0° and 360° counterclockwise, from
a reference angle. The reference angle may be set to another
value than 0°.
Note: The (ISO 25178) Std parameter and the (EUR 15178N)
Std parameter are calculated the Same way, but the angle is
given differently.
Calculation of the Str and Sal Parameters
1. Auto-correlation function of the surface.
b) Thresholding of the Auto-correlation at a
height s (the black spots are above the
threshold).
2.
c) Threshold boundary of the central
threshold portion.
d) Polar coordinates leading to the auto-
correlation lengths in different directions.
c. Functional Parameters (ISO 25178) (Surface)
Functional parameters are calculated from the Abbott-Firestone curve obtained by the
integration of height distribution overall surface.
Hybrid Parameters (ISO 25178) (Surface)