Its prepared by me for Social Work students to get pass in UGC-NET/JRF exam. This documents briefly about important theories for Social Workers.

1. Today’s Learning
Prepared by:
P.Raghu M.S.W, M.Phil, Ph.D Scholar, NIMHANS, Bangalore.
Mobile: 80981 92628
1) Psycho Dynamic Theory:
The psychodynamic theory is a psychological theory Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and
his later followers applied to explain the origins of human behavior. The
psychodynamic approach includes all the theories in psychology that see human
functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person,
particularly unconscious, and between the different structures of the personality.
2) The words psychodynamic and psychoanalytic are often confused. Remember that
Freud’s theories were psychoanalytic, whereas the term ‘psychodynamic’ refers to both
his theories and those of his followers. Freud’s psychoanalysis is both a theory and
therapy.
3) Psychodynamic theory is strongly determinist as it views our behaviour as caused
entirely by unconscious factors over which we have no control. Unconscious thoughts and
feelings can transfer to the conscious mind through parapraxes, popularly known as Freudian
slips or slips of the tongue.
4) Personality is made up of three parts (i.e., tripartite): The id, Ego, and Super-Ego:
The id is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It consists of all the
inherited (i.e., biological) components of personality present at birth, including the
sex (life) instinct – Eros (which contains the libido), and the aggressive (death)
instinct - Thanatos.
The ego develops in order to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real
world. It is the decision-making component of personality.
The superego incorporates the values and morals of society, which are learned from
one's parents and others.
Parts of the unconscious mind (the id and superego) are in constant conflict with the
conscious part of the mind (the ego). This conflict creates anxiety, which could be dealt
with by the ego’s use of defense mechanisms.

2. 5) Social exchange theory proposes that social behavior is the result of an exchange
process. The purpose of this exchange is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.
According to this theory, people weigh the potential benefits and risks of their social
relationships. When the risks outweigh the rewards, they will terminate or abandon the
relationship.
6) The notion of "social behavior as exchange" was first identified by American sociologist
George C. Homans in 1958.
7) Social exchange theory suggests that we essentially take the benefits of a relationship
and subtract the costs in order to determine how much it is worth.
Costs involve things that you see as negatives, such as having to put money, time, and
effort into a relationship. For example, if you have a friend who always borrows money
from you and does not repay it, this might be seen as a high cost.
Benefits are things that you get out of the relationship, such as fun, friendship,
companionship, and social support. Your friend might be a bit of a freeloader, but bring a
lot of fun and excitement to your life. As you are determining the value of the friendship, you
might decide that the benefits outweigh the potential costs.
8) Social exchange theory addresses three questions. Firstly, the question of how people
make decisions about how much they are willing to give in exchange for a particular
reward. Secondly, what factors influence people to pursue or terminate relationships.
and lastly, Why and whether people feel resentment when they feel they have put more
effort into sustaining a relationship than their partner.
9) Thibault and Kelley (1959) also identified a number of different stages of a
relationship:
Sampling: partners consider the possible costs and benefits in the new relationship
through direct or indirect interactions, and compare it to other relationships available.
Bargaining: partners exchange costs and benefits, they negotiate and identify what is the
most profitable.
Commitment: the relationship is stable and maintained by predictable exchange of
rewards.
Institutionalization: partners have established norms in terms of costs and benefits. They
now settle down.
10) Conflict Theory: Conflict theory was first developed by Marx. It is a theory that
proposes society is always in a state of conflict because people are competing for lack of

3. resources. It states that social order is maintained by power and domination instead of
conformity and consensus.
11) According to this type of theory, the people with power and wealth try to hold on to it
in any way they can, mainly by suppressing people who are poor and powerless.
12) The main points of this theory include the fact that the theory focuses on groups that
are competing over limited resources. The theory views economic and social institutions
as tools of the various struggles between classes and different groups.
13) Marx and other American sociologist believe that conflict in society can be good in for
the simple fact that it eventually drives development and change within society. Conflict
theory highlights the fact that power causes imbalances that impact people as well as
entire communities.
14) This theory is important in social work because it strives to explain a wide range of
social issues. Some of these include discrimination, poverty, and domestic violence.
15) Social Cognitive Theory: Social cognitive theory views people as active agents who
can both influence and are influenced by their environment. The theory is an extension
of social learning that includes the effects of cognitive processes such as conceptions,
judgment, and motivation — on an individual's behaviour and on the environment that
influences them.
16) SCT was propounded by Albert Bandura. The goal of social cognitive theory is to
explain how people regulate their behaviour through control and reinforcement in
order to achieve goal-directed behaviour that can be maintained over time.
17) Stages of the Social Learning Theory (SLT):
Not all observed behaviours are learned effectively. There are several factors involving both
the model and the observer that determine whether a behavior is learned.
a) Attention: the individual needs to pay attention to the behaviour and its consequences
and form a mental representation of the behaviour. Some of the things that influence
attention involve characteristics of the model.
b) Retention: storing the observed behaviour in long-term memory where it can stay for
a long period of time. Imitation is not always immediate. This process is often mediated
by symbols. They can be words, pictures, or even gestures. For symbols to be effective,
they must be related to the behaviour being learned and must be understood by the
observer.

4. c) Motor Reproduction: the individual must be able (have the ability and skills) to
physically reproduce the observed behaviour. This means that the behaviour must be
within their capability. If it is not, they will not be able to learn it.
d) Motivation: the observer must be motivated to perform the behaviour. This motivation
can come from various sources, such as a desire to achieve a goal or avoid punishment.
18) Social learning theory and Social Cognitive Theory are both theories of learning
that place an emphasis on the role of observational learning.
a) Social learning theory focuses on the idea of reinforcement, while Social Cognitive
Theory emphasizes the role of cognitive processes.
b) Social learning theory posits that all behavior is learned through observation,
while Social Cognitive Theory allows for the possibility of learning through other means,
such as direct experience.
c) Social learning theory focuses on individualistic learning, while Social Cognitive
Theory takes a more holistic view, acknowledging the importance of environmental
factors.
19) Psycho Social Development theory developed by Eric Erikson. He maintained that
personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial
development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a
psychosocial crisis, which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality
development.
20) Stage Psychosocial Crisis
Basic --- Virtue ---Age
1. Trust vs. Mistrust---Hope---0---1½
2. Autonomy vs. Shame---Will---1½ - 3
3. Initiative vs. Guilt---Purpose --- 3 - 5
4. Industry vs. Inferiority---Competency--- 5 - 12.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion--- Fidelity---12 - 18.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation---Love---18 - 40.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation ---Care ---40 - 65.
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair ---Wisdoms--- 65+
21) According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy
personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths
which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.
Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete
further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These
stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.

5. 22) Erikson's theory was based on what is known as the epigenetic principle. This principle
suggests that people grow in a sequence that occurs over time and in the context of a
larger community.
23) Symbolic interactionism is a social theoretical framework associated with George
Herbert Mead and Max Weber.
24) It is a perspective that sees society as the product of shared symbols, such as language.
The social world is therefore constructed by the meanings that individuals attach to
events and social interactions, and these symbols are transmitted across the generations
through language.
25) A central concept of symbolic interactionists is the Self, which allows us to calculate
the effects of our actions.
Symbolic interactionism theory has been criticized because it ignores the emotional side of
the Self as a basis for social interaction.
26) Symbolic interactionism theory assumes that people respond to elements of their
environments according to the subjective meanings they attach to those elements, such as
meanings being created and modified through social interaction involving symbolic
communication with other people.
27) In simple terms, people in society understand their social worlds through
communication - the exchange of meaning through language and symbols. Instead of
addressing how institutions objectively define and affect individuals, symbolic
interactionism pays attention to these individuals’ subjective viewpoints and how they make
sense of the world from their own perspective.
28) Ecological Systems Theory: Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory views child
development as a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the
surrounding environment, from immediate settings of family and school to broad
cultural values, laws, and customs.
29) To study a child's development then, we must look not only at the child and her
immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as well.
Bronfenbrenner divided the person's environment into five different systems: The
Microsystem, The Mesosystem, The Exosystem, The Macrosystem, and The
Chronosystem.

6. 30) The Microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner's theory, and are the things
that have direct contact with the child in their immediate environment, such as parents,
siblings, teachers and school peers.
31) The mesosystem encompasses the interactions between the child’s microsystems,
such as the interactions between the child’s parents and teachers, or between school
peers and siblings. According to the ecological systems theory, if the child’s parents and
teachers get along and have a good relationship, this should have positive effects on the
child’s development, compared to negative effects on development if the teachers and parents
do not get along.
32) Exo System: It incorporates other formal and informal social structures, which do
not themselves contain the child, but indirectly influence them as they affect one of the
microsystems.
Examples of exosystems include the neighbourhood, parents’ workplaces, parents’ friends
and the mass media. These are environments, in which the child is not involved, and are
external to their experience, but nonetheless, affect them anyway.
33) Macrosystem that focuses on how cultural elements affect a child's development,
such as socioeconomic status, wealth, poverty, and ethnicity. Thus, the culture that
individuals are immersed within may influence their beliefs and perceptions about events that
transpire in life.
34) Chronosystem consists of all of the environmental changes that occur over the
lifetime that influence development, including major life transitions, and historical
events. These can include normal life transitions such as starting school but can also include
non-normative life transitions such as parents getting a divorce or having to move to a new
house.
35) Object Relations Theory: Klein’s theory of the unconscious focused on the relationship
between the mother–infant rather than the father–infant one, and inspired the central concepts
of the Object Relations School within psychoanalysis.
36) Object relations theorist generally see human contact and the need to form
relationships – not sexual pleasure – as the prime motivation of human behavior and in
personality development.
37) It places less emphasis on biological based drives and more importance on
interpersonal relationships (e.g. the intimacy and nurturing of the mother).

7. 38) The child's relation to an object (e.g. the mother's breast) servers as the prototype for
future interpersonal relationships.
39) Objects can be both external (a physical person or body part) and internal,
comprising emotional images and representations of an external object.
40) Empowerment Theory: Empowerment theory social work involves using intervention
methods to guide people toward achieving a sense of control.
41) People may feel helpless in their lives for any number of reasons, but empowerment
theory focuses on how oppression contributes to this experience. It centers on helping
marginalized people at individual, group and community levels gain the personal,
interpersonal and political power to improve their lives.
42) Empowerment theory social work explores several key factors: Direct power blocks are
the structures that stop people from achieving goals such as better employment,
advanced education or safe housing. Examples include inequitable access to well-funded
and high-quality schools, discriminatory lending practices in housing, or sexist attitudes in
corporate culture.
Indirect power blocks refer to internalized oppression. Groups with histories of
mistreatment often absorb the negative messaging of the abuse they receive. They develop
stories about their limited options and ability to achieve and then pass those ideas down
across generations.
43) Dimensions of Empowerment: Self-Efficacy Individuals must build their power by
cultivating the belief that they can change their circumstances.
Critical Consciousness
Individuals need to develop a deep understanding of the complex social, economic and
political realities in their environments that negatively affect them. This involves examining
their roles in these environments and seeking out potential ways to work around the structures
blocking them.
Tool Development Building awareness is important, but without the interventions that
address negative thinking patterns and unfair social and political realities, people can
only get so far.
44) Micro level tools: Therapy, Case management and insight.
Macro level tools: political advocacy, programme development, research projects.

8. 45) Empowerment Theory Social Work in Action Empowerment theory social work
uses a five-step problem-solving model to achieve its goals:
 Identify problems.
 Define strengths.
 Set goals.
 Implement interventions.
 Evaluate successes on a collaborative level.
46) Social Constructivism Theory: Social constructivism explores the way we learn when
no one is guiding us. This type of learning occurs because people want to construct their
own knowledge and understanding. They are motivated to learn when they have a need
for it.
47) Social constructivism, a social learning theory developed by Russian psychologist Lev
Vygotsky, posits that individuals are active participants in the creation of their own
knowledge.
48) Features of Social Constructivism:
a) People Are Naturally Curious:
Social constructivists believe people are naturally curious about the world and are willing to
learn. This curiosity is the hallmark of all learning.
b) Information Is Not Knowledge:
It’s something we reconstruct through conversations with others. It changes as we talk about
it. Our ideas change when we talk about them with different people or read different texts.
c) Personal And Cultural:
Social constructivist learning theory emphasizes personal meaning and values, as well as
participating in and contributing to conversations with others. Context plays a major part in
learning.
There’s an interplay between the individual and the social aspects in this theory—they
each have a role to play for learning outcomes to be realized.
49) Benefits Of The Social Constructivist Model:
a) It Increases Creativity, The Ability To Take More Risks And The Freedom To Explore
In Different Ways.
b) It Encourages Discovery Through Problem-Solving And Collaboration. Students Can
Then Put This New Understanding Into Practice With Different Activities Or
Assignments.

9. c) It Prompts Students to Reflect On What They’ve Learned. This Can Be Done By Asking
Questions About Why Something is Important, Or Reflecting On The Activities That
Help Them Learn A Specific Concept.
50) Social Network Theory: The theory attempts to understand how social relations are
organized and maintained, why they emerge, and how they affect our understanding of
society. Social network theory is known for measuring objects/nodes and relationships
within a network of personal relationships and larger societal social interactions. Social
network theory continued to be developed by Jacob Moreno.
51) Theories surrounding social networks investigate how individual group dynamics
can impact:
a) The transmission of information
b) Behavioral and language changes within communities
c) The reasons for the dissolution of social relationships
52) There are some of the most significant social factors that can impact language use
within a social network:
a) Gender
b) Ethnicity
c) Age
d) Social class
e) Occupation
53) a) Closed social network is a network in which contacts generally all know one another.
b) Open social networks and personal contacts do not necessarily know one another.
c) Multiplexity is also an important factor when determining the structure of a
particular social network. Multiplexity refers to when contacts in a social network know
each other in more than one way i.e. in multiple social groups.
54) Social media is constantly changing the way we use language and can have both
positive and negative effects on social networks.
55) Crisis Theory: Crisis theory’s efficacy can be understood through the interventions
and multi-theories associated with it. Individuals in crisis, particularly those experiencing
trauma, show high levels of success when therapists utilize crisis theory.
56) The multi-theoretical approach allows this theory to be used in therapy with various
issues and from various backgrounds, including persons in the military, persons from

10. different cultures, socioeconomic status, and educational achievement due to the
flexibility and adaptability of the interventions.
57) According to James and Gilliland, “crisis” is a broad and subjective term used to describe
a situation that affects an individual in an excruciating way due to various life,
environmental, and psychological stressors. Human behavior is largely impacted by
unexpected and uncontrolled life events that can be so egregious, they lack comprehension.
58) Crisis theory interventions are derived from many theoretical perspectives, such as Ego
Psychology, Behavior Theory, and Cognitive Theory.
59) Primarily, there are three categories of crisis:
Developmental, situational, and existential, each reflecting unique identifiers.
a) Developmental crises occur from naturally occurring stages and milestones in life that
may create stress due to the transition from one stage to another.
b) Situational crises — events one cannot control, prevent, or otherwise anticipate — are
perhaps the most common occurrences.
c) Existential crises are perhaps the most frustrating and challenging for persons to cope
with and accept. Existential crises directly confront value and belief systems due to inner
turmoil surrounding the event.
60) The Triangular Theory of Love characterizes love in terms of three underlying
components: intimacy, passion, and commitment.
People love each other to the extent they show these three components, and different
combinations of the components yield different kinds of love. It is proposed by Sternberg.
61) Intimacy is characterized by feelings of caring, concern, understanding, trust, and
closeness between two partners. Intimate partners are good friends and support each
other in times of need. Intimacy is primarily emotional in nature.
62) Passion is characterized by intense desire, feelings of longing, need of the partner,
and joy at the thought of seeing the partner (and anxiety or worry at the thought of
separation). Passionate partners crave each other’s presence, much as do people who
experience an addiction. Passion is primarily motivational in nature.
63) Commitment is characterized by cognitions of the long-lasting nature or even
permanence of a relationship, the stand that one will stay with the partner, despite any
hardships that may evolve, and the confidence that the relationship is the right one to

11. be in. Committed partners view themselves as in the relationship over the long term.
Commitment is primarily cognitive in nature.
64) Love-based social work practice, such as self-forgiveness, pursuing gender-equal
relationships, upholding fair workplace conditions, honoring Indigenous peoples,
supporting oppressed people to assert their rights, connecting local and global action,
nurturing symbiotic relationships with nature, and supporting empowering
spiritualities. The love ethic supports radical social workers to engage in activism, and
necessitates further exploration within academia and practice.
65) Rational Choice Theory means every choice that is made is completed by first
considering the costs, risks and benefits of making that decision. Choices that seem
irrational to one person may make perfect sense to another based on the individual’s desires.
66) This theory states that individuals use their self-interests to make choices that will
provide them with the greatest benefit. People weigh their options and make the choice
they think will serve them best. How individuals decide, what will serve them best is
dependent on personal preferences.
67) Adam Smith is considered the originator of rational choice theory. In social work,
rational choice theory helps social workers understand the motivations of those they work
with. Using rational choice theory, social workers can uncover why their clients do certain
things and have gotten into certain situations, even when they seem unfavorable.
68) Rational choice theory can also help social workers when they’re designing
interventions and treatments. Knowing that their clients will make decisions based on what
benefits them, social workers can use that understanding to guide their interactions with and
make recommendations for their clients.
69) Social workers can use rational choice theory to:
a) Investigate the meaning behind their clients’ relationships, including with friend groups
and romantic partners, including when those relationships are abusive or seem toxic.
b) Examine why their clients behave in certain ways, including engaging in self-
destructive behaviors and addictions.
c) Understand how family dynamics and social interactions affect their clients.
d) Create a better relationship between themselves and their clients, by positioning
their work in a way that benefits the client.

12. e) Promote interventions and create treatments that their clients will want to engage
in because they see the benefits.
f) Position resources so that clients understand how those resources will benefit them.
70) Systems theory in social work is based on the idea that behavior is influenced by a
variety of factors that work together as a system. These factors include family, friends,
social settings, economic class, and the environment at home.
71) Systems theory offers a more complete view of a person’s situation within his or her
social environment. It is often applied to situations where many issues connect intricately,
influencing one another in various ways.
72) There are three broad schools of interventions that can be identified. They are:
a) Structural approaches: This type of intervention stems from the technique of observing
the interactive patterns in a family or system, and then a structural approach would be taken
to highlight problematic situations, find problem-solving solutions to interrupt them when
they are happening, and then get the individual or family to try different ways of acting
that lead to better outcomes.
b) Strategic approaches: The focus with strategic interventions is on the everyday
problematic interactions and solving them with properly applied cognitive thinking. Often,
perceptions people have about their problems influence how those issues are handled. This
type of approach allows for a culturally relevant solution that focuses on a family’s or
individual’s perceptions within a system, rather than trying to impose perceptions strictly
from the outside.
c) Systemic approaches: This approach (also called the Milan systemic model) works with
the whole family or system, rather than just the individual. The focus of this approach is to
discover rules and ideologies that are sustaining dysfunctional patterns, then to encourage
change in a way that avoids being perceived as blaming others within the system.
73) Understanding and applying systems theory is critical in most forms of social work,
because it can offer insights that can help people break harmful habits and stop
behaviors that keep them from having a fuller in life.