This document provides an overview of pitch and loudness perception. It discusses how pitch perception relates to vocal cord vibration rate and frequency, while loudness perception correlates with intensity or air pressure vibration. The document also examines theories of speech perception, including analysis-by-synthesis and the motor theory. It describes the complex process of how the brain analyzes acoustic cues to identify linguistic units from continuous speech signals.
This document discusses fluency, factors that affect fluency, and dimensions of fluent speech. It defines fluency as effortless, continuous speech produced at a rapid rate. Factors that influence fluency include stress, sound duration, co-articulation, and effort. Disfluency refers to normal speech interruptions while dysfluency refers to stuttered interruptions. Dimensions of fluency include continuity, rate, duration, co-articulation, and effort. The document also discusses classifications of disfluencies and characteristics of stuttering as a disruption of fluent speech patterns.
The document provides an overview of speech perception and the acoustic and neural coding of speech sounds. It discusses:
- The basics of speech perception including acoustic cues, linearity/segmentation problems, and lack of invariance due to contextual variation.
- How speech is coded in the auditory nerve based on place and temporal theories, including frequency, intensity, temporal coding and representation of vowels and consonants.
- Speech coding in higher levels of the auditory pathway including the cochlear nucleus, superior olivary complex, lateral lemniscus, inferior colliculus, medial geniculate body and auditory cortex.
- Previous exam questions on describing and explaining the coding of speech in the
The document discusses different types of disfluencies in speech, categorizing them as either core or accessory disfluencies. It notes there are nine main types of disfluencies that can be further broken down into subcategories like sound or syllable repetitions. The document also examines different schemes for categorizing disfluencies and discusses using person-first respectful terminology when referring to individuals.
Stuttering modification therapy aims to make stuttering less severe and reduce fear and avoidance of stuttering. The goals are to reduce anxiety, increase acceptance of stuttering, reduce motor tension, eliminate avoidance behaviors, and learn new behaviors. Techniques include cancellation, pull-outs, and preparatory sets to help patients stutter in a more relaxed way. The end goal is for individuals to become confident communicators who can act as their own clinicians and voluntarily seek out communication situations.
Auditory verbal therapy is an early intervention program that trains parents to maximize their hearing impaired child's speech and language development through normal age-appropriate communication using the auditory sense. The therapy focuses on developing listening, speech, language, and communication skills through play-based activities guided by principles of auditory development, parental guidance, and use of hearing technology to access all sounds. Auditory verbal therapists work one-on-one with parents and children to coach parents as the primary facilitators of their child's listening and spoken language development.
This document discusses hearing and auditory processing skills that are important for learning support teachers. It covers the anatomy of the ear, causes of hearing problems, behavioral and language signs of hearing issues, what auditory perception is, and how hearing develops in children. Key auditory skills are defined, like listening, localization, segregation, recognition, discrimination, analysis, and memory. Suggested activities to develop these skills are provided, such as listening games, auditory treasure hunts, and sound categorization exercises. The importance of intervention for children with hearing delays is also mentioned.
This document discusses the anatomy and physiology of speech production. It explains that speech requires respiration to provide air flow from the lungs, phonation in the larynx where the vocal cords vibrate, and articulation using the tongue, lips and palate to form specific sounds. The four main components covered are respiration, phonation, articulation, and resonance. Respiration provides the air flow, phonation vibrates the vocal cords to produce sound, articulation shapes the sounds, and resonance is influenced by the size of the vocal tract.
This document discusses fluency, factors that affect fluency, and dimensions of fluent speech. It defines fluency as effortless, continuous speech produced at a rapid rate. Factors that influence fluency include stress, sound duration, co-articulation, and effort. Disfluency refers to normal speech interruptions while dysfluency refers to stuttered interruptions. Dimensions of fluency include continuity, rate, duration, co-articulation, and effort. The document also discusses classifications of disfluencies and characteristics of stuttering as a disruption of fluent speech patterns.
The document provides an overview of speech perception and the acoustic and neural coding of speech sounds. It discusses:
- The basics of speech perception including acoustic cues, linearity/segmentation problems, and lack of invariance due to contextual variation.
- How speech is coded in the auditory nerve based on place and temporal theories, including frequency, intensity, temporal coding and representation of vowels and consonants.
- Speech coding in higher levels of the auditory pathway including the cochlear nucleus, superior olivary complex, lateral lemniscus, inferior colliculus, medial geniculate body and auditory cortex.
- Previous exam questions on describing and explaining the coding of speech in the
The document discusses different types of disfluencies in speech, categorizing them as either core or accessory disfluencies. It notes there are nine main types of disfluencies that can be further broken down into subcategories like sound or syllable repetitions. The document also examines different schemes for categorizing disfluencies and discusses using person-first respectful terminology when referring to individuals.
Stuttering modification therapy aims to make stuttering less severe and reduce fear and avoidance of stuttering. The goals are to reduce anxiety, increase acceptance of stuttering, reduce motor tension, eliminate avoidance behaviors, and learn new behaviors. Techniques include cancellation, pull-outs, and preparatory sets to help patients stutter in a more relaxed way. The end goal is for individuals to become confident communicators who can act as their own clinicians and voluntarily seek out communication situations.
Auditory verbal therapy is an early intervention program that trains parents to maximize their hearing impaired child's speech and language development through normal age-appropriate communication using the auditory sense. The therapy focuses on developing listening, speech, language, and communication skills through play-based activities guided by principles of auditory development, parental guidance, and use of hearing technology to access all sounds. Auditory verbal therapists work one-on-one with parents and children to coach parents as the primary facilitators of their child's listening and spoken language development.
This document discusses hearing and auditory processing skills that are important for learning support teachers. It covers the anatomy of the ear, causes of hearing problems, behavioral and language signs of hearing issues, what auditory perception is, and how hearing develops in children. Key auditory skills are defined, like listening, localization, segregation, recognition, discrimination, analysis, and memory. Suggested activities to develop these skills are provided, such as listening games, auditory treasure hunts, and sound categorization exercises. The importance of intervention for children with hearing delays is also mentioned.
This document discusses the anatomy and physiology of speech production. It explains that speech requires respiration to provide air flow from the lungs, phonation in the larynx where the vocal cords vibrate, and articulation using the tongue, lips and palate to form specific sounds. The four main components covered are respiration, phonation, articulation, and resonance. Respiration provides the air flow, phonation vibrates the vocal cords to produce sound, articulation shapes the sounds, and resonance is influenced by the size of the vocal tract.
This document provides an overview of stuttering, including its definition, causes, characteristics, and impact. Some key points:
- Stuttering is characterized by repetitions, prolongations, or blocks in speech. It affects around 1% of school children and has a 3:1 ratio of males to females.
- Both genetic and environmental factors contribute to stuttering. Family studies show it runs in families while twin studies find higher concordance in identical twins.
- Core behaviors include repetitions, prolongations, and blocks. Secondary behaviors are efforts to avoid or escape stuttering.
- Around 50-80% of children recover from stuttering without treatment, suggesting maturation allows recovery. Language
1. Auditory-verbal therapy (AVT) is an approach that uses techniques to promote optimal language acquisition through listening for children with hearing loss using hearing aids, cochlear implants, and other technology. It emphasizes speech and listening development.
2. AVT includes early identification of hearing loss, fitting of amplification devices, guidance for parents, and one-on-one therapy to help children learn to listen and communicate through spoken language.
3. The goals of AVT are to help children develop auditory skills like sound awareness and processing of language to facilitate natural communication development and inclusion in mainstream classrooms.
Sound is created by pressure disturbances traveling through an elastic medium like air. These pressure disturbances propagate as waves, which can be periodic or aperiodic. Periodic waves have regular, repeating patterns of vibration and are associated with the perception of pitch. They can be analyzed into combinations of sinusoidal components called harmonics. In contrast, aperiodic waves do not have a regular repeating pattern and are generally not associated with a clear pitch. Both periodic and aperiodic waves are important in speech communication.
This document discusses the relationship between language and the brain. It explains that neurolinguistics studies this relationship and that while still developing, research has identified certain brain regions involved in language processing. These include Broca's and Wernicke's areas, located in the left hemisphere for most right-handed individuals. The document also summarizes several methods used to study this relationship, such as autopsy analysis of brain-damaged patients and modern brain imaging techniques.
1. fluency definition.Dys and dis fluency difference.Definition and introduct...Soorya Sunil
This document defines fluency and discusses its dimensions. It describes fluency as the effortless production of smooth, continuous speech. Dimensions of fluency include continuity, rate, rhythm, duration, and effort. Continuity refers to uninterrupted speech flow, while rate is words or syllables per minute. Rhythm enhances fluency, and effort relates to mental and physical aspects of speech production. The document also defines and compares disfluencies, which are normal speech interruptions, versus dysfluencies, which are stuttered interruptions and involve greater frequency, severity and effort.
Fluency is defined as effortless flow of speech without inappropriate pauses or hesitations. There are four dimensions of fluency - continuity, rate, tension/effort, and rhythm. Continuity refers to smooth connection between words without undue pauses or hesitations. Rate refers to speed of speech production. Tension/effort dimension indicates how much physical and mental effort is required to produce speech. Rhythm enhances fluency by allowing anticipation of upcoming sounds. Fluency is measured by analyzing speech samples for number and length of pauses, syllables per second, and perception of effort.
Tinnitus is the perception of sound within the human ear in the absence of corresponding external sound. It affects approximately 10-15% of the population and can be caused by hearing loss, noise exposure, ear injury, certain medications, dental problems, neurological disorders, and other factors. While there is no cure for tinnitus, treatment options aim to make the condition less noticeable and disruptive, including sound therapy, counseling, relaxation techniques, and in some cases medication or surgery. Tinnitus is a complex neurological phenomenon involving changes in the brain related to loss of normal auditory input, and it continues to be an active area of research seeking more effective treatment and management strategies.
The document discusses the 8 main branches of audiology: 1) medical, 2) educational, 3) pediatric, 4) diagnostic, 5) rehabilitative, 6) animal, 7) industrial, and 8) geriatric audiology. Each branch specializes in a different area related to hearing and balance disorders. Medical audiology focuses on working in hospitals, educational on managing hearing issues in schools, pediatric on evaluating hearing loss in children, and geriatric on hearing disorders in the elderly. The other branches include diagnostic testing, rehabilitation, industrial noise protection, and animal hearing assessments.
Fluency refers to the ease and flow of speech. There are two main components of fluency - linguistic fluency which refers to language skills, and speech fluency which refers to continuity, rate, duration, and effort of speech. Linguistic fluency includes skills like using complex syntax, large vocabulary, and pronouncing difficult sounds. Speech fluency disorders include stuttering, psychogenic stuttering, neurogenic stuttering, cluttering, and normal non-fluency in young children. Stuttering is characterized by repetitions, prolongations, and blocks in speech flow. Psychogenic and neurogenic stuttering have origins in emotional trauma or brain injury respectively. Cluttering involves a rapid irregular
This document discusses various linguistic concepts related to stress, rhythm, and intonation in language. It covers the production and perception of stress, the different types of stress patterns in languages, and theories about rhythmic classes in language. It also addresses aspects of connected speech like vowel reduction and assimilation. Finally, it describes intonation patterns and the functions of intonation in both tonal and intonational languages.
Coarticulation refers to the overlapping articulatory movements that occur during speech production, which affect how neighboring sounds are pronounced. When speaking, the vocal tract is constantly changing shape to produce different sounds, with the articulators always performing motions for multiple sounds at once rather than individually. This allows for speeds of 10-15 segments per second, making rapid speech possible. Coarticulation also aids speech perception by making the connections between sounds smoother.
Stammering is a speech problem that causes low self-esteem in children. Some tips to help children overcome stammering include slowing down their speech, maintaining eye contact, not interrupting them or finishing their sentences, and encouraging them to speak as often as possible in a supportive environment. Aphasia is a disorder caused by brain damage that affects speaking, listening, reading, and writing. While some may recover on their own, speech therapy is often helpful and aims to improve communication through restoring language abilities and learning new methods. Family support plays an important role by simplifying language and including the person in conversations.
This document discusses fluency in speech, defining it as effortless and continuous speech production. It outlines factors that affect fluency like stress, sound duration, coordination of speech movements, and anatomical constraints. Disfluency refers to normal speech interruptions while dysfluency refers to stuttered interruptions. The document also discusses dimensions of fluent speech like continuity, rate, duration, coarticulation, and effort. It examines how fluency develops in children as their speech mechanisms and language skills mature.
The document summarizes chapter 1 of Rod Ellis' 2003 book "Second Language Acquisition". It introduces SLA as the study of how people learn languages other than their mother tongue. The goals of SLA are to describe how L2 acquisition proceeds and explain this process by identifying external factors like social environment and input, as well as internal factors that account for individual differences. Methodological issues in description include how to determine what linguistic features learners have "acquired". Explanations of L2 acquisition must account for both item learning of individual linguistic facts as well as system learning of the underlying rules.
This document discusses voice disorders and their diagnosis and treatment. It covers the basics of normal voice production and the glottal cycle. Key aspects of stroboscopic examination are described, including amplitude of vibration, mucosal wave, symmetry, periodicity, and glottic closure patterns. Common voice disorders like tension dysphonia, laryngitis, vocal nodules, and vocal fold paralysis are mentioned. The document emphasizes taking a thorough history and examining the oral cavity, larynx, breathing, and voice quality during diagnosis of voice disorders. Stroboscopy aids in detecting subtle vocal fold abnormalities. Voice hygiene and lifestyle modifications are important aspects of treatment.
This presentation contains information regarding stuttering (a type of disfluency). Its definition, characteristics, onset and management/intervention.
The document discusses the relationship between language and the brain. It describes how the field of study began in the 19th century based on the case of Phineas Gage who suffered a brain injury but survived with his language abilities intact, showing language is not situated at the front of the brain. It then discusses Broca's and Wernicke's areas of the brain and their roles in speech production and comprehension. Additional topics covered include tip of the tongue phenomenon, slips of the tongue, aphasia, dichotic listening tests, and the critical period for language development.
The document provides information about articulation and speech sounds. It discusses the importance of clear articulation and natural speech. It also covers the classification of consonant and vowel sounds, including their place and method of articulation. The document encourages exercises to improve articulation and recommends studying phonetic symbols to distinguish speech sounds.
The inner ear contains the cochlea, which has two fluid-filled ducts separated by the cochlear partition. Within the cochlear partition is the organ of Corti, which contains hair cells that detect sound vibrations. Low frequency sounds cause maximum vibration at the apex of the basilar membrane, while high frequencies cause vibration at the base. The hair cells transduce these vibrations into neural signals that travel to the brainstem and auditory cortex, where pitch and other sound properties are processed. Damage to hair cells or auditory nerves can cause hearing loss.
Psychoacoustics is the study of how humans perceive and process sound. It examines our psychological and physiological responses to music and sound. Psychoacoustics looks at how we listen and dissects the listening experience, studying factors like how we perceive sound events, identify tones and patterns, and distinguish timbre. It also considers our memory-based reactions and physiological responses to different sounds. Psychoacoustics has become invaluable in designing technologies like hearing aids and cochlear implants by providing a better understanding of normal hearing function.
This document provides an overview of stuttering, including its definition, causes, characteristics, and impact. Some key points:
- Stuttering is characterized by repetitions, prolongations, or blocks in speech. It affects around 1% of school children and has a 3:1 ratio of males to females.
- Both genetic and environmental factors contribute to stuttering. Family studies show it runs in families while twin studies find higher concordance in identical twins.
- Core behaviors include repetitions, prolongations, and blocks. Secondary behaviors are efforts to avoid or escape stuttering.
- Around 50-80% of children recover from stuttering without treatment, suggesting maturation allows recovery. Language
1. Auditory-verbal therapy (AVT) is an approach that uses techniques to promote optimal language acquisition through listening for children with hearing loss using hearing aids, cochlear implants, and other technology. It emphasizes speech and listening development.
2. AVT includes early identification of hearing loss, fitting of amplification devices, guidance for parents, and one-on-one therapy to help children learn to listen and communicate through spoken language.
3. The goals of AVT are to help children develop auditory skills like sound awareness and processing of language to facilitate natural communication development and inclusion in mainstream classrooms.
Sound is created by pressure disturbances traveling through an elastic medium like air. These pressure disturbances propagate as waves, which can be periodic or aperiodic. Periodic waves have regular, repeating patterns of vibration and are associated with the perception of pitch. They can be analyzed into combinations of sinusoidal components called harmonics. In contrast, aperiodic waves do not have a regular repeating pattern and are generally not associated with a clear pitch. Both periodic and aperiodic waves are important in speech communication.
This document discusses the relationship between language and the brain. It explains that neurolinguistics studies this relationship and that while still developing, research has identified certain brain regions involved in language processing. These include Broca's and Wernicke's areas, located in the left hemisphere for most right-handed individuals. The document also summarizes several methods used to study this relationship, such as autopsy analysis of brain-damaged patients and modern brain imaging techniques.
1. fluency definition.Dys and dis fluency difference.Definition and introduct...Soorya Sunil
This document defines fluency and discusses its dimensions. It describes fluency as the effortless production of smooth, continuous speech. Dimensions of fluency include continuity, rate, rhythm, duration, and effort. Continuity refers to uninterrupted speech flow, while rate is words or syllables per minute. Rhythm enhances fluency, and effort relates to mental and physical aspects of speech production. The document also defines and compares disfluencies, which are normal speech interruptions, versus dysfluencies, which are stuttered interruptions and involve greater frequency, severity and effort.
Fluency is defined as effortless flow of speech without inappropriate pauses or hesitations. There are four dimensions of fluency - continuity, rate, tension/effort, and rhythm. Continuity refers to smooth connection between words without undue pauses or hesitations. Rate refers to speed of speech production. Tension/effort dimension indicates how much physical and mental effort is required to produce speech. Rhythm enhances fluency by allowing anticipation of upcoming sounds. Fluency is measured by analyzing speech samples for number and length of pauses, syllables per second, and perception of effort.
Tinnitus is the perception of sound within the human ear in the absence of corresponding external sound. It affects approximately 10-15% of the population and can be caused by hearing loss, noise exposure, ear injury, certain medications, dental problems, neurological disorders, and other factors. While there is no cure for tinnitus, treatment options aim to make the condition less noticeable and disruptive, including sound therapy, counseling, relaxation techniques, and in some cases medication or surgery. Tinnitus is a complex neurological phenomenon involving changes in the brain related to loss of normal auditory input, and it continues to be an active area of research seeking more effective treatment and management strategies.
The document discusses the 8 main branches of audiology: 1) medical, 2) educational, 3) pediatric, 4) diagnostic, 5) rehabilitative, 6) animal, 7) industrial, and 8) geriatric audiology. Each branch specializes in a different area related to hearing and balance disorders. Medical audiology focuses on working in hospitals, educational on managing hearing issues in schools, pediatric on evaluating hearing loss in children, and geriatric on hearing disorders in the elderly. The other branches include diagnostic testing, rehabilitation, industrial noise protection, and animal hearing assessments.
Fluency refers to the ease and flow of speech. There are two main components of fluency - linguistic fluency which refers to language skills, and speech fluency which refers to continuity, rate, duration, and effort of speech. Linguistic fluency includes skills like using complex syntax, large vocabulary, and pronouncing difficult sounds. Speech fluency disorders include stuttering, psychogenic stuttering, neurogenic stuttering, cluttering, and normal non-fluency in young children. Stuttering is characterized by repetitions, prolongations, and blocks in speech flow. Psychogenic and neurogenic stuttering have origins in emotional trauma or brain injury respectively. Cluttering involves a rapid irregular
This document discusses various linguistic concepts related to stress, rhythm, and intonation in language. It covers the production and perception of stress, the different types of stress patterns in languages, and theories about rhythmic classes in language. It also addresses aspects of connected speech like vowel reduction and assimilation. Finally, it describes intonation patterns and the functions of intonation in both tonal and intonational languages.
Coarticulation refers to the overlapping articulatory movements that occur during speech production, which affect how neighboring sounds are pronounced. When speaking, the vocal tract is constantly changing shape to produce different sounds, with the articulators always performing motions for multiple sounds at once rather than individually. This allows for speeds of 10-15 segments per second, making rapid speech possible. Coarticulation also aids speech perception by making the connections between sounds smoother.
Stammering is a speech problem that causes low self-esteem in children. Some tips to help children overcome stammering include slowing down their speech, maintaining eye contact, not interrupting them or finishing their sentences, and encouraging them to speak as often as possible in a supportive environment. Aphasia is a disorder caused by brain damage that affects speaking, listening, reading, and writing. While some may recover on their own, speech therapy is often helpful and aims to improve communication through restoring language abilities and learning new methods. Family support plays an important role by simplifying language and including the person in conversations.
This document discusses fluency in speech, defining it as effortless and continuous speech production. It outlines factors that affect fluency like stress, sound duration, coordination of speech movements, and anatomical constraints. Disfluency refers to normal speech interruptions while dysfluency refers to stuttered interruptions. The document also discusses dimensions of fluent speech like continuity, rate, duration, coarticulation, and effort. It examines how fluency develops in children as their speech mechanisms and language skills mature.
The document summarizes chapter 1 of Rod Ellis' 2003 book "Second Language Acquisition". It introduces SLA as the study of how people learn languages other than their mother tongue. The goals of SLA are to describe how L2 acquisition proceeds and explain this process by identifying external factors like social environment and input, as well as internal factors that account for individual differences. Methodological issues in description include how to determine what linguistic features learners have "acquired". Explanations of L2 acquisition must account for both item learning of individual linguistic facts as well as system learning of the underlying rules.
This document discusses voice disorders and their diagnosis and treatment. It covers the basics of normal voice production and the glottal cycle. Key aspects of stroboscopic examination are described, including amplitude of vibration, mucosal wave, symmetry, periodicity, and glottic closure patterns. Common voice disorders like tension dysphonia, laryngitis, vocal nodules, and vocal fold paralysis are mentioned. The document emphasizes taking a thorough history and examining the oral cavity, larynx, breathing, and voice quality during diagnosis of voice disorders. Stroboscopy aids in detecting subtle vocal fold abnormalities. Voice hygiene and lifestyle modifications are important aspects of treatment.
This presentation contains information regarding stuttering (a type of disfluency). Its definition, characteristics, onset and management/intervention.
The document discusses the relationship between language and the brain. It describes how the field of study began in the 19th century based on the case of Phineas Gage who suffered a brain injury but survived with his language abilities intact, showing language is not situated at the front of the brain. It then discusses Broca's and Wernicke's areas of the brain and their roles in speech production and comprehension. Additional topics covered include tip of the tongue phenomenon, slips of the tongue, aphasia, dichotic listening tests, and the critical period for language development.
The document provides information about articulation and speech sounds. It discusses the importance of clear articulation and natural speech. It also covers the classification of consonant and vowel sounds, including their place and method of articulation. The document encourages exercises to improve articulation and recommends studying phonetic symbols to distinguish speech sounds.
The inner ear contains the cochlea, which has two fluid-filled ducts separated by the cochlear partition. Within the cochlear partition is the organ of Corti, which contains hair cells that detect sound vibrations. Low frequency sounds cause maximum vibration at the apex of the basilar membrane, while high frequencies cause vibration at the base. The hair cells transduce these vibrations into neural signals that travel to the brainstem and auditory cortex, where pitch and other sound properties are processed. Damage to hair cells or auditory nerves can cause hearing loss.
Psychoacoustics is the study of how humans perceive and process sound. It examines our psychological and physiological responses to music and sound. Psychoacoustics looks at how we listen and dissects the listening experience, studying factors like how we perceive sound events, identify tones and patterns, and distinguish timbre. It also considers our memory-based reactions and physiological responses to different sounds. Psychoacoustics has become invaluable in designing technologies like hearing aids and cochlear implants by providing a better understanding of normal hearing function.
The document discusses speech perception and communication. It covers topics like speech representation, units of speech perception such as phonemes and words, and top-down processing of speech. It also discusses applications of voice recognition research like understanding how humans perceive speech and measuring the effects of distortion on comprehension. Finally, it notes that communications involve more than just words, including nonverbal elements like gestures, pauses, and inflection.
This document provides an overview of a course on digital speech processing. The course will cover fundamentals of speech production and perception, as well as techniques for digital speech processing including short-time Fourier analysis and linear predictive coding methods. Applications that will be discussed include speech coding, synthesis, recognition, and other speech applications involving pattern matching problems. Students will learn about representations and algorithms for processing speech signals.
The Silent Way is a language teaching method developed by Caleb Gattegno that emphasizes using physical objects and problem-solving to teach grammar and vocabulary with minimal spoken instruction from the teacher. The teacher uses gestures and materials like rods and charts to elicit responses from students, who are encouraged to produce as much oral language as possible. The goal is for students to become independent, autonomous learners who can use their existing language knowledge to explore the target language.
The Silent Way is a language teaching method developed by Caleb Gattegno in the 1970s that emphasizes learner independence and minimal teacher talking. Key principles include the teacher remaining silent as much as possible to encourage student production, and students relying solely on instructional materials to learn. Materials include word charts, pronunciation charts, colored rods, and pointers. The teacher's role is to present new language once and then observe and facilitate learning, while students are expected to develop autonomy, responsibility, and cooperation through self-correction and problem-solving.
The Silent Way is a language teaching method where the teacher is mostly silent during lessons. It uses colored rods and charts to teach pronunciation and vocabulary without translation. Learners discover the language through problem-solving activities while the teacher facilitates and ensures learners produce the target language. The goal is near-native fluency through inductive learning that starts from what students already know.
Perception is the process by which individuals detect and interpret information from the external world through the senses. Speech perception specifically refers to how acoustic properties like frequency and intensity are registered and interpreted as speech. Perception follows the same steps as sound production but in reverse. The brain selects auditory information impressively by analyzing speech signals to identify language units. Perception of speech sounds can differ in pitch, loudness, quality, and length. Pitch refers to the high-low sensation and corresponds to frequency, while loudness corresponds to intensity but the relationship is not direct. Quality refers to the timbre or tone of a sound.
This document provides an overview of phonetics and the production of speech sounds. It discusses the organs involved in speech production, including the lungs, larynx, glottis, nose, palate, tongue, teeth and lips. It describes how speech sounds are produced in three stages: psychological formulation of the concept, articulation by the speech organs, and the resulting acoustic signal. It also covers topics like accent, variability of speech sounds between languages, and the range of possible human sounds. The document aims to describe the complex processes underlying the sounds of language.
Speech perception is defined as the process by which a perceiver tries to identify the talkers underlying language patterns on the basis of speech sounds and movements. The ultimate goal of speech perception is to determine the meaning and intent behind the spoken message.
-Arthur Boothroyd (1998)
In many everyday situations, we find ourselves listening to speech-often trying to understand the speech of one particular person even as other conversions, radio broadcasts, and public address announcements create a troublesome speech background. How do we understand the speech of other people? How do we select one voice particularly from a crowd of conversing persons? By what processes do we take in the perishable acoustic signal of speech and quickly reach decision about who said it, what was said and how it was said? All of these decisions must be made before the speaker produces the next utterance. These are some of the questions that the study of speech perception attempts to answer.
Auditory perception of speech is a process of interpreting the instructions imprinted on the acoustic wave by the speaker over a time span.
Auditory perception of speech per se deals mainly with the temporal management of information from the input (Berlin 1969).
• Speech is a continuous, unsegmented event. The organs of speech glide from one target position to the next, generating transitional information in the process.
• The characteristics of the acoustic stimulus for any given phoneme are considerably influenced by its neighbors i.e., its phonetic context. Coarticulation results from overlapping of the articulatory constituents of one sound with the next.
The perception of any sound can be considered in terms of either
a) The manner of articulation used in its production
b) The resultant acoustic event.
McKay (1956) described two approaches for an explanation of how linguistic value is determined from a speech signal. They are
1) Active
2) Passive
The passive system is envisaged as a filtered system functioning to identify and combine information so as to restructure the pattern. These theories are termed ‘Non mediated’ theories.
The active models are viewed as comparator systems in which input pattern are compared to an internally generated pattern. These models/theories are referred to as ‘mediated’ theories.
The document discusses the five basic human senses - sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. It provides details on the anatomy and physiology of how each sense works, including the sensory receptors involved and pathways in the brain. The key points made are that touch is not considered a special sense, while sight, hearing, smell and taste are the four special senses. Somatic senses include the various aspects of touch like pressure, temperature, and pain.
The document discusses human language processing and psycholinguistics. It covers topics like speech perception and comprehension, lexical access and word recognition, and models of how language is processed both bottom-up and top-down in the brain. Experimental techniques are described that study how quickly words are accessed based on factors like frequency, semantic priming, and irregular spelling.
1) The document discusses challenges with creating artificial speech that accurately emulates human speech, particularly conveying emotion.
2) While early speech synthesis broke words into phonetic sounds and stitched them together, it lacked flexibility and emotional range.
3) Studies found the human brain responds similarly to human voices regardless of language or intelligibility, showing an intrinsic human quality, particularly emotion, in voices.
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A riveting, deeply personal account of history in the making—from the president who inspired us to believe in the power of democracy
In the stirring, highly anticipated first volume of his presidential memoirs, Barack Obama tells the story of his improbable odyssey from young man searching for his identity to leader of the free world, describing in strikingly personal detail both his political education and the landmark moments of the first term of his historic presidency—a time of dramatic transformation and turmoil.
Obama takes readers on a compelling journey from his earliest political aspirations to the pivotal Iowa caucus victory that demonstrated the power of grassroots activism to the watershed night of November 4, 2008, when he was elected 44th president of the United States, becoming the first African American to hold the nation’s highest office.
Reflecting on the presidency, he offers a unique and thoughtful exploration of both the awesome reach and the limits of presidential power, as well as singular insights into the dynamics of U.S. partisan politics and international diplomacy. Obama brings readers inside the Oval Office and the White House Situation Room, and to Moscow, Cairo, Beijing, and points beyond. We are privy to his thoughts as he assembles his cabinet, wrestles with a global financial crisis, takes the measure of Vladimir Putin, overcomes seemingly insurmountable odds to secure passage of the Affordable Care Act, clashes with generals about U.S. strategy in Afghanistan, tackles Wall Street reform, responds to the devastating Deepwater Horizon blowout, and authorizes Operation Neptune’s Spear, which leads to the death of Osama bin Laden.
A Promised Land is extraordinarily intimate and introspective—the story of one man’s bet with history, the faith of a community organizer tested on the world stage. Obama is candid about the balancing act of running for office as a Black American, bearing the expectations of a generation buoyed by messages of “hope and change,” and meeting the moral challenges of high-stakes decision-making. He is frank about the forces that opposed him at home and abroad, open about how living in the White House affected his wife and daughters, and unafraid to reveal self-doubt and disappointment. Yet he never wavers from his belief that inside the great, ongoing American experiment, progress is always possible.
This beautifully written and powerful book captures Barack Obama’s conviction that democracy is not a gift from on high but something founded on empathy and common understanding and built together, day by day.
Chapter 5Sensation and PerceptionFigure 5.1 If you wer.docxrobertad6
Chapter 5
Sensation and Perception
Figure 5.1 If you were standing in the midst of this street scene, you would be absorbing and processing numerous
pieces of sensory input. (credit: modification of work by Cory Zanker)
Chapter Outline
5.1 Sensation versus Perception
5.2 Waves and Wavelengths
5.3 Vision
5.4 Hearing
5.5 The Other Senses
5.6 Gestalt Principles of Perception
Introduction
Imagine standing on a city street corner. You might be struck by movement everywhere as cars and people
go about their business, by the sound of a street musician’s melody or a horn honking in the distance,
by the smell of exhaust fumes or of food being sold by a nearby vendor, and by the sensation of hard
pavement under your feet.
We rely on our sensory systems to provide important information about our surroundings. We use this
information to successfully navigate and interact with our environment so that we can find nourishment,
seek shelter, maintain social relationships, and avoid potentially dangerous situations.
This chapter will provide an overview of how sensory information is received and processed by the
nervous system and how that affects our conscious experience of the world. We begin by learning the
distinction between sensation and perception. Then we consider the physical properties of light and sound
stimuli, along with an overview of the basic structure and function of the major sensory systems. The
chapter will close with a discussion of a historically important theory of perception called Gestalt.
Chapter 5 | Sensation and Perception 149
5.1 Sensation versus Perception
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Distinguish between sensation and perception
• Describe the concepts of absolute threshold and difference threshold
• Discuss the roles attention, motivation, and sensory adaptation play in perception
SENSATION
What does it mean to sense something? Sensory receptors are specialized neurons that respond to specific
types of stimuli. When sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor, sensation has occurred. For
example, light that enters the eye causes chemical changes in cells that line the back of the eye. These
cells relay messages, in the form of action potentials (as you learned when studying biopsychology), to
the central nervous system. The conversion from sensory stimulus energy to action potential is known as
transduction.
You have probably known since elementary school that we have five senses: vision, hearing (audition),
smell (olfaction), taste (gustation), and touch (somatosensation). It turns out that this notion of five
senses is oversimplified. We also have sensory systems that provide information about balance (the
vestibular sense), body position and movement (proprioception and kinesthesia), pain (nociception), and
temperature (thermoception).
The sensitivity of a given sensory system to the relevant stimuli can be expressed as an absolute threshold.
Absolute threshol.
Chapter 5Sensation and PerceptionFigure 5.1 If you wer.docxketurahhazelhurst
Chapter 5
Sensation and Perception
Figure 5.1 If you were standing in the midst of this street scene, you would be absorbing and processing numerous
pieces of sensory input. (credit: modification of work by Cory Zanker)
Chapter Outline
5.1 Sensation versus Perception
5.2 Waves and Wavelengths
5.3 Vision
5.4 Hearing
5.5 The Other Senses
5.6 Gestalt Principles of Perception
Introduction
Imagine standing on a city street corner. You might be struck by movement everywhere as cars and people
go about their business, by the sound of a street musician’s melody or a horn honking in the distance,
by the smell of exhaust fumes or of food being sold by a nearby vendor, and by the sensation of hard
pavement under your feet.
We rely on our sensory systems to provide important information about our surroundings. We use this
information to successfully navigate and interact with our environment so that we can find nourishment,
seek shelter, maintain social relationships, and avoid potentially dangerous situations.
This chapter will provide an overview of how sensory information is received and processed by the
nervous system and how that affects our conscious experience of the world. We begin by learning the
distinction between sensation and perception. Then we consider the physical properties of light and sound
stimuli, along with an overview of the basic structure and function of the major sensory systems. The
chapter will close with a discussion of a historically important theory of perception called Gestalt.
Chapter 5 | Sensation and Perception 149
5.1 Sensation versus Perception
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Distinguish between sensation and perception
• Describe the concepts of absolute threshold and difference threshold
• Discuss the roles attention, motivation, and sensory adaptation play in perception
SENSATION
What does it mean to sense something? Sensory receptors are specialized neurons that respond to specific
types of stimuli. When sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor, sensation has occurred. For
example, light that enters the eye causes chemical changes in cells that line the back of the eye. These
cells relay messages, in the form of action potentials (as you learned when studying biopsychology), to
the central nervous system. The conversion from sensory stimulus energy to action potential is known as
transduction.
You have probably known since elementary school that we have five senses: vision, hearing (audition),
smell (olfaction), taste (gustation), and touch (somatosensation). It turns out that this notion of five
senses is oversimplified. We also have sensory systems that provide information about balance (the
vestibular sense), body position and movement (proprioception and kinesthesia), pain (nociception), and
temperature (thermoception).
The sensitivity of a given sensory system to the relevant stimuli can be expressed as an absolute threshold.
Absolute threshol ...
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Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
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Perception of sound
1. University Of Baghdad
College Of Arts
English Department
Phonetics&phonology
Perception of Sounds
Pitch and Loudness
By: Aseel Kazum Mahmood
16th.Dec.2013
2. 1
Introduction:
Perception is a general term with a general sense found in phonetics and psycholinguistics,
where it refers to the process of receiving and decoding speech input. The perception process
requires that the listener take into account not only the acoustic cues present in the speech
signal, but also their own knowledge of the sound pattern of their language, in order to interpret
what they hear. The term is usually concerned with production (crystal, 2003: 165).
The perception of sound in any organism is limited to a certain range of frequencies. For
humans, hearing is normally limited to frequencies between about 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz
(20 kHz), although these limits are not definite. The upper limit generally decreases with age.
Other species have a different range of hearing. For example, dogs can perceive vibrations
higher than 20 kHz, but are deaf to anything below 40 Hz. As a signal perceived by one of the
major senses, sound is used by many species for detecting danger, navigation, predation,
and communication. Earth's atmosphere, water, and virtually any physical phenomenon, such
as fire, rain, wind, surf, or earthquake, produces (and is characterized by) its unique sounds.
Many species, such as frogs, birds, marine and terrestrial mammals, have also developed
special organs to produce sound. In some species, these produce song and speech.
Furthermore, humans have developed culture and technology (such
as music, telephone and radio) that allows them to generate record, transmit, and broadcast
sound. The scientific study of human sound perception is known as psychoacoustics
(olsen1967).
Trask (1996:260)defines perception as the process by which an individual detects and interprets
information from the external world by means of the organs of sense, the nervous system and
the brain, in speech, the term is particularly applied to the way in which acoustic characteristics
like frequency and intensity are registered and interpreted in terms of speech perception which
is the process by which a hearer extracts identifiable linguistic elements from the continuous
acoustic signal of speech
Perception mechanism:
The mechanism of speech perception, according to Gimson (1998:8), follows the same steps of
sound production but in revered way: the reception of sound waves by the hearing apparatus of
the listener (the physiological stage); then the transmission of the information through the nerve
system to the brain where the linguistic interpretation of the message takes place( the
psychological stage).
The process of perception of speech sounds involves several factors. Accordingly, saying that,
we ‘’heard ‘’ a sound can mean several different things, which are summarized by David crystal
(2006:44-45) as follows:
1. The body may react psychologically to the sound stimulus, but we are not
consciously aware of it just like in some involuntary reflexes that are indicated by
the rate of our breathing or heart-beating in response to some specific situations.
2. A sound is consciously detected. This means it has to be audible in order to be
heard. For this to happen there should be a certain minimum of stimulation.
3. 2
3. Sounds may be preserved to be the same (recognized, or (different) or
(discriminated). In order that the brain can differentiate between two different
sounds, there has to be minimum difference in magnitude between them.
4. The brain is able to focus on certain aspects of a complex auditory stimulus and to
ignore others, in this is called the phenomena of auditory attention. Therefore,
when we ‘’hear attentively, we are said to be ‘’listening’’. So listening and
hearing are not the same, and must be carefully distinguished.
Perception in the brain:
Many different aspects of our perception of sound help us make sense of auditory nerve activity.
The speech perception is the study of the way speech sounds are analyzed and identified in the
brain. Speech production is a part of the general subject called auditory perception the study of
the way we take in any kind of sounds stimulus from music to barking dog The Basic question
in speech perception is how the brain manages to find linguistic unites within he auditory system
or noise that surround us Finding the units of speech.(crystal:2006:45)
The basic question on speech perception is how the brain manages to find linguistic items when
people talk at once in a crowded room we are able to tune in to one speaker and ignore the other,
the human brain ability to pay attention to some incoming sound stimulus and ignore others that
is known as selective listening. How does the brain select auditory information so impressively?
Those complications are avoided when we are listening to just one speaker but even one to one
interaction is not a simple process what we receive from a speaker is a continuously varying
waveform . If we record that waveform, we find that the linguistic unit is not neatly demarcated
by pauses or other boundary marker. Sounds run into each other. Yet we are listening we hear
this waveform as a sequence of sounds and words .how is the brain able to analyze this signal so
that the language units can be identified?
When we analyze the signal, we find other intriguing issues. If we hear different instances of
particular sound, we have no difficulty recognizing them as the same but when we examine the
relevant parts of the wave form we find that the same sound may not have the same wave form,
moreover the articulation of the sound is by different people will result in differ wave form
because of their regional dialect and individual qualities will not be the same.
In normal speech, people produce sounds very quickly (twelve or more segment per second), run
sound together, and leave sounds out, nevertheless, the brain is able to process such rapid
sequence and cope with these modifications.(ibid)
The mechanical process described so far is only the beginning of our perception of sounds. The
mechanisms of sound interpretation are poorly understood, in fact are not yet clear whether all
people interpret sounds in the same way. Until recently, there has been no way to trace the
wiring of the brain, no way to apply simple stimuli and see which parts of the nervous system
respond, at least not in any detail. The only research method available was to have people listen
4. 3
to sounds and describe what they heard. The variability of listening skills and the imprecision of
the language combined to make psycho-acoustics a rather frustrating field of study.
The current best guess as to the neural operation of hearing goes like this:
We have seen that sound of a particular waveform and frequency sets up a characteristic pattern
of active locations on the basilar membranes. (We might assume that the brain deals with these
patterns in the same way it deals with visual patterns on the retina.) If a pattern is repeated
enough we learn to recognize that pattern as belonging to a certain sound, much as we learn a
particular visual pattern belongs to a certain face. (This learning is accomplished most easily
during the early years of life.) The absolute position of the pattern is not very important; it is the
pattern itself that is learned. We do possess an ability to interpret the location of the pattern to
some degree, but that ability is quite variable from one person to the next. (It is not clear whether
that ability is innate or learned.) What use the brain makes of the fact that the aggregate firing of
the nerves more or less approximates the waveform of the sound is not known. The processing of
impulse sounds (which do not last long enough to set up basilar patterns) is also not well
explored (ibid).
Theories in speech perception:
The reason why phonetician’s interest in perception as already been stated: because the
phenomena of speech can be understood only if its production and perception are views as
interrelated and interacting elements of single process(Tiffany. R and Carrel. J 1987:8). Many
speech scientist like Ladefoged (1967) and warren(1969) have tested the listener ability to
identify the unites of speech by listening to tapes, in fact, understanding spoken language is not
hard to account for . Our perceptual sets are usually set to listen to meaning, and it proves that
meaning can be apprehended without necessarily utilizing every potentially available acoustic
cue. However phonetician is adopt or is required to adopt a special listening set in order to note
its salient features.
The motor theory of speech production: this hypothesis about the way spoken language is
perceived is related to the nature of thought process , psychologist agree generally that thinking
except in the case of nonverbal forms, is mediated by verbal symbols. Thinking is carried out by
means of convert or sub vocal speech, we think, they theorize, by ‘’talking ‘’silently to ourselves
by means of inner speech movements’’.
That is speaker repeats the message and apprehend its meaning from cues provided by inner
speech response .Lieberman ET all (1967) had a different view that ‘’the speech decoder works
by referring the incoming speech signal to command that would be appropriate to its production
‘’. However the perceptual processing has a number of acceptable explanatory principles that are
bought together under an analysis-by-synthesis model
Analysis -by- synthesis :it’s the formulation of what takes place in the process of speech
perception runs as follows: at initial stage, the incoming speech signal is received by the sensory
5. 4
end of organ of hearing a in the ear and transmitted to the brain via the auditory path ways , up
to this point , only physical energy in the form of sensory nerve impulses will have reached the
brain , although I, brain circuitry next organized the data it has perceived into percepts on which
recognition is based however this takes place, structuring is an essential feature , the listener
construct one of his own in an attempt to match it . Recognition is based on fragmentary
information involves a principle that psychologist call closure. an auditory perception are
conditioned by certain presumptions mad on the basis of past experience .in the case of speech
these presumptions are the product of learning and take the form of some kind of ’known’
speech sound, the constancy principle incline us to perceive a given figure as always the same
regardless of variations in details .percepts are made to fit one’s prior presumption, and cues not
consistent with presumptions are rejected.one ability to understand spoken language is made
highly efficient through analysis-by synthesis.
However our immediate interest lies in the implication analysis-b-synthesis may have for the
problem of perceiving phonetic characteristics of speech. A base premises would seem to be our
habitual perception set, which is to listen to speech for its meaning, must be replaced by one
which follow u to perceive details of its form it should help to realize that our description of
speech form are likely to be biases not necessarily because we are bad listeners but by reason of
the very factors which enable us to gasp meaning efficiently, they work against the recognition
of structural details
A second premise which is also basic for knowledge of possible speech form provide a memory
bank for which to draw on matching features that have been deleted or detected in a sample
under study with known articulatory possibilities,
Perception in speaker to hearer:
Gimson (1989:19) when we listen to continuous utterance, we perceive an ever changing pattern
of sound. As we have seen, when it is a question of our own language, we are not conscious of
the complexities of pattern which reach our ears: we tend consciously to perceive and interpret
only those sound features which are relevant to intelligibility of our language. Nevertheless,
despite this linguistic selection which we ultimately make, we are aware that this changing
pattern consist of variations of different kinds: of sound quality- we hear a variety of vowel and
consonant; of pitch- we appreciate the melody, or intonation, of the utterance ; of loudness- we
will agree that some sounds of some sounds are ’louder’ than others ; and length- some sounds
will extend longer to our ears than other, these are judgments made by a listener in respect of a
sound continuum emitted by a speaker and, if the sound stimulus from the speaker and response
form the listener are made in term of the same linguistic system, then the utterance will be
6. 5
meaningful for the speaker and listener alike . it is reasonable to assume , therefore, that there is
constant relationship between the speaker’s articulation and the listener’s reception of sound
variation. In other words, it should be possible to link through the transmission phase the
listen’s impression of changes of quality, pitch, loudness and length to some articulatory activity
in the part of the speaker, it will in fact be seen that the exact correlation between the production
transmission and reception phases of speech is not always easy to establish, the investigation is
such relationship being one of the task of preset day phonetic studies.
The perception of speech sounds involves four perceptual categories of: pitch, loudness, quality
and length (O’Connor, 1973:99).
According to Lyons (1981:68) the auditory dimension of pitch and loudness correlate with the
acoustic parameters of frequency and intensity; but the correlation between pitch and frequency ,
on one hand and between loudness and intensity on the other, is not stated in terms of fixed ratio
valid for the whole range of speech- sounds varying along the relevant dimension. While
O’Connor classify speech perception into 4 categories of pitch, loudness, quality and length
(1973:99).
Pitch:
Pitch: the attribute of auditory sensation in term of which a sound may ordered on a scale from
‘low to ‘high’. It is an a auditory phonetic feature, corresponding to some degree with the
acoustic feature, The attribute of auditory sensation in terms of which a sound may be ordered on
a scale from ‘low’ to ‘high’, the study of speech is based upon the number of complete cycles of
vibration of the vocal folds. Pitch refers to a certain auditory property of a sound that enables
listener to place it on a scale going from low to high, without considering its acoustic properties
(ladefodged, 2006:23). According to peter Roach, it is ‘’an auditory sensation ‘’. That is to say,
‘’when we hear a sound that vibrating regular such as note played on a musical instrument, or
vowel produced by human voice, we hear a high pitch if the rate of vibration is high and low
pitch of the rate of vibration is low’’.(1992:23).
Trask (1996:278) defines pitch as :the perceptual correction of the frequency for the sound –in
speech, of the fundamental frequency of the vocal cords, the higher the frequency (that is the
more rapid the vibration))the higher the pitch, but the correlation is far from linearity : at higher
frequencies (though not at lower), the pitch is roughly proportional to the logarithm of the
frequency . Denes and pinson 1993:104) classify pitch into high low, elevated, rising, falling and
concave)
Pitch is auditory phonetic feature which associated with the acoustic feature of frequency that is
based on the number of complete cycles of vibration of the vocal cords (Crystal, 2003: 355). So,
when a speech sound goes up in a frequency it also goes up in pitch, since it depends on the rate
7. 6
of vibration of the vocal cord. According to Katamba, ‘’the more taut the vocal cords are, the
faster they vibrate and the higher is the pitch of the perceived sound’’ (1989:186).
Also, pitch is usually associated with frequency; the higher the frequency of a sound, the higher
we perceive the pitch to be. But our perception of pitch is affected by the duration and intensity
of the sound stimulus. However, the concept of pitch and frequency is not identical: whereas
frequency is an objective, physical fact, pitch is a subjective psychological sensation (crystal,
2006:34).
Gimson (1989:24) our perception of pitch of a speech sound depends directly upon the frequency
of vibration of the vocal folds. Thus we are normally conscious of the pitch caused by the
‘voiced sounds, especially vowels; pitch judgments made on voiceless or whispered sounds,
without the glottal tone , are limited in comparison with those made on voiced sounds, and are
induced mainly by variations of intensity or by the dominance of certain harmonics brought by
the resonating cavities the higher the glottal fundamental frequency, the higher our impressions
of pitch, pitch level of voice will vary in a great deal between individuals and speech of one
speaker
Our perception of pitch is not however solely dependent upon fundamental frequency. variation
of intensity on the same frequency may induce impressions of change of pitch, and again, tones
of very high or low frequency , if they are to be auditable require a greater intensity that those in
a middle range of frequencies.(ibid)
Loudness:
Loudness according to Trask is the perceptual correlate of the acoustic intensity of a sound.
(1996:211). The attribute of auditory sensation in terms of which sound may be ordered on a
scale from soft to loud. It is an auditory phonetic feature, corresponding to some degree with the
acoustic features of intensity or power(measured in decibels (DB)), which in the study of
speech is based on the size of vibration of the vocal cords, as a result of vibration in air pressure,
there is however, no direct or parallel correlation between loudness (or volume) and intensity:
other factors that intensity my effect out sensation of loudness ;e.g. increasing the frequency of
vocal cords vibration may make one sound seem louder than another. (Crystal.2003: 288)
As for loudness, it is another perceptual dimension of speech sounds which is primarily related to
sound intensity (O’Conor, 1973:101). It refers to the ‘’an attribute of auditory sensation in terms
of which a sound may be ordered on a scale from soft to loud’’ (Crystal, 2003:278). According
to Peter Roach, we use loudness to refer to the ‘’scientific measurements of the amounts of
energy present in sounds’’, and ‘’the impression received by the human energy present in sounds
8. 7
‘’, and ‘’ the impression received by the human listener (1992:48). Loudness is used to overcome
some difficulties in communication conditions. Or to give strong emphasis to what we say (ibid).
Loudness is an auditory feature which corresponded to some degree with the acoustic feature of
intensity or power, which is based on the size of vibration of the vocal cords (crystal, 2003:278).
The loudness of a sound may depend on several factors. for example, if the sound Syllable is a
standing alone, or in separation from its neighbors, it will be louder because it is associated with
a marked pitch, or because it is longer than its neighbors (Gimson,1989:25).
The loudness of a sound also depends on the size of vibrations in air pressure that may occur,
and intensity is the appropriate measure that corresponds with loudness (ladefordge, 1993:187).
Finally, both pitch and loudness provide some functional indications to the listener as they may
indicate the psychological conditions of the speaker, the significance of what he/she is saying,
and the manner and mode of what is said.
Our sensation of the relative loudness of sounds may depend on several factors. A sound or
syllable may appear to stand out from its neighbors. It is better to use a term such as prominence
to cover these general listener-impressions of variations in the perceptivity of sounds. More
strictly, what is ‘loudness’ at the receiving end should be related to intensity at the production
stage, which is in return related to the size of amplitude of the vibration and the speaker’s feeling
for stress. Moreover, all other things being equal, some sounds appear by their nature to be
louder than others: e.g. vowels may be more powerful than consonants.
9. 8
References:
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-Crystal, D.2003. A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. Blackwell, Oxford,
UK.
- Denes, Peter B. and Eliot N. Pinson. 1993. The speech chain: the physics and
biology of spoken language, 2nd (1st end 1973). New York:W.H.Freeman.
-Gimson.A.c, .1989,fourth edition.an introduction to the pronunciation of English.
New York, Rutledge chapman ltd.
- Ladefoged, P. 2001.vowels and consonants: an introduction to the sound of
English. Blackwell. Ltd.
-lyons,j.1981.language and linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge university
-Roach, P. 2009. English phonetics and phonology. 4th edition. Cambridge:
Cambridge university press.
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-Olson, Harry F. Autor (1967). Music, Physics and
Engineering. ISBN 9780486217697.Springer Handbook of Auditory Research,Vol.
29 Yost, William A.; Fay, Richard R. (Eds.)2008
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Maryland:university park press.
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