1. Stem Cell and Its
Clinical Implications
Presented by:
Yogesh K. Chaudhari
Department of Pharmacology
Mumbai University
Mumbai
2. Objectives
• Define stem cell
• Outline brief history of stem cell research
• Mention the types of stem cells based on
potential
3. Objectives (contd)
• Outline the sources of stem cell
• Explain the steps of stem cell therapy
• Discuss the health problems that might be
treated by stem cells
4. Objectives (Contd)
• Debate for and against stem cell research
• Mention the responsibilities regarding
stem cell issues
5. Stem Cells: Definition
- unspecialized
- self renewal
- can be induced to form specific cell
types
6. 1 stem cell
Self renewal -
maintains the stem cell
pool
4 specialized cells
Differentiation replaces dead or damaged
cells throught the life
Why self-renew AND differentiate?
1 stem cell
7. Clonogenic, a single ES cell gives rise to a colony of
genetically identical cells, which have the same properties
as the original cell
Expresses the transcription factor Oct-4
Can be induced to continue proliferating or
to differentiate
Lacks the G1 checkpoint in the cell cycle
ES cells spend most of their life cycle in S phase
Don’t show X inactivation
Properties of stem cell….
9. Cells in suspension are tagged
with fluorescent markers
specific for undifferentiated
stem cell
Labeled cells are sent under
pressure through a small nozzle
and pass through an electric
field
A cell generates a negative
charge
if it fluoresces and a positive
charge
if it does not.
Laser beam
passes
through one cell
FLUROSCENT
ACTIVATED
CELL SORTING
Stem
cell
SEPARATION OF STEM CELL
11. • In 1998, James Thomson
isolated stem cells from the
inner cell mass of the early
embryo.
• In 1998, John Gearhart derived
human embryonic germ cells
from fetal gonadal tissue
(primordial germ cells).
History of
Stem Cell Research
12. History of Stem Cell Research (Contd)
1999 - First Successful human transplant of
insulin-making cells from cadavers
2001 - President Bush restricted federal
funding for embryonic stem-cell
research
13. History of Stem Cell Research (Contd)
2004 - Harvard researchers grow stem cells
from embryos using private funding.
Asia, Japan, South Korea and Singapore is
moving forwards on stem cell research.
15. Global status
• Ongoing debate regarding use of embryos
• United Nations: proposal for a global
policy to ban reproductive cloning only
16. Debate in US
• Federal funding available for research using
the Bush lines only
ES cell lines from 8/9/01
• Disadvantage of Bush stem cell lines:
may have mutations or infections
• Private companies continue to pursue stem
cell research
therapeutic cloniing mainly
17. Stem cell research in other
countries
• Great Britain
–Therapeutic cloning , use of excess
embryos & creation of embryos allowed
• France
–Reproductive and therapeutic cloning
banned
• Germany
–Use of excess embryos and creation of
embryos banned
19. Types of Stem Cells based on
potential
Stem cell
type Description Examples
Totipotent
Each cell can develop
into a new individual
Cells from early
(1-3 days)
embryos
Pluripotent
Cells can form any
(over 200) cell types
Some cells of
blastocyst (5 to
14 days)
Multipotent
Cells differentiated,
but can form a number
of other tissues
Fetal tissue, cord
blood, and adult
stem cells
20. This cell
Can form the
Embryo and placenta
This cell
Can just form the
embryo
Fully mature
25. Sources of stem cells
embryonic stem
cells
blastocyst - a very early
embryo
tissue stem cells
fetus, baby and throughout life
26. Embryonic stem (ES) cells:
blastocyst
outer layer of cells
= ‘trophectoderm’
cells inside
= ‘inner cell mass’
embryonic stem cells taken from
the inner cell mass
culture in the lab
to grow more cells
fluid with nutrients
27. Embryonic stem (ES) cells:
embryonic stem cells
PLURIPOTENT
all possible types of specialized
cells
differentiation
29. Tissue stem cells:
MULTIPOTENT
blood stem cell
found in
bone marrow
differentiation
only specialized types of blood cell:
red blood cells, white blood cells,
platelets
30. Induced pluripotent stem cell
cell from the body
‘genetic reprogramming’
= add certain genes to the cell
induced pluripotent stem (iPS)
cell
behaves like an embryonic stem
cell
Advantage: no need for embryos!
all possible types of
specialized cells
culture iPS cells in the lab
differentiation
31. Induced pluripotent stem cell (Contd)
cell from the body (skin)
genetic reprogramming
pluripotent stem cell
differentiation
32. Somatic cell nuclear transfer
• A nucleus from an adult donor cell is inserted
into a recipient egg cell from which the nucleus
has been removed
• The resulting cell is then stimulated to
divide as a zygote later forming embryo
genetically identical to the adult donor cell
34. Goals of therapeutic cloning
–Use embryo as source for ES cells
–Use ES cells to generate an organ with
genetic markers identical to the patient
–Correct genetic error in ESC in blastula stage
35.
36. Pitfalls of therapeutic cloning
• Large number of eggs needed for SCNT
• To harvest large number of eggs:
–excessive hormone treatment may induce
high rate of ovulation
–will carry species-specific mitochondrial
genes
• Mixing species is reason for concern!
37. Cloning
There are two VERY different types of cloning:
Reproductive cloning
Used to make two identical
individuals
Very difficult to do
Illegal to do on humans
Molecular cloning
Used to study what a gene
does
Routinely used in the biology
labs
gene 1
gene 2
38. Reproductive cloning
remove nucleus
and take the
rest of the cell
egg
take the nucleus
(containing DNA)
cell from the body
Clone
identical to the individual
that gave the nucleus
Dolly the sheep
39. Molecular cloning
gene 1
gene 2
2) Make a new piece of DNA
gene 1
gene 2
1) Take DNA out of the nucleus
cell 1 cell 2
gene 1 gene 2
3) Put new DNA into a test cell and grow copies
gene 1
cell divides
Daughter cells
contain same DNA:
Genes 1 and 2 have
been cloned
gene 2
insert new DNA
41. Steps of Stem Cell Therapy
• Defining the problem
• Finding The Right Type of Stem Cell
• Match The Stem Cell With The Recipient
• Put the stem cells in the right place
• Make The Transplanted Stem Cells Perform
42. Steps of Stem Cell Therapy
• Define the problem
Researchers want to replace dead dopamine
neurons with healthy ones
43. • Finding The Right Type of
Stem Cell
Blastocyst stem cells?
At the time, unable to
differentiate into neurons
Fetal stem cells?, Excellent
candidates, ethical problems
Adult stem cells?, Hard to get,
too little known
Steps of Stem Cell Therapy
44. • Match The Stem Cell With The Recipient
Needs a good immunonlogical match.
Steps of Stem Cell Therapy (contd.)
45. • Put the stem cells in the right place
Surgical procedure usually required.
Small holes drilled in the skull, cells
injected with a needle.
Steps of Stem Cell Therapy (contd.)
46. • Make The Transplanted Stem Cells Perform
There was no guarantee how the transplanted cells
would behave. If they did not respond to the proper
signals from their environment, they might have
malfunctioned or died.
Steps of Stem Cell Therapy (contd.)
47. Cell Culture Techniques for ESC
• Isolate & transfer of inner cell mass into
plastic culture dish that contains culture
medium
• Cells divide and spread
• Inner surface of culture dish is typically
coated with mouse embryonic skin cells
that have been treated so they will not
divide
48. • This coating is called feeder layer:
– provide ES cells with a sticky surface for
attachment and release nutrients
–There are methods for growing
embryonic stem cells without mouse
feeder cells
• ES cells are removed gently and plated into
several different culture plates
52. Pro-choice people
• “ Utilitarianism- destruction of smaller
group for the sake of a larger group is
justifiable.”
• …lead to significant information about the
cause, new treatment possibilities, and
potential cure for many diseases.
54. Opinions against stem cell research
Stem cells are taken from a human
blastocyst, which is then destroyed. This
amounts to “murder.”
There is a risk of commercial exploitation
of the human participants in ESCR.
59. Potential Uses of Stem Cells
• Basic research – clarification of complex
events such as
–Molecular mechanisms for gene control
–Role of signals in gene expression &
differentiation of the stem cell
–Stem cell theory of cancer
60. Potential uses cont.
• Biotechnology(drug discovery &
development
–Safety testing of new drugs on
differentiated cell lines
–Screening of potential drugs
61. Potential uses cont.
• Cell based therapies:
–Regenerative therapy to treat
Parkinson’s, heart disease, diabetes
etc
–Stem cells in gene therapy as vehicles
–Stem cells in therapeutic cloning
–Stem cells in cancer
66. Heart Disease
• Adult bone marrow stem cells injected
into the hearts are believed to improve
cardiac function in victims of heart failure
or heart attack
67.
68. Leukemia and Cancer
• Leukemia patients treated with stem
cells emerge free of disease.
• Stem cells have also reduces
pancreatic cancers in some patients.
Proliferation of white cells
76. Responsibilities regarding stem cell
issues
Become informed
The facts about stem cell research and its
curative potential.
www.stemcellfunding.org
www.stemcellaction.org
77. Responsibilities regarding stem
cell issues(contd.)
Inform others
• Contact patient and community groups
and offer to give a presentation like this
one. Organize a house party to help
spread the word.
• Collect email addresses of supporters to
be added to mailing list.
78. Responsibilities regarding stem
cell issues (contd.)
Inform others
• Arrange to meet with your political
representatives to discuss their support for
stem cell research
• Find other like-minded people and work
together
• Invite friends, colleagues, and caretakers
of patients to become involved
79. Technical Challenges
• Source - Cell lines may have mutations
• Delivery to target areas
• Prevention of rejection
• Suppressing tumors
Why self-renew AND differentiate?
1) Self renewal is needed because if the stem cells didn’t copy themselves, you would quickly run out. It is important for the body to maintain a pool of stem cells to use throughout your life.
2) Differentiation is important because specialized cells are used up, damaged or die all the time during your life. Specialized cells cannot divide and make copies of themselves, but they need to be replaced for your body to carry on working. For example, your body needs 100,000 million new blood cells every day. Of course, differentiation is also important for making all the different kinds of cell in the body during development of an embryo from a single fertilized egg.
Possible questions or misconceptions
1) School students may have learnt simply that ‘cells undergo mitosis to make copies of themselves to heal wounds or replace blood cells’. You may need to explain that specialized cells like skin, red blood or gut cells cannot undergo mitosis, which is why you need stem cells. There are a few exceptions (e.g. liver cells or T-cells) but in general specialized cells can no longer divide. For adult audiences, this could be expanded to cover the idea that there are intermediate cells (progenitors) between stem cells and specialized cells that divide to allow a large number of new cells to be made (see slide 26 on renewing tissues)
2) Scientists think that stem cells in the human body don’t generally divide to produce one stem cell and one specialized cell at the same time. They probably divide to make EITHER two stem cells, OR two more specialized cells. In fruit flies, stem cells can divide to make one stem cell and one more specialized cell.
Human embryonic stem cells were first isolated in 1998. The cells from these embryos were established as immortal pluripotent cell lines that are still in existence today.
19
20
Where are stem cells found?
There are different types of stem cells:
Embryonic stem cells: found in the blastocyst, a very early stage embryo that has about 50 to 100 cells;
Tissue stem cells: found in the tissues of the body (in a fetus, baby, child or adult).
(Tissue stem cells are sometimes referred to as adult stem cells, even though they are found in the fetus and in babies, as well as in adults.)
Embryonic stem cells: Where they come from
Embryonic stem (ES) cells are taken from inside the blastocyst, a very early stage embryo. The blastocyst is a ball of about 50-100 cells and it is not yet implanted in the womb. It is made up of an outer layer of cells, a fluid-filled space and a group of cells called the inner cell mass. ES cells are found in the inner cell mass.
For a simple, clear explanation of how embryonic stem cells are obtained, watch the film, “A Stem Cell Story”, at www.eurostemcell.org/films
Embryonic stem cells: What they can do
Embryonic stem cells are exciting because they can make all the different types of cell in the body – scientists say these cells are pluripotent.
Tissue stem cells: Where we find them
We all have stem cells in our bodies all the time. They are essential for keeping us fit and healthy. They replace cells that are damaged or used up. Scientists are still learning about all the different kinds of tissue stem cells found in our bodies and how they work.
Tissue stem cells: What they can do
Tissue stem cells can often make several kinds of specialized cell, but they are more limited than embryonic stem cells. Tissue stem cells can ONLY make the kinds of cell found in the tissue they belong to. So, blood stem cells can only make the different kinds of cell found in the blood. Brain stem cells can only make different types of brain cell. Muscle stem cells can only make muscle cells. And so forth.
Scientists say that tissue stem cells are multipotent because they can make multiple types of specialized cell, but NOT all the kinds of cell in your body.
Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells)
Note: This slide contains a lot of information and may be too complex for some audiences unless there is plenty of time for explanations and discussions.
What are iPS cells?
In 2006, scientists discovered that it is possible to make a new kind of stem cell in the laboratory. They found that they could transform skin cells from a mouse into cells that behave just like embryonic stem cells. In 2007, researchers did this with human cells too. The new stem cells that are made in the lab are called induced pluripotent stem cells. Just like embryonic stem cells, they can make all the different types of cell in the body – so we say they are pluripotent.
Making induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells is a bit like turning back time. Scientists add particular genes to cells from the body to make them behave like embryonic stem cells. Genes give cells instructions about how to behave. So, this process is a bit like changing the instructions in a computer programme to make the computer do a new task. Scientists call the process they use to make iPS cells ‘genetic reprogramming’.
Why are they exciting?
Researchers hope that one day they might be able to use iPS cells to help treat diseases like Parkinson’s or Alzheimer’s. They hope to:
Take cells from the body - like skin cells - from a patient
Make iPS cells
Use those iPS cells to grow the specialized cells the patient needs to recover from the disease, e.g. certain brain cells. These cells would be made from the patient’s own skin cells so the body would not reject them.
There is a long way to go before scientists can do this, but iPS cells are an exciting discovery.
Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells)
This is an alternative representation of the same information as on the previous slide. Please see the previous explanatory notes.
Cloning
When most people think of cloning, they think of the idea of making a copy of an individual – an animal or even a person. This is called reproductive cloning. It hit the headlines in the late 1990s when ‘Dolly the sheep’ was cloned. She was the first mammal ever to be cloned.
In fact, this kind of cloning is very difficult to do and it is illegal even to try to clone a human being.
There is another type of cloning that many biologists do every day: molecular cloning. This is a technique used to help scientists investigate what particular genes do and how they work.
The following slides explain these processes in more detail.
Molecular cloning: Principles
Molecular cloning is a process used by scientists to make copies of a particular gene or genes inside a cell. They use the technique to find out more about what certain genes do or how they work. Molecular cloning is done routinely in laboratories today. It involves several steps:
Take the DNA out of a cell.
Cut out the gene you are interested in (gene 2 in this example). Insert it into a strand of DNA taken from another cell. The gene is not literally cut out with a knife or scissors – carefully chosen enzymes break the DNA chain at particular points. More enzymes are used to insert the gene into another piece of DNA at exactly the right place (in this example, next to gene 1).
Once you have made a piece of DNA containing the gene you want to study, put your new DNA into a test cell. When the cell divides, it makes copies of itself. Each new daughter cell contains an exact copy of the DNA in your test cell, including genes 1 and 2. The genes have therefore been copied and we say they have been cloned.
This is a simplified description of the technique. There are some intermediate steps involved and the details of the technique can vary, but this scheme illustrates the key principle, i.e. we are able to make cells containing particular genes in order to find out what those genes do. Some examples of how this technique can be used are given on the next slide.