This document discusses the mechanisms of socialization and personality development. It defines mechanisms as constellations of entities and activities that regularly produce particular outcomes. It describes three main mechanisms: 1) Mechanisms of the personality system, including learning, defense, and adjustment. 2) Mechanisms of socialization, through which social roles are learned. 3) Mechanisms of social control, which counteract deviance from social norms. Key learning processes include reinforcement, inhibition, substitution, imitation, and identification. Personality is viewed as having basic shared structures influenced by social experiences. Socialization continues through role-specific learning and secondary identifications in adulthood.

1. The Learning of Social Role-
Expectations and the Mechanisms of
Socialization
Chapter VI
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2. Mechanism
A mechanism refers to a constellation of
entities and activities that are organized
such that they regularly bring about a
particular type of outcome, and we explain
an observed outcome by referring to the
mechanism by which such outcomes are
regularly brought about (see also Hedström
and Ylikoski 2010).
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3. Concepts of Mechanism
1. Mechanism of Personality System
• Mechanisms of Learning
• Mechanisms of Defense
• Mechanisms of Adjustments
2. Mechanism of Socialization
3. Mechanism of Social Control 3

4. Mechanisms of
Personality System
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5. Mechanism of Personality System
1. Mechanism of Learning- Learning is defined
broadly as that set of processes by which new
elements of action-orientation are acquired by the
actor, new cognitive orientations, new values, new
objects and new expressive interest. Learning is not
confined to the early stages of the life cycle, but
continues throughout life. What ordinarily called a
“normal” adaptation to change in the situation, is a
learning process.
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6. Mechanism of Personality System
2. Mechanism of Defense- are the processes
through which conflicts internal to the
personality, that is between different need-
dispositions and sub-systems of them, are dealt
with it. In the cases of complete resolution of
such conflicts the mechanism of defense merge
into those of learning.
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7. Mechanism of Personality System
3. Mechanism of Adjustment- are the processes
by which the individual actor deals with the
elements of strain and conflict in his relations to
objects, that is to the situation of action.
• Role strain- occurs when a person has difficulty
meeting the responsibilities of a particular role in his
or her life.
• Role conflict- one role is in conflict with another. 7

8. Mechanisms of Socialization
This process will be called the process of
socialization, and the motivational processes by
which it takes place, seen in terms of their
functional significance to the interaction
system.
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9. Mechanisms of Social Control
is a motivational process in one or more
individual actors which tends to counteract a
tendency to deviance from the fulfillment of
role-expectation.
The mechanisms of social control comprise
aspects of the two classes of mechanisms of the
personality which have been called mechanisms
of defense and of adjustment.
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10. The Socialization of the Child and
the Internalization of Value-
Orientations
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11. The term socialization in its current usage in
the literature refers primarily to the process of
child development. This is in fact a crucially
important case of the operation of what are here
called the mechanisms of socialization, but it
should be made clear that the term here is used in
a broader sense than the current one to designate
the learning of any orientations of functional
significance to the operation of system of
complementary role-expectations.
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12. In Values, Motives and System of
Action five cathectic-evaluative
mechanisms of learning were
distinguished and systematically
related to one another. The five are
Reinforcement-Extinction, Inhibition,
Substitution, Imitation and
Identification. 12

13. 1. Reinforcement-extinction
The name given for the most general relation between
the gratifying-depriving features of the outcome of a
behavioural process, and the strength of the tendency to repeat
it under appropriate conditions.
• Reinforcement- the process of encouraging or establishing a belief or
pattern of behavior, especially by encouragement or reward.
• Extinction- Extinction is similar to punishment, that its purpose is to
reduce unwanted behavior. The process of extinction begins when a valued
behavioral consequence is withheld in order to decrease the probability
that a learned behavior will continue. 13

14. 2. Inhibition
Which means the process of learning to refrain from
carrying out the action motivated by a given need-
disposition, in the presence of an appropriate opportunity for
gratification, regardless of what happens to the “affect”
involved.
Social inhibition is a conscious or subconscious avoidance of a
situation or social interaction. With a high level of social
inhibition, situations are avoided because of the possibility of
others disapproving of their feelings or expressions.
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15. 3. Substitution
it involves the capacity to transfer, to “learn” that new
object can provide gratifications which are more or less
equivalent to the old. Thus in the most general terms
“progress” in learning means, first, at least enough
reinforcement to prevent extinction of motivations, second,
capacity to inhibit the need-dispositions which block new
orientations, and third, capacity to accept new objects, to
substitute.
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16. 4. Imitation
Is the process by which specific items of culture,
specific bits of knowledge, skill, symbolic behaviour,
are taken over from a social object in the interaction
process.
Imitation is the main factor in the process of
socialization of the child. Through it he learns many
social behaviour patterns.
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17. 5. Identification
Means taking over, i.e., internalizing, the values
model. It implies that ego and alter have established a
reciprocal role relationship in which value-patterns are
shared. Alter is a model and this is a learning process,
because ego did not at the beginning of it posses the
values in question.
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18. Basic Personality Structure:
Modal Clustering and Diversity
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19. Basic Personality Structure:
Kardiner conceives of “basic
personality structure” as a social norm.
Also called “modal personality”, it consists
of that part of individuals total personalities
which are shared in common. Moreover it
is held in common because it results from
experiences which are common to virtually
everyone in the society. 19

20. Structure of Personality: Sigmund
Freud
According to Freud, the human personality consists
of three components: Id, Ego, and Superego.
1. The Id (Instinct). The Id is the first to appear, is
believed to reside entirely in the unconscious mind.
The Id is entirely under the influence of the pleasure
principle; in other words, it is seeking gratification at
all costs.
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21. 2. The Ego (Reality). The ego operates according to the reality
principle, working out realistic ways of satisfying the id’s
demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to
avoid negative consequences of society.
3. The Superego (Morality). The third and final component of
Freud’s personality model is the Superego. The superego
incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned
from one’s parents and others. The superego’s function is to
control the id’s impulses, and to persuade the ego to turn to
moralistic goals rather than simply realistic ones and to strive for
perfection.
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22. The Situational Role-
Specification of Orientations
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23. It is necessary for the actor to acquire
more specific orientations relative to the
specific situations and expectations of his
adult roles; there is a further process of
socialization on a new level. A very
important part of this consists in the
acquisition of the more complex adult
culture of sophisticated knowledge,
technical skills and canons of expressive
orientation.
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24. Every society then has the mechanisms
which has been called situational
specifications of role-orientations and which
operate through secondary identifications
and imitation. Through them are learned the
specific role-values and symbol-systems of
that particular society or sub-system of it, the
level of expectations which are to be
concretely implemented in action in the
actual role.
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25. Finally, many societies are involved
in processes of social change. Such
changes may, even over the span of
active adult life.
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27. Thank You for Listening!
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