The document discusses the special senses of touch, including the different types of touch sensations like pain, temperature, and proprioception. It describes the receptors in the skin that detect touch sensations and how signals are transmitted through sensory nerves and pathways in the spinal cord and brain. It also discusses methods to measure touch sensitivity and the physiology of touch reception and pain perception.
Olfaction is one the major sense. In the following presentation, a brief description of the olfactory system is given. In this following topics are discussed: olfactory membrane, olfactory bulb, odor pathway, anosmia, directional smelling and plasticity. By the end of it, you will be able to describe the olfactory pathway of the nervous system.
Receptor by Pandian M, Tutor, Dept of Physiology, DYPMCKOP, MH. This PPT for ...Pandian M
Introduction
SENSORY RECEPTORS
Structurally 3 types of receptors
Transducers
CLASSIFICATION OF RECEPTORS
A. Depending on the source of stimulus(Sherrington’s classification)
B. Depending upon type of stimulus
C. Clinical or anatomical classification of receptors
Production of receptor potential
Properties of receptors
Properties of receptor potential
these slides contain a brief introduction of neurons and its classification as well as details of generation of action potential, resting potential and eletrotonic potential.
olfactory system and functioning, pathway of olfaction, neural tract involved in olfaction , endocrine pathway of olfaction, cells and neurons involved in olfaction
this ppt shares what synapses are and how information of one neuron is transmitted to other through the synapses. it also includes the properties and plasticity of synaptic transmission
Olfaction is one the major sense. In the following presentation, a brief description of the olfactory system is given. In this following topics are discussed: olfactory membrane, olfactory bulb, odor pathway, anosmia, directional smelling and plasticity. By the end of it, you will be able to describe the olfactory pathway of the nervous system.
Receptor by Pandian M, Tutor, Dept of Physiology, DYPMCKOP, MH. This PPT for ...Pandian M
Introduction
SENSORY RECEPTORS
Structurally 3 types of receptors
Transducers
CLASSIFICATION OF RECEPTORS
A. Depending on the source of stimulus(Sherrington’s classification)
B. Depending upon type of stimulus
C. Clinical or anatomical classification of receptors
Production of receptor potential
Properties of receptors
Properties of receptor potential
these slides contain a brief introduction of neurons and its classification as well as details of generation of action potential, resting potential and eletrotonic potential.
olfactory system and functioning, pathway of olfaction, neural tract involved in olfaction , endocrine pathway of olfaction, cells and neurons involved in olfaction
this ppt shares what synapses are and how information of one neuron is transmitted to other through the synapses. it also includes the properties and plasticity of synaptic transmission
Pain as an unpleasant emotional experience usually initiated by a noxious stimulus and transmitted over a specialized neural network to the central nervous system where it is interpreted as such
Definition n classification •Pathophysiologyof pain. •Physiological Effects of pain. •Pharmacological & non-pharmacological methods of analgesia. •Principles of pain management.METHODS OF CONTROLLING METHODS OF CONTROLLING
Non-pharmacological Preoperative counseling TENS Acupuncture
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PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS
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PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS
NASIDS –Blocks synthesis of PG’s –Only suitable for miledto moderate pain
PRINCIPLE OF MANAGEMENT OF PAIN •Pre-emptive analgesia •Balanced or combination analgesia •Analgesia ladder
PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS
Balanced Analgesia –NASID are used in conjunction with opioids. –Reduces amount of opioids –Reduces side affect of opioids,ASSESMENT OF PAIN •Observe the behaviour of the patient •Monitor analgesic requirement of the patient –Visual Analogue Score( VAS )
–Verbal Rating Score ( VRS ) •None •Mild •Moderate •severe
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The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
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TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
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Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
2. Introduction
Touch is a perception causing from the activation of
neural receptors in the skin, hair follicles, tongue, throat,
and mucosa. A variety of pressure receptors respond to
variations in pressure.
Tactile anesthesia: is the loss or impairment of the ability
to feel touch
Paresthesia: it is a sensation of tingling, pricking, or
numbness of the skin that may result from nerve damage
and may be permanent or temporary.
3. Touch: The skin-based receptor system. The entire
surface of the body on which there is living tissue (skin) is
a potential receptive surface for the touch system.
The most active and sensitive part of this receptive field
are the hands.
Haptics : active exploratory touch strategies for acquiring
information from an object.
Haptics includes not only touch information but also
kinesthesis
5. Classifications of touch
sensations
Pain or nociception: Signals nerve and other tissue
damage.
Balance or equilibrioception: Allows the sensing of
body movement, direction, and acceleration, and to
attain and maintain postural equilibrium and balance.
Body awareness or proprioception: Provides the
parietal cortex of the brain with information on the
relative positions of the parts of the body.
6. Temperature sensing or thermoception:
The sensation of heat and the absence of
heat.
Interoceptive senses: if also considered,
sensation can be expanded to include
stretch oxygen and carbon dioxide
sensing, pH sensing, and etc.
7. Measuring touch sensitivity
Von Frey hairs: small hairs, like those found on a paint
brush, of various diameter are pressed against different
parts of the body to see if it is felt. The thicker the
diameter hair needed to get a response, the less
sensitive the area.
Different parts of the body vary in sensitivity to touch,
lips and hands are highly sensitive, back and buttocks,
much less so. Furthermore, for any area of body,
females tend to be more sensitive than males.
8. Measuring touch sensitivity
Two point thresholds: a little different
procedure, but same general results. A compass-
type instrument is used which has two
adjustable points, points can be set a different
distances from each other. Sensitivity is
measured by determining how far apart points
must be sent before sub. can detect that there are
two points stimulating skin, not one.
9. Physiology of touch
Skin receptors: at various depths under the skin are the
mechanoreceptors, which start the process of analyzing skin
sensations by responding to indentation or pressure on the
skin.
In order of depth, nearest to surface to deepest:
Meisnner Corpuscles: give strongest response to transient
stimulation such as a finger rubbing over a surface. RA-P
Merkel Disks: give strongest response to steady pressure by
small object. SA-P
Ruffini Endings: give greatest response to fairly strong, steady
pressure. Are also quite sensitive to movements which result in
stretching of skin. SA-D.
Pacinian Corpuscles: respond best to initiation and termination
of diffused pressure against skin. RA-D
10.
11. Physiology of touch
Nerve Fibers: afferent fibers travelling from skin receptors to spin and
(for some) eventually brain. These fibers are of four distinct categories.
Slow Adapting: fibers which carry messages about steady pressure on
skin. Not surprisingly these fibers are connected to Mekel disks and
Ruffini Endings in skin.
Rapid Adapting: carry message about transient pressure changes on
skin. connected to Miessner and Pacinian Corpuscles.
Punctate fibers: ones with distinct receptive fields (connect to
Miessner & Merkel)
Diffuse fibers: ones with less disctict receptive fields. (connect to
Ruffini & Pacinian).
Combination of these four types produce four types of nerve fibers.
12. Touch pathways
Touch pathway runs up dorsal
(back) of spinal column. Some
connect with interneurons and
motor neurons and mediate
reflexive arcs. 2 main pathways:
Lemniscal (red; newer) more
sophisticated aspects of touch.
Spinothalamic (older; blue) pain and
temperature.
13. Somatosensory cortex
The somatosensory cortex
is a region of the brain which
is responsible for receiving
and processing sensory
information from across the
body, such as touch,
temperature, and pain.
14. Pain perception
Pain serves an important
adaptive function – it alerts the
organism to potential tissue
damage and compels withdraw
of affected area from pain
source.
Chronic pain, however, often
makes life miserable for those
afflicted.
Nociceptors: free nerve endings
that signal pain. Two locations:
skin surface – temperature;
Subcutaneous fat layer:
punctures.
16. Pain fibers
A delta: myelinated; fast responding; sharp,
acute; thermal pain
C-type: slow responding; building pain;
mechanical; thermal; chemical
17. Gate control theory of pain
T cells send pain message. When
only fast (A-beta; A-alpha) fibers
active; no pain. Inhibitory message
send from SG to T cells. When both
fast and slow (C-fibers) respond,
SG cells are inhibited from sending
their inhibitory message to T cells,
T cells fire and pain message is
sent.
Note also: T’s can be inhibited by
top-down messages from cortex.
“Meaning” of pain relevant.
18. Pain pathway
The stages of pain pathway
Transduction
Conduction
Transmission
Modulation
Perception
19. TRANSDUCTION
Transduction begins when peripheral terminals
of nociceptive (sensory receptors of pain)
C fibers
A-delta
(Aδ) fibers
Nociceptive fibers are depolarized by noxious
mechanical, thermal, or chemical energy. The
membranes of these terminals contain proteins
and voltage-gated ion channels that convert
thermal, mechanical, or chemical energy into an
action potential (AP).
Nociceptor terminals are spread densely
throughout the skin. They are found less on
periosteum, joints, tendons, muscles, and least on
the surface of organs.
20. CONDUCTION
Conduction of an Action Potential is
the second phase of nociception.
An AP generated in nociceptor
terminals is conducted across the
peripheral process to the central
process were it depolarizes the
presynaptic terminal. The
presynaptic terminal interfaces with
a network of interneurons and
second order neurons in the dorsal
horn. Interneurons can facilitate or
inhibit transmission to second order
neurons
21. These nociceptors projects from the
trigeminal ganglion and enter the CNS at the
level of the pons. Trigeminal Að and C fibers
pass down through the pons into the medulla
where they synapse on second order neurons
which then rise to decussate within the pons
and pass to the thalamus.
22. MODULATION
Modulation of nociceptive
transmission is an adaptive
process involving both
excitory and inhibitory
mechanisms. The
responses of second order
neurons can be suppressed
or facilitated dependent on
importance of the event.
23. PERCEPTION
Perception of nociceptive pain is dependant upon neural
processing in the spinal cord and several brain regions. Pain
becomes more than a pattern of nociceptive action potentials
when they reach the brain.
Action potentials ascending the spinothalamic tract are decoded
by the thalamus, sensorimotor cortex, insular cortex and the
anterior cingulate to be perceived as an unpleasant sensation
that can be localized to a specific region of the body.
Action potentials ascending the spinobulbar tract are decoded
by the amygdala and hypothalamus to generate a sense of
urgency and intensity. It is the intergration of sensations,
emotions and cognition that result in our perception of pain.
24. References
Acree, T. E., & Beidler, L. M. (1971). Taste,. Berlin, New York,
Springer-Verlag.
Per Brodal. (2010). The central nervous system : structure
and function. Oxford University Press, Cop.
Nieuwenhuys, R., J Voogd, Voogd, J., & Christiaan Van
Huijzen. (2008). The Human Central Nervous System.
Springer.