This document discusses the linguistic concepts of dialect, register, and style. It defines register as varieties of language defined by their social use, such as the registers of scientific or religious language. Dialect refers to varieties according to the user. The document explores the relationships and overlaps between these concepts. It examines factors that influence register, such as formality, topic, and social roles. Models of analyzing registers along dimensions like field, mode, and tenor are discussed. The principles of stylistic variation and how style relates to formality are also summarized.
1) Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. It examines how social factors such as context, status, and function influence language variation and use.
2) People code switch and use different linguistic varieties depending on social context, including the participants, setting, topic, and function of the interaction. Formal contexts like religion or education use high varieties while informal settings use low varieties.
3) Languages shift when their speakers abandon them for a dominant language due to economic, social, or demographic factors. This can lead to language loss or even death when no one speaks it anymore.
Diglossia refers to a stable language situation where two varieties of the same language are used by a language community. The high variety (H) has prestige and is used for formal, written communication while the low variety (L) lacks prestige and is used for informal, spoken communication. Some key aspects of diglossia include the high variety having prestige, a literary heritage, acquisition through formal education, standardization, a simpler grammar in the low variety, differing lexicons between the varieties, and the high variety having a divergent sound system from the low variety.
Language attitudes can influence how people communicate and perceive others. Semantic shift describes how word meanings change over time, such as "girl" shifting from a general child to specifically referring to females. Semantic derogation occurs when a word carries different positive or negative connotations when applied to different genders. Social identity theory and communication accommodation theory examine how language influences social interactions and perceptions of convergence or divergence from others.
The document defines key concepts in the study of language variation:
Varieties are sets of linguistic features associated with a group. Dialects differ grammatically and lexically from other varieties and are associated with a social group. Accents only differ in pronunciation. Styles vary based on social situations. Dialect contact from communication between groups can lead to dialect mixture and the formation of new dialects or koines. Registers are varieties associated with topics or activities.
Language death occurs when a language is no longer spoken by anyone. Languages do not naturally die out but are instead "killed" when their speakers abandon the language due to pressures to assimilate and adopt dominant languages that have greater social and economic opportunities. There are several types of language death including sudden, radical, gradual, and bottom-to-top death. Major causes of language death include globalization, urbanization, modern education, and the pressure of dominant languages that are given more prestige and power. Efforts can be made to revive languages through programs that promote acquisition by adults, create socially integrated speaker populations, develop literacy in the language, and encourage use of the language in various social domains over time.
This document provides an overview of language planning. It defines language planning as efforts to influence and modify a language's structure and function. It discusses key aspects of language planning including its goals, processes, types (status and corpus planning), ideologies, and issues. The summary focuses on language planning's aim to alter a language's role and how it is implemented through selection, codification, elaboration, and acceptance of a standardized variety.
This document provides an overview of pidgins and creoles. It defines pidgins as contact languages that arise between distinct linguistic groups for communication, featuring reduced grammar and vocabulary. Creoles develop from pidgins when a new generation acquires the contact language as its native tongue, expanding its structure. The document outlines the processes of pidginization and creolization, and notes that creoles may decreolize over time to resemble the standard language. It provides examples of pidgins and creoles, and a model of their life cycle from jargon to creole and possible convergence with the standard form.
1) Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. It examines how social factors such as context, status, and function influence language variation and use.
2) People code switch and use different linguistic varieties depending on social context, including the participants, setting, topic, and function of the interaction. Formal contexts like religion or education use high varieties while informal settings use low varieties.
3) Languages shift when their speakers abandon them for a dominant language due to economic, social, or demographic factors. This can lead to language loss or even death when no one speaks it anymore.
Diglossia refers to a stable language situation where two varieties of the same language are used by a language community. The high variety (H) has prestige and is used for formal, written communication while the low variety (L) lacks prestige and is used for informal, spoken communication. Some key aspects of diglossia include the high variety having prestige, a literary heritage, acquisition through formal education, standardization, a simpler grammar in the low variety, differing lexicons between the varieties, and the high variety having a divergent sound system from the low variety.
Language attitudes can influence how people communicate and perceive others. Semantic shift describes how word meanings change over time, such as "girl" shifting from a general child to specifically referring to females. Semantic derogation occurs when a word carries different positive or negative connotations when applied to different genders. Social identity theory and communication accommodation theory examine how language influences social interactions and perceptions of convergence or divergence from others.
The document defines key concepts in the study of language variation:
Varieties are sets of linguistic features associated with a group. Dialects differ grammatically and lexically from other varieties and are associated with a social group. Accents only differ in pronunciation. Styles vary based on social situations. Dialect contact from communication between groups can lead to dialect mixture and the formation of new dialects or koines. Registers are varieties associated with topics or activities.
Language death occurs when a language is no longer spoken by anyone. Languages do not naturally die out but are instead "killed" when their speakers abandon the language due to pressures to assimilate and adopt dominant languages that have greater social and economic opportunities. There are several types of language death including sudden, radical, gradual, and bottom-to-top death. Major causes of language death include globalization, urbanization, modern education, and the pressure of dominant languages that are given more prestige and power. Efforts can be made to revive languages through programs that promote acquisition by adults, create socially integrated speaker populations, develop literacy in the language, and encourage use of the language in various social domains over time.
This document provides an overview of language planning. It defines language planning as efforts to influence and modify a language's structure and function. It discusses key aspects of language planning including its goals, processes, types (status and corpus planning), ideologies, and issues. The summary focuses on language planning's aim to alter a language's role and how it is implemented through selection, codification, elaboration, and acceptance of a standardized variety.
This document provides an overview of pidgins and creoles. It defines pidgins as contact languages that arise between distinct linguistic groups for communication, featuring reduced grammar and vocabulary. Creoles develop from pidgins when a new generation acquires the contact language as its native tongue, expanding its structure. The document outlines the processes of pidginization and creolization, and notes that creoles may decreolize over time to resemble the standard language. It provides examples of pidgins and creoles, and a model of their life cycle from jargon to creole and possible convergence with the standard form.
This document discusses the field of sociolinguistics. It begins by defining sociolinguistics as the study of the relationship between language and society. The main areas studied in sociolinguistics are then outlined, including language varieties according to social class, region, and occupation. Additional topics covered are language contact between pidgins and creoles, language maintenance and shift, the causes and social aspects of language change, and approaches to language planning. In conclusion, sociolinguistics analyzes language use in real social contexts and considers language to be a social and cultural phenomenon.
The document discusses the concept of speech communities. It defines a speech community as a group of people who share similar language ideas, uses and norms. It notes that members of a speech community use language according to a set of shared norms and characteristics. The document outlines key elements of speech communities including population, area, facilities, identification and interaction. It also discusses sociolinguistic variables that can cause one to belong to one speech community and not another, such as age, social class, education and others.
This document discusses code switching, which is when multilingual speakers alternate between two languages or varieties of the same language in a single conversation. It defines code switching as the process of keeping the linguistic features of each language while switching between them to facilitate conversation. There are three main types of code switching: inter-sentential, which occurs at sentence boundaries; intra-sentential, which occurs within sentences; and tag switching, where a word or phrase from another language is inserted into the conversation. Examples of each type are provided.
Stylistics is the scientific study of language and literature and its branches. It links linguistic study to literary criticism. There are several branches of stylistics including computational stylistics, lexical stylistics, comparative stylistics, phonostylistics, grammatical stylistics, the function of stylistics, stylistic syntax, and individual style study. Stylistics helps to better understand language and its use in different contexts through the analysis of linguistic and textual elements.
Language varieties, dialect, register and styleM Ahlan Firdaus
This document discusses different types of language varieties including dialects, registers, and styles. It defines a dialect as a variety of a language associated with a social group or region that differs grammatically, phonologically, and lexically from other varieties. Regional dialects are associated with a particular place, while registers are varieties used for specific purposes or social settings. Style refers to typical ways of doing things formally or informally.
This document provides an introduction to sociolinguistics. It discusses how sociolinguistics examines the relationship between language and society, exploring how social factors influence language use and how language variations exist between social groups. Some key topics covered include the differences between micro and macrolinguistics, sociolinguistics versus the sociology of language, social factors that determine language choice like participants and setting, and social dimensions of language like solidarity scales. The conclusion emphasizes that sociolinguistics research how language is used in a community and how social relationships and contexts influence linguistic variation and choices in vocabulary, sounds, words and grammar.
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It examines how meaning is constructed and interpreted through symbols like words, phrases, and context. Key areas of semantic theory include symbol and referent relationships, conceptions of meaning, ambiguity, metaphor, semantic change over time, and pragmatics. The field is concerned with the meaning of linguistic units from individual morphemes and words up to entire texts, and how context influences interpretation. Studying semantics is essential for understanding language acquisition, variation, and use in social and cultural contexts.
This presentation is about gender differences in the use of language from the perspective of Sociolinguistics. The contents have mostly been taken from Ronald Warhaugh's book "An Introduction to Sociolinguistics". However, some examples have also been provided from the Urdu language.
This study examined language attitudes of Turkish students towards English. A questionnaire was administered to 190 Turkish 8th grade students measuring their attitudes on 5-point scales. Results found students have mildly positive attitudes towards English, seeing it as important but not very interesting. Females had more positive attitudes than males. Students exposed to English earlier (ages 0-6) also had more positive attitudes. Students recognized English's importance but were less willing to actively learn it. They welcomed English culture but were ambivalent about using the language in Turkey. The findings partially supported the relationship between positive language attitudes and orientation to learning English.
The document discusses differences in language use between men and women in several areas: minimal response, question asking, turn-taking, changing topics, self-disclosure, verbal aggression, and politeness. Women tend to provide more minimal responses like "mhmm" in conversations. They also ask more questions and are more likely to take turns in discussions. Men typically change topics less and focus more on their own points. Self-disclosure and expressions of emotions also differ between genders.
This document discusses the concept of diglossia, which refers to a situation where two varieties of the same language exist side by side within a speech community. It introduces diglossia and defines it as a stable language situation where a community uses a primary dialect as well as a divergent, codified superposed variety used for formal purposes like education, writing, and official spoken contexts. It then discusses different aspects of diglossia, including the functions of high vs low varieties, prestige and acquisition of the varieties, standardization efforts, differences in grammar, lexicon, and phonology between varieties. The document concludes that in diglossia, no one speaks the high variety as a mother tongue.
This presentation discusses World Englishes and its emergence and development over time. It defines World Englishes as localized varieties of English that have developed in territories influenced by Britain. The presentation outlines different models of World Englishes, including Kachru's three-circle model classifying varieties based on their status. It also discusses debates around issues like errors versus differences in indigenous Englishes and the influence of languages and cultures on emerging Englishes. The presentation concludes by considering the future of World Englishes in terms of multilingualism, multiculturalism and linguistic human rights.
Language deth, language shift, marker, micro/macro sociolinguisticsIqramushtaq1142
This document discusses key topics in sociolinguistics including language shift, language death, markers, and micro/macrosociolinguistics. It provides definitions and examples of language shift, where a community gradually abandons its original language for another, often occurring over 3-4 generations through a stage of bilingualism. Language death is the end point of shift when a language has no remaining native speakers. Markers are linguistic variables that correlate with social groups and speech styles. Microsociolinguistics examines language in relation to society at a small scale while macrosociolinguistics looks at larger societal behaviors and impacts on language.
Critical Language Awareness commonly described CLA is a prerequisite technique to Critical Discourse Analysis. CLA is primarily an understanding that makes us competent socially, politically, ideologically and among various discourses and contexts of different linguistic variations.
Origin of Pidgin and Creole , Theories of origin i.e. Baby Talk Theory, Nautical Jorgan Theory, Independent Parallel Development Theory, Monogenetic/Relaxification theory ,Universalist Theory.
Also the development stages are discussed here:
For help you can whatsapp me 03015822364
What is Sociolinguistics? Explain Its Scope and Origin. BS. English (4th Seme...AleeenaFarooq
Sociolinguistics is the study of how language and society interact and influence each other. It examines how factors like ethnicity, religion, gender, age, and education impact language variations between groups. Sociolinguistics originated in the late 1960s from fields like dialectology, historical linguistics, and language contact, incorporating influences from sociology and psychology. Key figures like Labov, Hymes, and Cameron contributed to establishing sociolinguistics as an independent subject concerned with both the social and structural aspects of language use. Sociolinguistics can be divided into micro- and macro-levels, with micro focusing on individual language variations and macro analyzing language patterns at the societal level.
This document provides an overview of language change from both a historical and sociological perspective. It discusses the different types and levels of language change, including sound changes, lexical changes, semantic changes, and syntactic changes. Several theories of language change are presented, such as functional theory, random fluctuation theory, substratum theory, and the S-curve theory. The document also examines the routes language change can take, such as through language learning, contact, social differentiation, and natural usage processes. Finally, it outlines the major levels of language change - phonological, syntactic, semantic, and lexical - providing examples of sound changes like assimilation, dissimilation, and the Great Vowel Shift.
This document discusses the linguistic concepts of register and style. It defines register as the way language varies based on three factors: field (the topic), tenor (the relationship between speakers), and mode (the communication channel). Style refers to variations based on social factors like formality. There are different linguistic styles like formal, informal, and colloquial. The document also discusses the sociolinguistic concept of audience design, where speakers adapt their language based on the perceived characteristics of their audience. It provides an example of a travel agent varying her use of glottalization based on the social class of the client. In summary, this document analyzes the concepts of register and style in linguistics and how speakers adapt
This document discusses the field of sociolinguistics. It begins by defining sociolinguistics as the study of the relationship between language and society. The main areas studied in sociolinguistics are then outlined, including language varieties according to social class, region, and occupation. Additional topics covered are language contact between pidgins and creoles, language maintenance and shift, the causes and social aspects of language change, and approaches to language planning. In conclusion, sociolinguistics analyzes language use in real social contexts and considers language to be a social and cultural phenomenon.
The document discusses the concept of speech communities. It defines a speech community as a group of people who share similar language ideas, uses and norms. It notes that members of a speech community use language according to a set of shared norms and characteristics. The document outlines key elements of speech communities including population, area, facilities, identification and interaction. It also discusses sociolinguistic variables that can cause one to belong to one speech community and not another, such as age, social class, education and others.
This document discusses code switching, which is when multilingual speakers alternate between two languages or varieties of the same language in a single conversation. It defines code switching as the process of keeping the linguistic features of each language while switching between them to facilitate conversation. There are three main types of code switching: inter-sentential, which occurs at sentence boundaries; intra-sentential, which occurs within sentences; and tag switching, where a word or phrase from another language is inserted into the conversation. Examples of each type are provided.
Stylistics is the scientific study of language and literature and its branches. It links linguistic study to literary criticism. There are several branches of stylistics including computational stylistics, lexical stylistics, comparative stylistics, phonostylistics, grammatical stylistics, the function of stylistics, stylistic syntax, and individual style study. Stylistics helps to better understand language and its use in different contexts through the analysis of linguistic and textual elements.
Language varieties, dialect, register and styleM Ahlan Firdaus
This document discusses different types of language varieties including dialects, registers, and styles. It defines a dialect as a variety of a language associated with a social group or region that differs grammatically, phonologically, and lexically from other varieties. Regional dialects are associated with a particular place, while registers are varieties used for specific purposes or social settings. Style refers to typical ways of doing things formally or informally.
This document provides an introduction to sociolinguistics. It discusses how sociolinguistics examines the relationship between language and society, exploring how social factors influence language use and how language variations exist between social groups. Some key topics covered include the differences between micro and macrolinguistics, sociolinguistics versus the sociology of language, social factors that determine language choice like participants and setting, and social dimensions of language like solidarity scales. The conclusion emphasizes that sociolinguistics research how language is used in a community and how social relationships and contexts influence linguistic variation and choices in vocabulary, sounds, words and grammar.
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It examines how meaning is constructed and interpreted through symbols like words, phrases, and context. Key areas of semantic theory include symbol and referent relationships, conceptions of meaning, ambiguity, metaphor, semantic change over time, and pragmatics. The field is concerned with the meaning of linguistic units from individual morphemes and words up to entire texts, and how context influences interpretation. Studying semantics is essential for understanding language acquisition, variation, and use in social and cultural contexts.
This presentation is about gender differences in the use of language from the perspective of Sociolinguistics. The contents have mostly been taken from Ronald Warhaugh's book "An Introduction to Sociolinguistics". However, some examples have also been provided from the Urdu language.
This study examined language attitudes of Turkish students towards English. A questionnaire was administered to 190 Turkish 8th grade students measuring their attitudes on 5-point scales. Results found students have mildly positive attitudes towards English, seeing it as important but not very interesting. Females had more positive attitudes than males. Students exposed to English earlier (ages 0-6) also had more positive attitudes. Students recognized English's importance but were less willing to actively learn it. They welcomed English culture but were ambivalent about using the language in Turkey. The findings partially supported the relationship between positive language attitudes and orientation to learning English.
The document discusses differences in language use between men and women in several areas: minimal response, question asking, turn-taking, changing topics, self-disclosure, verbal aggression, and politeness. Women tend to provide more minimal responses like "mhmm" in conversations. They also ask more questions and are more likely to take turns in discussions. Men typically change topics less and focus more on their own points. Self-disclosure and expressions of emotions also differ between genders.
This document discusses the concept of diglossia, which refers to a situation where two varieties of the same language exist side by side within a speech community. It introduces diglossia and defines it as a stable language situation where a community uses a primary dialect as well as a divergent, codified superposed variety used for formal purposes like education, writing, and official spoken contexts. It then discusses different aspects of diglossia, including the functions of high vs low varieties, prestige and acquisition of the varieties, standardization efforts, differences in grammar, lexicon, and phonology between varieties. The document concludes that in diglossia, no one speaks the high variety as a mother tongue.
This presentation discusses World Englishes and its emergence and development over time. It defines World Englishes as localized varieties of English that have developed in territories influenced by Britain. The presentation outlines different models of World Englishes, including Kachru's three-circle model classifying varieties based on their status. It also discusses debates around issues like errors versus differences in indigenous Englishes and the influence of languages and cultures on emerging Englishes. The presentation concludes by considering the future of World Englishes in terms of multilingualism, multiculturalism and linguistic human rights.
Language deth, language shift, marker, micro/macro sociolinguisticsIqramushtaq1142
This document discusses key topics in sociolinguistics including language shift, language death, markers, and micro/macrosociolinguistics. It provides definitions and examples of language shift, where a community gradually abandons its original language for another, often occurring over 3-4 generations through a stage of bilingualism. Language death is the end point of shift when a language has no remaining native speakers. Markers are linguistic variables that correlate with social groups and speech styles. Microsociolinguistics examines language in relation to society at a small scale while macrosociolinguistics looks at larger societal behaviors and impacts on language.
Critical Language Awareness commonly described CLA is a prerequisite technique to Critical Discourse Analysis. CLA is primarily an understanding that makes us competent socially, politically, ideologically and among various discourses and contexts of different linguistic variations.
Origin of Pidgin and Creole , Theories of origin i.e. Baby Talk Theory, Nautical Jorgan Theory, Independent Parallel Development Theory, Monogenetic/Relaxification theory ,Universalist Theory.
Also the development stages are discussed here:
For help you can whatsapp me 03015822364
What is Sociolinguistics? Explain Its Scope and Origin. BS. English (4th Seme...AleeenaFarooq
Sociolinguistics is the study of how language and society interact and influence each other. It examines how factors like ethnicity, religion, gender, age, and education impact language variations between groups. Sociolinguistics originated in the late 1960s from fields like dialectology, historical linguistics, and language contact, incorporating influences from sociology and psychology. Key figures like Labov, Hymes, and Cameron contributed to establishing sociolinguistics as an independent subject concerned with both the social and structural aspects of language use. Sociolinguistics can be divided into micro- and macro-levels, with micro focusing on individual language variations and macro analyzing language patterns at the societal level.
This document provides an overview of language change from both a historical and sociological perspective. It discusses the different types and levels of language change, including sound changes, lexical changes, semantic changes, and syntactic changes. Several theories of language change are presented, such as functional theory, random fluctuation theory, substratum theory, and the S-curve theory. The document also examines the routes language change can take, such as through language learning, contact, social differentiation, and natural usage processes. Finally, it outlines the major levels of language change - phonological, syntactic, semantic, and lexical - providing examples of sound changes like assimilation, dissimilation, and the Great Vowel Shift.
This document discusses the linguistic concepts of register and style. It defines register as the way language varies based on three factors: field (the topic), tenor (the relationship between speakers), and mode (the communication channel). Style refers to variations based on social factors like formality. There are different linguistic styles like formal, informal, and colloquial. The document also discusses the sociolinguistic concept of audience design, where speakers adapt their language based on the perceived characteristics of their audience. It provides an example of a travel agent varying her use of glottalization based on the social class of the client. In summary, this document analyzes the concepts of register and style in linguistics and how speakers adapt
The document discusses different language varieties such as dialects, sociolects, idiolects, slang, jargon, pidgins, and creoles. It provides definitions and examples of each variety. Dialects are geographical variations while sociolects are based on social factors. An idiolect is an individual's unique speech patterns. Slang and jargon involve informal or technical vocabulary respectively. Pidgins are contact languages without native speakers, and creoles develop from pidgins when they become a community's native language. The document also defines linguistic registers as variations in formality of language used in different social contexts.
The document is a 9-page assignment on the topic of language variation submitted for a sociolinguistics course. It defines key concepts in sociolinguistics such as standard language, dialects, registers, and style. It discusses how factors like region, social class, gender, and formality influence language variation. Specific language varieties covered include regional dialects, social dialects, individual dialects, accent, jargon, slang, and styles. Speech accommodation processes like convergence and divergence are also summarized.
Style refers to language variation based on situational factors like audience, setting, task or topic. Context refers to the words and sentences surrounding discourse that help determine meaning. Register is the specific language used in a given situation depending on factors like role, audience and channel. Some registers include formal, informal, over-formal and motherese. Style, context and register are interrelated as the language used reflects the situation through variations in vocabulary, grammar and speech patterns.
Style refers to language variation based on situational factors like audience, setting, task or topic. Context refers to the words and sentences surrounding discourse that help determine meaning. Register is the specific language used in a given situation depending on factors like participant roles, topic and means of communication. Some examples of registers include formal, informal, over-formal and motherese registers. Style, context and register are interrelated as the language and vocabulary used varies based on these situational and social factors. Understanding one requires understanding how they influence each other.
1. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. It examines how social factors like age, gender, status, and setting influence language use.
2. This document provides an introduction to key concepts in sociolinguistics including domains of language use, diglossia, code-switching, language maintenance vs shift, and linguistic variation related to gender and age.
3. Several examples are given to illustrate these concepts, such as how a bilingual Tongan speaker uses different languages in different social contexts, and how social class can influence pronunciation patterns in British English.
This document discusses how language varies based on social context. It explains that speakers use different linguistic varieties, or registers, depending on the social situation. These registers can be characterized by differences in vocabulary and terminology. Formality is also an important factor, and languages may contain distinct formal and informal styles. In some communities like Javanese, there are discrete speech levels that correspond to different social contexts. The document also describes diglossia, where two distinct language varieties exist in a community and are assigned different social functions, like formal vs. informal domains. Language or dialect switching may occur between styles or varieties based on social factors.
American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development is indexed, refereed and peer-reviewed journal, which is designed to publish research articles.
This document discusses various concepts related to language choice in multilingual communities, including:
- Diglossia, which describes a situation where two distinct language varieties have clear functional separation between domains. Examples given are Standard Arabic/colloquial Arabic and Standard German/Swiss German.
- Polyglossia, which refers to conditions where a population speaks more than three languages, as in Singapore where Mandarin, English, Hokkien and Cantonese are all used for distinct purposes.
- Factors beyond domain that influence language choice, such as social distance between speakers, their social roles, level of formality, and purpose of interaction.
- Attitudes toward 'High' and '
21202244021_Bilingualism_Afiq Amalul Umam_Petrusclaver Samudra Wicaksana.pptxAfiqAmalulUmam
This document discusses various concepts related to language choice in multilingual communities, including:
- Diglossia, which describes a situation where two distinct language varieties have clear functional separation between domains. Examples given are Standard Arabic/colloquial Arabic and Standard German/Swiss German.
- Bilingualism refers to an individual's ability to use two languages, while multilingualism is the ability to use multiple languages.
- Factors that influence language choice include participants, context, topic, social distance between speakers, social roles, level of formality, and purpose of interaction.
- Attitudes toward the "High" and "Low" varieties in diglossia are often ambiguous, with the
This document discusses theories of register and genre in linguistics. It provides context on how register was originally conceptualized as varieties of language associated with different situations. More recently, some linguists have argued that genre better captures the relationship between language and social/cultural factors. Genre is seen as types of texts defined by their social purpose in a community. The document examines debates around how register and genre have been defined and the extent to which they overlap or differ as concepts. It aims to outline developments in how these terms are understood within the functional linguistics framework.
This document discusses social variation in language and key concepts in sociolinguistics. It covers social dialects defined by education and occupation. It also discusses speech styles that vary based on formality, as well as speech accommodation theories of convergence and divergence. Registers are varieties used for different purposes, and examples of jargon, slang, and taboo terms are provided. The document also summarizes African American English as a vernacular continuum and describes some typical sound changes observed.
This document discusses language varieties. It begins by explaining that language is central to human communication and reflects aspects of identity and culture. There are different types of language varieties, including dialects, accents, registers, styles, code-switching, and diglossia. Dialects can be regional, based on geography, or social, based on factors like class. Accents refer to phonological distinctions that indicate where a speaker is from. The document then provides examples of regional dialects in Lombok and Bima in Indonesia, showing lexical variations. It also discusses characteristics of Bimanese and Sasaknese accents.
Style refers to the variation in a person's speech based on the situation, person being addressed, and topic. It can change depending on these factors. Register refers to the language used for a particular occupation, activity, or social situation. Context refers to the shared background understanding between speakers that allows them to communicate effectively. The document provides definitions and examples of style, register, and context from various linguistic scholars to explain these concepts.
Analysis Of Language Style Found In Novel The Last Tycoon Written By F. Scoot...Asia Smith
This document summarizes a research paper analyzing the language styles found in F. Scott Fitzgerald's novel The Last Tycoon. The researcher analyzed 104 conversations from the novel to identify the different language styles used. The most common styles were informal at 29.8%, colloquial at 23.7%, and formal at 14.42%. The researcher also identified factors influencing language choice, finding that topic was the strongest factor at 40.38%. In conclusion, the novel featured a variety of language styles but informal style was used most frequently, largely influenced by the topic of conversations.
This document provides an introduction to sociolinguistics. It defines sociolinguistics as the study of the relationship between language and society, explaining how social factors influence language use. Some key points made include:
- Sociolinguistics examines how social variables like context, participants, and function affect language use within a speech community.
- A speech community shares language systems and communication norms. Sociolinguistics studies language variation across different social contexts like situations, events, acts, and styles within a community.
- Social dimensions like social distance, status, and formality also influence language choice and use between participants.
- Bilingualism and code-switching between languages or varieties are examined,
This document discusses key concepts in sociolinguistics. It defines sociolinguistics as the study of how social factors influence language use and how language impacts society. Some fundamental concepts discussed include speech communities, prestige varieties of language, social networks, internal vs. external language, and how language differs based on social class and aspiration. It also covers concepts like covert prestige, sociolinguistic variables, and deviation from standard language varieties.
Similar to Style and register in sociolinguistics (20)
This document discusses speech act theory and politeness in speech acts. It begins with an introduction to speech acts and J.L. Austin's speech act theory. Direct and indirect speech acts are explained, along with how to categorize different types of speech acts such as representatives, directives, commissives, etc. Felicity conditions for speech acts are presented. The concept of politeness and how it relates to maintaining face is discussed. Indirect speech acts are explained as a way to be polite. Sentence types and identifying them is also covered. In the end, references used in the document are listed.
This document summarizes the stages of language production according to psycholinguistic models. It discusses four main stages:
1) Conceptualization, where thoughts are formed into a message. McNeil's theory that imagistic and syntactic thoughts collaborate is described.
2) Formulation, where the message is encoded into linguistic structures. Lashey's work on slips of the tongue and priming is mentioned.
3) Articulation, the physical production of speech, which involves coordinated use of respiratory, laryngeal, and supralaryngeal muscles and motor control from the brain.
4) Self-monitoring, where speakers detect and repair errors through interruptions, editing expressions, and different types
The document provides a history of the term "applied linguistics" including its origins in the 1940s at the University of Michigan and its initial focus on foreign language teaching and automatic translation. It discusses debates around defining applied linguistics and alternative terms that were proposed. While initially focused on linguistics application, the field has broadened in scope over time to incorporate diverse disciplines and address a wider range of language-related issues beyond teaching. Disagreements remain around what constitutes applied linguistics and how broadly or narrowly it should be defined.
The document is a paper on speech acts that was written by Aseel Kazum Mahmood on January 22nd, 2014. It discusses speech acts from a sociolinguistic perspective and provides definitions and classifications of different types of speech acts, including constative utterances, ethical propositions, phatic utterances, and performative utterances. It also discusses felicity conditions for successful performatives and the concept of phatic communion in language.
This document discusses the use of corpus approaches to analyze discourse. It begins by explaining the advantages of using large corpora to analyze language use from a discourse perspective. It then defines what a corpus is and discusses different types of corpora, including general corpora that aim to represent language broadly and specialized corpora focused on specific text types or genres. Several examples of specialized corpora are provided, including MICASE, BASE, BAWE, and TOEFL corpora. Key considerations for constructing corpora are outlined, such as what to include, size, sampling, and ensuring representativeness. The Longman Spoken and Written English Corpus is then discussed as an example that analyzed discourse characteristics of conversation.
This document provides an overview of phonetics and the production of speech sounds. It discusses the organs involved in speech production, including the lungs, larynx, glottis, nose, palate, tongue, teeth and lips. It describes how speech sounds are produced in three stages: psychological formulation of the concept, articulation by the speech organs, and the resulting acoustic signal. It also covers topics like accent, variability of speech sounds between languages, and the range of possible human sounds. The document aims to describe the complex processes underlying the sounds of language.
This document provides an overview of pitch and loudness perception. It discusses how pitch perception relates to vocal cord vibration rate and frequency, while loudness perception correlates with intensity or air pressure vibration. The document also examines theories of speech perception, including analysis-by-synthesis and the motor theory. It describes the complex process of how the brain analyzes acoustic cues to identify linguistic units from continuous speech signals.
The document discusses the key concepts of language sounds, including:
- Sounds are the basic components of speech and essential for communication, though the ability to produce sounds alone is not sufficient.
- Speech sounds are produced through three stages: articulation, phonation, and resonance.
- Sounds can differ in their place and manner of articulation, as well as whether vocal tract closure or nasal airflow is involved.
- Vowels involve free airflow while consonants involve partial or full vocal tract closure.
- Factors like context, familiarity with accents, and variability across speakers can influence sound understanding.
Perception is the process by which individuals detect and interpret information from the external world through the senses. Speech perception specifically refers to how acoustic properties like frequency and intensity are registered and interpreted as speech. Perception follows the same steps as sound production but in reverse. The brain selects auditory information impressively by analyzing speech signals to identify language units. Perception of speech sounds can differ in pitch, loudness, quality, and length. Pitch refers to the high-low sensation and corresponds to frequency, while loudness corresponds to intensity but the relationship is not direct. Quality refers to the timbre or tone of a sound.
Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field that applies linguistic theory and methods to real-world problems. The term was first used in the 1940s but applications of linguistics occurred prior. Definitions of applied linguistics have varied over time, from focusing on foreign language teaching to having a broader scope that draws on multiple disciplines. While not all applied linguistics is practical, the field addresses real-world issues and aims to advance fields like education. Recent discussions emphasize that the scope of applied linguistics is wide-ranging and involves analyzing language problems.
This document provides an overview of the process of speech production according to psycholinguistic models. It discusses conceptualization, formulation, articulation, self-monitoring, and feedback loops. The summary is as follows:
[1] The document outlines models of speech production including Levelt's model which describes conceptualization, formulation, articulation, and self-monitoring stages.
[2] Conceptualization involves sparking an idea and initial thoughts, while formulation is the linguistic encoding of concepts.
[3] Articulation is the motor control process of producing sounds through the vocal tract using three muscle systems, and self-monitoring allows speakers to correct mistakes.
This document provides an overview of Edward Sapir's 1939 work "Sounds of language". It discusses key concepts from the work, including that sounds are the basic components of speech and are essential for communication. However, the ability to produce sounds alone is not sufficient for communication - sounds must be transmitted to the ears of listeners. It also notes that the range of possible human speech sounds is large and varies significantly across languages. The total number of possible sounds exceeds those in use in any single language.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Assessment and Planning in Educational technology.pptxKavitha Krishnan
In an education system, it is understood that assessment is only for the students, but on the other hand, the Assessment of teachers is also an important aspect of the education system that ensures teachers are providing high-quality instruction to students. The assessment process can be used to provide feedback and support for professional development, to inform decisions about teacher retention or promotion, or to evaluate teacher effectiveness for accountability purposes.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
2. Introduction:
Dialect, style and register are both ways of labeling varieties of language, although
they function differently, they do, most of the time, appear similar because the
same person may use different linguistic items to express more or less the same
meaning on different occasion and the concept of dialect cannot extend to include
such variation(Hudson 1980: 45).
Another point of similarity between these varieties is that they overlap
considerably - one person’s dialect is another person’s register, and sometimes
may differ by the style of transferring the message for example the items which
one person under all circumstances use informally may be used by someone else
on the most formal occasions.
This is the relation between native speaker of standard and non-standard dialect,
form that is a part of the standard speaker dialect is a part of a special register for
non-standard speakers shifting according the speaker style. (Spolsky 1998:33).
Register:
In the Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, Crystal (1991, p. 295) defines
register as "a variety of language defined according to its use in social situations,
e.g. a register of scientific, religious, formal English.’’
Register is widely used in linguistics to refer to ‘’varieties according to use’’.
In contrast to dialect defined as varieties according to user (chesihire1992,
downes1994, beiber1988), they are also are a set of language items associated with
discrete occupational or social group (wardhaugh, 2001:48).
3. We can say that saying jargon is an alternative term for register that is sometimes
used for this kind of language as in terms used by surgeons, air plane captions,
bank managers, sales clerks or jazz fans (Splosky, 1998:33).
As Ferguson (1994:20) states: people participating in recurrent communication
situations tend to develop similar vocabularies, similar features of intonation and
characteristics bit of syntax and phonology in these situations, he also added that
its special items for recurrent objects and events and formulaic sequences or
routine seem to facilitate speedy communication, other features apparently serve to
mark the register, establish feeling of support , and serve other services similar to
the accommodation that influence dialect formation, and by that; Register is
special variety marked by special set of vocabulary (technical terms) associated
with a profession or occupation or other defined social group forming part of its
jargon or in-group variety, as they are most likely used on specific situation and
with particular roles and status involved.
E.g.: toast at a wedding, sport broadcast, talking to a baby..etc.
Jargons: label new and needed concept, establish bonds between numbers and or
between members of the group, and enforce boundaries for outsides
E.g.: Thieves and underworld jargons (Trudgill, 1974:30). They are also the
varieties that are linked to occupational professions or topics are called registers
E.g.: register of medicine is different from the register of engineering.
Registers are characterized by vocabulary differences either by the use of particular
words or by the use of words in particular kind of language being produced by the
social situation, other factors connected to the situation in which language is being
used, over and above occupation will also have linguistic effects
4. Factors effecting register use:
1. Whether written or spoken as informal or formal.
2. Literal variety and colloquial variety.
3. Kind of subject matter; physical setting and occasions of language activity.
Functions of register:
There is a strong tendency among individuals and co-communicators to
develop register variation along many dimensions.
One person can control variety of registers.
Each register help one express his identity at specific time and place.
You may be judged to speak better or worst that another speaker who
have the same background as you, Bloomfield (1927) Article on variety
of speech provides a sufficient experience.
There seems to be some subtle bias into the way people tend to judge
dialects, sometimes not always people tend to exhibit preferences for
rural dialect over urban ones.
Sometimes the notion of better and worse solidify into those of
correctness and incorrectness according to Bloomfield words (1927).
(wardhaugh, 2010:45).
Register differences:
Register differences can be identifies in terms of the model of acts identity as much
as the way of dialect differences. Each time we speak or write we not only locate
ourselves in relation to the rest of the society, but we also relate our act to the rest
5. of the society but we also relate out act of communication itself to complex
classificatory scheme of communication. This scheme takes the form of the
multidimensional matrix just like the map of our societies which we build our
minds, So dialect shows who we are, whilst register show what we are doing
(Hudson, 1996:47).
The dimensions on which an act of communication may be located are no less
complex than those relevant to the social location of the speaker.
Halliday (1978:33) distinguish the three genres types of dimension:
Field: which refer to the purpose of the subject matter of communication;
why and about what the subject is.
Mode: a mean by which communication takes place speaking or writing;
(how).
Tenor: refers to the relationship between participants; (to whom).
E.g.: I am writing to inform you that
I just wanted to let you know
These examples only differ in terms of to whom (i.e. how the speaker views the
person addressed).
The first being impersonal (addressed to someone with whom the writer only has
formal relations, the second is personal.)
Another model has been proposed by Dell Hymes (1971) in which no less that
thirteen separate variables determine the linguistic items selected by the speaker,
each one of these models provide a framework within which any relevant
dimension of similarity and difference can be located.
E.g.: the relations between speaker and addressee involve more than one
dimension.
Power (addressee in subordinate, equal or superior position than the addressor)
6. Solidarity relatively in terms of relation form distance. In English speakers
between themselves on these dimensions in relation to addressee largely by
choosing among the alternative ways of naming the addressee; Mr. Smith, John,
Sir, Mate…etc.
Registers as Discrete Variety:
Registers do not seem to exist as a discrete variety, they do not seem to have any
more reality than dialects for example it is easy that the selection of items within a
given sentence reflect different factors depending on which items are involved.
One item for instance may reflect the formality of the occasion while another may
reflect the expertise of the speaker and the addressee, but the expression of theses
dimensions is very dependent of each other so we may make four combinations in
between two dimensions from one simple sentence:
Formal, technical: we obtain sodium chloride.
Formal, non-technical: we obtained some salt.
Formal, non-technical: we obtained some salt.
Informal, non-technical: we got some salt.
In these sentences we notice that obtained is seen as formal word (in contrast with
got), While sodium chloride is technical expression in contrast with salt.
That suggest that different linguistics items are sensitive to different aspects of act
of communication in the same way different items react to different properties of
speaker.
Register can only be seen as variety in the weaker sense of set of linguistic items
which all have the same social distribution (occur under the same circumstances)
although all models presented lay a great stress on the need for multidimensional
analysis of registers.
7. Register as formality scale:
One of the most analyzed areas where the use of language is determined by the
situation is the formality scale. Writers (especially in language teaching) have
often used the term "register" as shorthand for formal/informal style, although this
is an aging definition. Linguistics textbooks may use the term "tenor" instead
(Halliday 1978). While defining "registers" more narrowly as specialist language
use related to a particular activity, such as academic jargon. There is very little
agreement as to how the spectrum of formality should be divided. (Trudgill, 1992)
In one prominent model, Martin Joos (1968) describes five styles in spoken
English:
Frozen: Also referred to as static register. Printed unchanging language, such
as Biblical quotations, often contains archaisms. Examples are the Pledge of
Allegiance of the United States of America and other "static" vocalizations that
are recited in a ritualistic monotone. The wording is the same every time it is
spoken.
Formal: One-way participation; no interruption; technical vocabulary or exact
definitions are important; includes presentations or introductions between
strangers.
Consultative: Two-way participation; background information is provided –
prior knowledge is not assumed. "Back-channel behavior" such as "uh huh", "I
see", etc. is common. Interruptions are allowed. Examples include
teacher/student, doctor/patient, expert/apprentice, etc.
8. Casual: In-group friends and acquaintances; no background information
provided; Ellipsis and slang common; interruptions common. This is common
among friends in a social setting.
Intimate: Non-public; intonation more important than wording or grammar;
private vocabulary. Also includes non-verbal messages. This is most common
among family members and close friends.
Style:
In Crystal & Davy (1969), however, the word style is used in the way most other
people use register: to refer to particular ways of using language in particular
contexts. The use of register had become too loosely applied to almost any
situational variety of language of any level of generality or abstraction, and
distinguished by too many different situational parameters of variation. (Using
style in the same loose fashion, however, hardly solves anything, and, goes against
the usage of style by most people in relation to individual texts or individual
authors/speakers.)Another thing that complicates the study of dialect is the fact that
speakers can adopt different styles of speaking depending on the circumstances;
speakers can speak very formally or informally, the level of speaker formality can
be chosen to a variety of factors:
-kind of occasion
-the various, social, age and other differences that exist between participants.
-the particular task is that it involves; speaking, writing
-emotional environment of one or more of the participants.
All these levels help define the appropriateness and the inappropriateness of how
we say things.
9. And according to Hudson(1996:46) your dialect says who you are while your
register says what you are doing, Style is the dress of thoughts; and let them be
ever so just, if your style is homely, coarse, and vulgar, they will appear to as much
disadvantage, and be as ill received, as your person, though ever so well-
proportioned, would if dressed in rags, dirt, and tatters.
Coulthard (1985:40) the concept of style may seem very close to that of register
but there is a crucial difference since register mainly defined and recognized by the
topic and context specific lexis.
E.g.: the register of sermons is the language used in giving sermons.
Style however as the rules of alternative emphasize, are not mechanically
connected to particular situation speakers may choose among style and their choice
has social meaning. One of the most relatable ways of making people laugh is to
adopt style in appropriate particular context or message.
Linguistic varieties are linked to the formality of the situation are called style and
so Style and register principles are independent.
E.g.: the register of football called co-occurs with a formal style as in a report in
high newspaper or with informal style as in discussion in a bar).
The connotation of English address-forms such as Sir, Mr. Smith, John are all
different each has its stylistic implication and the rules of usage as well as the
frequency for usage. Varying from class to class, age, group and place
E.g.: used of sir in Britain and American.
In other languages, the problem may be complicated by the problem of personal
pronouns selection.
10. E.g. :( most European and the other languages) unlike English which has only you,
distinguish, especially in the singular between polite and familiar second-person)
As been argued the familiar pronoun were the normal forms of address for single
individual and the polite forms were either second- person- plural or third person
pronouns (stage 89).
This effect can be referred to as power another thing that can affect it is called
solidarity which not only signifies power but also social differences distance.
A number of elements affect the style interview, style-social context and social
class.
Speaker either move along a scale of formality of style according to situation or
switch from separate style of dialect to another, the situational varieties are clearly
sub varieties of one regional or social dialect.
Bloomfield (1927)provide the popular explanation of ‘’correct and ‘’incorrect’’ as
solidification that reduces the matter to one of knowledge versus ignorance, there
is such a thing as correct English and an ignorant person may not know the correct
for he cannot help using the incorrect ones.
Verbal hygiene: introduces by Cameron (1996:36) as the authoritarian promotion
of elite varieties as norms of correctness through campaign for plain English
spelling reforms.
Dialect and language preservation.
Nonsexist and non-racist language.
Esperanto and the abolition of the copula.
11. Self-improvement activities such as; accent reduction, Neuro-linguistic
programming, assertive training and communication skills training.
Verbal hygiene was produced to eliminate certain believes and pass judgments on
issues of the language (1999, viii) linguists know that many popular beliefs about
language are false and that much we taught about language is misdirected, they
also know how difficult it is to effect change.
Q. what are the linguistic features we rely on to classify a person as being from a
particular place, class, profession?
A. Although many varieties of language exist, not all languages vary in different
possible way, it is still quite possible to listen to a person and infer very specific
things about the speaker after hearing little of his/her speech. One possible
hypothesis to tell is through relying on relatively few cues such as:
The presence and absence of certain linguistic items or features and the
consistency or inconsistency in the use of these cues. We may also see its use or
non-use to be categorical, i.e., the feature to be totally present or absent; all these
features are important since they raise an important question about human
activities.
Style is related to dimension of formality, the varying level of alternation to variety
forms a natural continuum, the various levels of which can be divided in different
ways, but what’s on that continuum or the level of that continuum are not
important as much as most accounts of language make reference to levels of
stylistic variations it is a language variation which reflects changes in situational
factors, such as addressee, setting, task or topic. Style is often analyzed along a
scale of formality, the level of formality is influenced by some factors like the
12. various differences among the participants, topic, emotional involvement, etc.
(Janet Holmes, 2001)
Labov found evidence in his sociolinguistics interviews conducted in new York
about the form or the type being used at certain point when a person was
interrupted or offered a cup of coffee or became excited about the story.
He would elicit more formal use by asking the subject to read a passage or a list of
words, for more casual speech he asked for emotionally significant story, which
gave him three or four levels and possibility of company change.
Principles of style:
William Labov first introduced the concept of style in the context of
sociolinguistics in the 1960s, though he did not explicitly define the term. Labov
primarily studied individual linguistic variables, and how they were associated
with various social groups (e.g. social classes). He summed up his ideas about style
in five principles:
"There are no single style speakers."
Style-shifting occurs in all speakers to a different degree; interlocutors
regularly and consistently change their linguistic forms according to context.
"Styles can be ranged along a single dimension, measured by the amount of
attention paid to speech."
Style-shifting correlates strongly with the amount of attention paid to
speech. According to studies conducted by Labov, this was one of the single
most important factors that determined whether or not an interlocutor would
make a style-shift.
13. "The vernacular, in which the minimum attention is paid to speech, provides
the most systematic data for linguistic analysis."
Labov characterized the vernacular as the original base mode of speech,
learned at a very young age, on which more complex styles build later in
life. This "basic" style has the least variation, and provides the most general
account of the style of a given group.
"Any systematic observation of a speaker defines a formal context where
more than the minimum attention is paid to speech."
In other words, even formal face-to-face interviews severely limit a
speaker’s use of their vernacular style. An interlocutor’s vernacular style is
most likely displayed if they do not perceive outside observers, and are not
paying immediate attention to their own speech.
"Face-to-face interviews are the only means of obtaining the volume
and quality of recorded speech that is needed for quantitative
analysis."
Quantitative analysis requires the kind of data that must be obtained in a
very obvious, formal way.
Style shifting:
In bilingual community’s stylistic levels may be marked by switching from one
variety into another, the commonly accepted explanation for this stylistic variation
can be the care that speakers and writers take with their expression. The more
formal the situation, this explanation goes, the more attention we pay to our
language and so the more we are likely to conform the favored and educated norms
14. of society.(Trudgill, 1992:50).Style shifting refers to a single speaker changing
style in response to context.
The norms in which the attention of care is more focused upon since it does not
deal with the possibility of conscious choice of a less or more formal style. One
idea to explain that is the notion of audience design which is a speaker who can
control more than one variety chooses a level of speech according to the audience
he or she is addressing in relation to unconsciousness accommodation.
E.g.: we may choose an informal style when speaking to a stranger in order to
seem friendlier.
This contributes to the social identity of the speaker and establishes social
relations.
Audience design can also be defined as recognition of stylistic levels as being
appropriate to specific social situation.
15. References:
- Eckert, P and Rickford, J.(2001).style and sociolinguistic variations. Cambridge:
Cambridge university press.
- Halliday, M.A.K. (1978), Language as Social Semiotic: the social interpretation
of language and meaning. Edward Arnold: London.
- Joos, M. (1968), The Five Clocks, New York: Harcourt, Brace and World.
- Quirk, R., Greenbaum S., Leech G., and Svartvik J. (1985), A Comprehensive
Grammar of the English Language, Longman, Harcourt.
-Crystal,D. (2003). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. London: Blackwell
Publishing.
-Hudson, R. A. (1980). Sociolinguistics. Cambridge: CUP.
-Spolsky, B. (1998). Sociolinguistics. Oxford: OUP.
-Trudgill, P. (1974). Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society.
Gateshead: Northumberland Press Ltd.
-Trudgill, P. (1992), Introducing language and society, London: Penguin.
-Wardhaugh, R. (2010). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. UK: Blackwell
Publishing Ltd.
-Yule, G. (2006). The Study of Language. Cambridge: UP.