This document discusses several cognitive biases and theories that can influence social perceptions and judgments, including self-fulfilling prophecies, stereotyping, the halo and contrast effects, and the fundamental attribution error. It also contrasts entity and incremental theories and suggests that reducing biases requires reflection, inquiry, and considering alternative explanations.
Social cognitive theory proposes that personal factors, environmental factors, and behavioral factors have bidirectional influence through triadic reciprocal causation. Key concepts include self-fulfilling prophecy, stereotyping, halo and contrast effects, entity and incremental theories, and fundamental attribution error. The theory emphasizes cognitive, vicarious, self-reflective, and self-regulatory processes through which people operate symbolically on their experiences and influence their motivation and action.
The document discusses various methods for conducting market analysis for new product development. It focuses on four main areas: idea generation, product optimization, marketing mix optimization, and market prediction. For idea generation, methods like brainstorming, focus groups, and morphological analysis are presented. Product optimization discusses approaches like Quality Function Deployment (QFD) and conjoint analysis to design the product based on customer needs. Test marketing and concept testing are described as ways to introduce the new product to the market and predict its anticipated success. Case studies on pharmaceutical companies and automakers are provided as examples.
The document discusses six strategies for improving decision making: 1) Acquiring experience and expertise, 2) Debiasing judgment, 3) Analogical reasoning, 4) Taking an outsider's view, 5) Using linear models and other statistical techniques, and 6) Understanding biases in others. It provides examples and analysis of how each strategy can help reduce cognitive biases. The strategies include gaining direct experience, questioning current assumptions, comparing to similar past situations, incorporating outside perspectives, applying statistical models, and systematically assessing for biases. The overall aim is to present a framework for more objective and well-informed decisions.
This document discusses several biometric identification methods including facial recognition, hand geometry, fingerprint scanning, palm scanning, retinal scanning, iris scanning, and gait analysis. It provides information on how iris scanning works and examines irises, as well as mentioning DNA identification through analysis of a person's walk.
This document discusses several cognitive biases and theories that can influence social perceptions and judgments, including self-fulfilling prophecies, stereotyping, the halo and contrast effects, and the fundamental attribution error. It also contrasts entity and incremental theories and suggests that reducing biases requires reflection, inquiry, and considering alternative explanations.
Social cognitive theory proposes that personal factors, environmental factors, and behavioral factors have bidirectional influence through triadic reciprocal causation. Key concepts include self-fulfilling prophecy, stereotyping, halo and contrast effects, entity and incremental theories, and fundamental attribution error. The theory emphasizes cognitive, vicarious, self-reflective, and self-regulatory processes through which people operate symbolically on their experiences and influence their motivation and action.
The document discusses various methods for conducting market analysis for new product development. It focuses on four main areas: idea generation, product optimization, marketing mix optimization, and market prediction. For idea generation, methods like brainstorming, focus groups, and morphological analysis are presented. Product optimization discusses approaches like Quality Function Deployment (QFD) and conjoint analysis to design the product based on customer needs. Test marketing and concept testing are described as ways to introduce the new product to the market and predict its anticipated success. Case studies on pharmaceutical companies and automakers are provided as examples.
The document discusses six strategies for improving decision making: 1) Acquiring experience and expertise, 2) Debiasing judgment, 3) Analogical reasoning, 4) Taking an outsider's view, 5) Using linear models and other statistical techniques, and 6) Understanding biases in others. It provides examples and analysis of how each strategy can help reduce cognitive biases. The strategies include gaining direct experience, questioning current assumptions, comparing to similar past situations, incorporating outside perspectives, applying statistical models, and systematically assessing for biases. The overall aim is to present a framework for more objective and well-informed decisions.
This document discusses several biometric identification methods including facial recognition, hand geometry, fingerprint scanning, palm scanning, retinal scanning, iris scanning, and gait analysis. It provides information on how iris scanning works and examines irises, as well as mentioning DNA identification through analysis of a person's walk.
Burger King hired advertising agency Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CPB) in 2004 to help boost declining sales. CPB launched unconventional viral marketing campaigns like Subservient Chicken, where visitors could command a chicken via webcam, and metal band parody CoqRoc to promote new chicken products. These viral videos received over 20 million views in the first ten days and 100 million orders of chicken fries in the first month, successfully increasing awareness and sales among younger audiences. While some criticized the campaigns' crude humor, CPB's viral approaches proved more effective than traditional TV ads at engaging customers and generating buzz around Burger King's products and brand.
The document discusses various approaches to recruiting job candidates, including internal and external approaches. It emphasizes the importance of recruiting for enabling companies to be more selective in hiring. Effective recruiting requires cooperation between HR and line managers. Potential sources of candidates mentioned include advertising, employment agencies, college recruiting, social networks, and web-based recruitment. The document provides guidance on constructing job advertisements, listing benefits to attract candidates, and working with employment agencies.
This document discusses individual and organizational narcissism. It defines narcissism as being derived from the Greek myth of Narcissus and describes it as a clinical condition of perverse self-love. There are different types of narcissism including normal/healthy narcissism which facilitates functioning and pathological narcissism which causes inadequacy issues. The document also discusses narcissistic personality disorder, characteristics of narcissism, narcissistic leadership, and how narcissism can manifest in organizations when members derive their self-esteem primarily from their organizational identity. Recommendations are provided for organizational leaders to avoid developing narcissistic tendencies within their organizations.
This document discusses individual and organizational narcissism. It defines narcissism as being derived from the Greek myth of Narcissus and describes it as a clinical condition of perverse self-love. There are different types of narcissism including normal/healthy narcissism which facilitates functioning and pathological narcissism which causes inadequacy issues. The document also discusses narcissistic personality disorder, characteristics of narcissism, narcissistic leadership, and how narcissism can manifest in organizations when members derive their self-esteem from relating to the organization. Recommendations are provided for organizational leaders to avoid developing narcissistic tendencies.
The document discusses various approaches to recruiting job candidates, including internal and external approaches. It emphasizes the importance of recruiting for enabling companies to be more selective in hiring. Effective recruiting requires cooperation between HR and line managers. Potential sources of candidates mentioned include advertising, employment agencies, college recruiting, social networks, and web-based recruitment. The document provides guidance on constructing job advertisements, listing benefits to attract candidates, and working with employment agencies.
This document provides an overview of intellectual property, including its definition and main categories. Intellectual property is divided into industrial property (patents, trademarks, industrial designs, geographical indications, trade secrets) and copyright. It describes key aspects of each type of intellectual property like what they protect, who can own them, typical length of protection, examples of famous patents and trademarks. The purpose of intellectual property is to promote innovation by granting exclusive rights to creators and owners to benefit from their work.
The document discusses integrating customers and suppliers into new product development. It provides guidance on assessing customer needs through interviews and matrices to understand priorities. It also discusses evaluating suppliers' capabilities, technology roadmaps, risks, and rates of technological change to determine if and when to involve them. The optimal level of supplier integration depends on factors like technology volatility and the supplier's expertise.
The document discusses commercialization of new products. It defines commercialization as introducing a new product into the market, which involves significant spending on marketing. It notes that 67% of new products fail in the commercialization process, sometimes due to flaws in product development or launch execution. The document then provides details on the different stages of new product development and commercialization for both incremental and breakthrough products. It highlights some common mistakes made during commercialization.
The document discusses the control systems of Aloha Products, a coffee company with 3 roasting plants. It evaluates the current systems for manufacturing, marketing, and purchasing. The plant managers have no control over inputs like coffee beans, production schedules, or sales. The control system tries to measure plants as profit centers but the infrastructure is set up as cost centers. Recommendations include:
1. Restructuring purchasing as an operational arm shared by plants to achieve bulk buying cost savings.
2. Continuing centralized marketing to efficiently promote the brand.
3. Assigning sales territories to each plant to avoid cannibalization.
4. Evaluating plant managers using EVA instead of gross margin to
Build-A-Bear Workshop was founded in 1996 by Maxine Clark and allows customers to personally create stuffed animals. It became very successful despite opening during the dot-com era, which was a difficult time for retailers. The company grows by opening numerous new stores each year in both the US and internationally. Build-A-Bear's success stems from selling an experience where customers participate in making a personalized stuffed animal rather than just a product. The customization process creates fiercely loyal customers and long-term value.
Burger King hired advertising agency Crispin Porter + Bogusky (CPB) in 2004 to help boost declining sales. CPB launched unconventional viral marketing campaigns like Subservient Chicken, where visitors could command a chicken via webcam, and metal band parody CoqRoc to promote new chicken products. These viral videos received over 20 million views in the first ten days and 100 million orders of chicken fries in the first month, successfully increasing awareness and sales among younger audiences. While some criticized the campaigns' crude humor, CPB's viral approaches proved more effective than traditional TV ads at engaging customers and generating buzz around Burger King's products and brand.
The document discusses various approaches to recruiting job candidates, including internal and external approaches. It emphasizes the importance of recruiting for enabling companies to be more selective in hiring. Effective recruiting requires cooperation between HR and line managers. Potential sources of candidates mentioned include advertising, employment agencies, college recruiting, social networks, and web-based recruitment. The document provides guidance on constructing job advertisements, listing benefits to attract candidates, and working with employment agencies.
This document discusses individual and organizational narcissism. It defines narcissism as being derived from the Greek myth of Narcissus and describes it as a clinical condition of perverse self-love. There are different types of narcissism including normal/healthy narcissism which facilitates functioning and pathological narcissism which causes inadequacy issues. The document also discusses narcissistic personality disorder, characteristics of narcissism, narcissistic leadership, and how narcissism can manifest in organizations when members derive their self-esteem primarily from their organizational identity. Recommendations are provided for organizational leaders to avoid developing narcissistic tendencies within their organizations.
This document discusses individual and organizational narcissism. It defines narcissism as being derived from the Greek myth of Narcissus and describes it as a clinical condition of perverse self-love. There are different types of narcissism including normal/healthy narcissism which facilitates functioning and pathological narcissism which causes inadequacy issues. The document also discusses narcissistic personality disorder, characteristics of narcissism, narcissistic leadership, and how narcissism can manifest in organizations when members derive their self-esteem from relating to the organization. Recommendations are provided for organizational leaders to avoid developing narcissistic tendencies.
The document discusses various approaches to recruiting job candidates, including internal and external approaches. It emphasizes the importance of recruiting for enabling companies to be more selective in hiring. Effective recruiting requires cooperation between HR and line managers. Potential sources of candidates mentioned include advertising, employment agencies, college recruiting, social networks, and web-based recruitment. The document provides guidance on constructing job advertisements, listing benefits to attract candidates, and working with employment agencies.
This document provides an overview of intellectual property, including its definition and main categories. Intellectual property is divided into industrial property (patents, trademarks, industrial designs, geographical indications, trade secrets) and copyright. It describes key aspects of each type of intellectual property like what they protect, who can own them, typical length of protection, examples of famous patents and trademarks. The purpose of intellectual property is to promote innovation by granting exclusive rights to creators and owners to benefit from their work.
The document discusses integrating customers and suppliers into new product development. It provides guidance on assessing customer needs through interviews and matrices to understand priorities. It also discusses evaluating suppliers' capabilities, technology roadmaps, risks, and rates of technological change to determine if and when to involve them. The optimal level of supplier integration depends on factors like technology volatility and the supplier's expertise.
The document discusses commercialization of new products. It defines commercialization as introducing a new product into the market, which involves significant spending on marketing. It notes that 67% of new products fail in the commercialization process, sometimes due to flaws in product development or launch execution. The document then provides details on the different stages of new product development and commercialization for both incremental and breakthrough products. It highlights some common mistakes made during commercialization.
The document discusses the control systems of Aloha Products, a coffee company with 3 roasting plants. It evaluates the current systems for manufacturing, marketing, and purchasing. The plant managers have no control over inputs like coffee beans, production schedules, or sales. The control system tries to measure plants as profit centers but the infrastructure is set up as cost centers. Recommendations include:
1. Restructuring purchasing as an operational arm shared by plants to achieve bulk buying cost savings.
2. Continuing centralized marketing to efficiently promote the brand.
3. Assigning sales territories to each plant to avoid cannibalization.
4. Evaluating plant managers using EVA instead of gross margin to
Build-A-Bear Workshop was founded in 1996 by Maxine Clark and allows customers to personally create stuffed animals. It became very successful despite opening during the dot-com era, which was a difficult time for retailers. The company grows by opening numerous new stores each year in both the US and internationally. Build-A-Bear's success stems from selling an experience where customers participate in making a personalized stuffed animal rather than just a product. The customization process creates fiercely loyal customers and long-term value.
1) The document discusses various aspects of knowledge-based marketing such as segmentation, positioning, promotion, product development, pricing, and customer relationship management.
2) It emphasizes the importance of understanding customer needs and behaviors through market research and data analysis to inform marketing strategies and decisions.
3) New technologies like data mining, customer databases, and digital tools allow companies to gain deeper insights into customers and customize their marketing accordingly.
This document summarizes strategies for debiasing human decision making. It discusses motivational, cognitive, and technological strategies for overcoming biases. Some key points covered include recognizing biases through feedback, replacing inferior intuitive decision strategies with better rules-based strategies through training, using technology like linear models and statistical analysis to improve upon expert judgments, and promoting the adoption of debiasing techniques through social norms and management programs.
The document presents ideas for creating an environmentally friendly home from a presentation given by Omid Aminzadeh Gohari at Sharif University of Technology's Electrical Engineering Department. Some key ideas include installing solar hot water heating, replacing standard light bulbs with compact fluorescents, improving home insulation, using natural lighting and ventilation, installing low flow showerheads, and living by the principles of reduce, reuse, and recycle. The presentation provides various tips for building an eco-friendly home through products, materials, and behaviors that minimize environmental impact.
This document outlines a presentation on using information theory to understand portfolio selection strategies in the stock market. The presentation covers: why the stock market is important both financially and as an application of information theory; Chen's approach to modeling the information content in a market; Cover and Thomas's approach to modeling the stock market as a vector of stock prices; key concepts like wealth-relative and growth rate of wealth; how side information can provide an upper bound on increased growth rate; and concludes by briefly discussing the connections between information theory and the stock market.
Heuristics are simple rules or mental shortcuts that allow humans to make decisions quickly and with limited information. The document discusses several types of heuristics including: the gaze heuristic, recognition heuristic, social heuristics like "do what the majority do", and heuristics based on reasons like take the best and tallying. It also covers cognitive biases like hindsight bias. Overall, the document examines how heuristics demonstrate bounded rationality and how humans use fast and frugal mental shortcuts to make decisions in an efficient manner.
The document discusses procurement management and the various cycles and strategies involved. It describes the requirement, requisition, solicitation, award, and contract administration cycles. It also covers make-or-buy analysis, contract types, risk allocation, and contract changes and termination. The goal of procurement management is to purchase necessary goods and services while managing relationships and contracts.
This document discusses risk management in project management. It defines project risk as an uncertain event that can positively or negatively impact project objectives. It identifies different types of risks and explains the risk continuum from unknown unknowns to known knowns. The document also outlines the five main components of risk management according to PMBOK: 1) define objectives, 2) identify risks, 3) qualify and quantify risks, 4) develop responses, and 5) control risks. It provides examples of identifying, analyzing, and responding to different types of risks in projects.
Path-Goal Theory centers on how leaders motivate subordinates to accomplish goals by emphasizing the relationship between a leader's style and subordinate and task characteristics. It suggests that a leader should use the style that best complements what is missing in the work environment to enhance goal attainment. The theory identifies four leadership styles - directive, supportive, participative, and achievement-oriented - that can be applied depending on the situation to motivate subordinates. While providing a framework for understanding leadership behaviors and motivation, the theory has also received some criticism for being complex to implement and only partially supported by research.
The Prius was successful due to its technological advances, lower price than other hybrids and SUVs, and its ability to appeal to consumers affected by high gas prices. Toyota's launch of the Prius took advantage of society's need for more fuel efficient vehicles when gas prices were rising and people drove uneconomical vehicles. Government incentives further contributed to the Prius' popularity by offering tax breaks for hybrid owners. Competition in the electric vehicle market was growing as most major automakers began introducing electric models across various vehicle classes between 2009-2012.
The Prius was marketed as a more affordable hybrid vehicle compared to SUVs with similar hybrid technology. As gas prices rose and less economical vehicles became undesirable, the Prius offered a solution as a more fuel efficient option. Government incentives were provided to encourage buying vehicles like the Prius that achieved high mileage and had advanced technology. Competition in the hybrid and electric vehicle market grew as other automakers sought to develop their own electric models starting in the late 2000s.
This document discusses Hyundai's transformation from an imitative automaker to an innovative industry leader through organizational learning and crisis construction. It outlines Hyundai's growth, increasing production tenfold each decade to become the largest automaker in a developing country. The document also presents models of organizational learning and crisis construction, and examines how Hyundai moved from learning by doing to learning by research. Key aspects of Hyundai's experience included leveraging migratory knowledge, developing prior knowledge through intense effort, and proactively constructing internal crises to drive creative learning.
Organizational learning and technology development
Sess3 perceptions and_judgements_farsi
1. بنام خدا
تاثیر پيش فرضها و قضاوتهای انسانی بر
رفتارهاي سازماني مدیران و کارکنان
سيد بابك علوي
استاديار دانشكده مديريت و اقتصاد
دانشگاه صنعتي شريف
2. Social cognitive theory
Triadic reciprocal
causation
P
B E
P: personal factors
B: behavioral factors
E: environmental
factors
(Bandura, 1997, p. 6)
3. اهميت پيش فرضها در رفتار سازماني
ً
بر اساس ادراکشان از واقعيت شكل مي گيرد؛ نه الزاما
ً
رفتار افراد عمدتا بر اساس
خود واقعيت؛
ادراك انسان از واقعيت ها داراي محدوديت هاي فراواني مي باشد.؛
ممکن است برخی از پيش فرضها و قضاوت هاي مدیران و کارکنان بر اساس ادراكاتي
صحيح نباشند
ً
باشند كه الزاما .
نکته مهم اینست که برخی از قضاوتهای سریع ما ممکن است صحیح باشند، اما لازم
است همیشه احتمال دهیم که برخی از این قضاوتها بر اساس خطاهای ادراکی به
صورت اشتباه شکل گرفته و در تعاملات ما نتایج منفی داشته باشند.
باورهاي ذهني و رفتارهاي انسانها داراي وابستگي زيادي به يكديگر مي باشد.
4. انواع پيش فرض ها
درباره خود؛
درباره ديگران؛
درباره وقايع و پديده هاي محيطي.
5. نمونه هايي از تاثير گذاری پیش فرضهای ذهنی بر
رفتار سازمانی
(self-fulfilling prophecy) پیش گویی کامبخش
(Stereotyping) قالبي انديشيدن
(Halo effect) اثر هاله اي
(Contrast effect) اثر تقابل
باور درباره ثبات و يا امكان تغيير توانايي هاي ديگران
(Entity and incremental theorists)
خطاي بنيادين اسناد
(Fundamental attribution error)
6. پیش گویی کامبخش
تحقق پیش فرضهای ذهنی درباره افراد در واقعیت. مثال:
2. اقدام و
تصمیم گيری بر
اساس پیش فرض
3. ایجاد واکنش
در فرد مقابل
1. پیش فرض
مدیر درباره
کارشناس
4. بروز رفتارهایی
همراستا با پیش
فرض اولیه
7. مثال هایی از پیش گویی کامبخش
2. اقدام و تصمیم گیری بر
اساس پیش فرض: تفویض
اختیار به وی اقدامی
معقول نیست. پس اختیار
زیادی نباید در تصمیم
گیری داشته باشد
3. ایجاد واکنش در فرد
مقابل: ایجاد بی انگیزگی و
بی تفاوتی در زمان اجرای
تصمیمات سازمانی
راه اول اصلاح حلقه:
بررس ی پیش فرض
توسط مدیر
1. پیش فرض مدیر دربا ره
کارشناس: وی فردی نات وان
است
4. بروز رفتارهایی همراستا
با پیش فرض اولیه:
رفتارهای غیرکارکردی و
افت عملکرد
راه دوم اصلاح حلقه:
واکنش سازنده فرد به
رفتار مدیر
8. 2. اقدام و تصمیم گی ری
بر اساس پیش فرض:
در زمان انتخاب مدیر
یک واحد، آن فرد در
نظر گرفته نمی شود.
3. ایجاد واکنش در فرد
مقابل: ایجاد بی انگیزگی
و بی تفاوتی به دلیل
احساس ناعدالتی
1. پیش فرض مدیر
درباره کارشناس: وی
فردی درون گرا است.
4. بروز رفتارهایی
همراستا با پیش فرض
اولیه: عدم حضور مؤثر
و مشارکت فعال در
جلسات
9. قالبی انديشيدن
هنگامی که ما کس ی را بر اساس ادراک مان در باره ويژگي هاي گروهی که
آن فرد به آن تعلق دارد، قضاوت کنيم قالبی انديشيدن را در رابطه با او
به کار می بريم.
قالبی اندیشیدن می تواند هم نتایج مثبت و هم نتایج منفی داشته باشد.
قالبی اندیشیدن نتیجه تمایل ذاتی ذهن به دسته بندی/طبقه بندی
اطلاعات پيرامونی برای تسهیل پردازش آنها در حافظه کوتاه مدت و
نهایتا ذخيره سازی در حافظه بلندمدت می باشد.
10. مثال
به عنوان مثال قالبی اندیشیدن از پیش فرضهای عمومی زیر )که درستی
خود اینها هم می تواند زیر سؤال باشد(:
“کارشناسان تولید نرم افزار علاقه بیشتری به کارهای فردی در مقایسه با
کارهای تیمی دارند.”
“کارشناسان تولید نرم افزار علاقه ای برای ارتباط مستقیم با مشتریان
ندارند. ”
“کارشناسان پشتیبانی در مقایسه با سایر کارشناسان گروه با کسب و
کار شرکت آشنایی بیشتری دارند.”
“خانمها توان مدیریتی کمتری از آقایان دارند.”
11. اثر هاله ای
استنباط کلی درباره يک فرد بر اساستنها يک ويژگی مشخصوي، مانند هوشبالا،
اجتماعی بودن، و يا ظاهر پسنديده را اثرهاله ای گويند.
ذهن انسان تمایل به ایجاد سازگاری بين ادراکاتگوناگون از یکپدیده دا رد.
هنگامیکه یک جنبه فردی برای ما دارای اهمیت کلیدی باشد، ارزیابی ما از آن
موضوع تاثير زیادی بر ارزیابی ما درباره سایر جنبه های فرد می گذارد.
خود آگاهی درباره تاثير پیشفرضها و اتکا بر اطلاعاتواقعی برای بررس ی پیشفرضها
از راه حلهای اساس ی هستند.
12. مثال از خطای هاله ای
کس ی که داوطلب شغلی در قسمت خاص ی از شرکت باشد، و از نظر لباس ی که بر
تن دارد بسيار مرتب باشد. ممكن است مصاحبه کننده تصوير نادرستی از وی در
ذهن خود ایجاد کرده و بر همان اساس در باره توانائيها و مسئوليت پذيري وي نيز
قضاوتي مثبت کند، در حاليکه امکان دارد چنين فردی از نظر مسئوليت پذيری و
شايستگی های فردی در حد بالایی نباشد.
چون فرد در جلسات حضوری فعال داشته و نظرات خوبی ابراز می کند، برداشت
شود که وی مسئولیت پذیر و از نظر مهارتهای اجتماعی نيز قوی بوده و می تواند در
آینده کاندیدای خوبی برای مدیریتواحد خود باشد.
فردی که در ارتباطات اجتماعی خود با ما با گرمی برخورد نمی کند، این قضاوت را
درباره وی داشته باشیم که در روابط انسانی خود قوی نیست و نمی تواند از جنبه
های مختلفدر مدیریتدیگران موفق باشد.
13. اثر تقابل
متاثر شدن ارزيابی ما از ويژگی های يک فرد، از طريق مقايسه با افراد
ً
ديگری که
اخيرا توسط ما ارزيابي شده و آنها بسيار بالاتر يا پايين تر از
نظر همين ويژگيها ارزيابي شده اند.
ذهن انسان به گونه ای استکه در زمان وجود تقابل بين ادراکات، یکی را
بالاتر و یکی را کمتر از حد واقعی آنها ارزیابی می کند.
14.
15. مثال
تصويری ازچگونگی عملکرد اثرتقابل در يکموقعيتمصاحبه هنگاميکه
مصاحبه کننده تعداد زيادی از فرمهای استخدامی را در اختياردا رد. فرد
مصاحبه شونده در سطحی متوسط می تواند به عنوان بيشترين
مطلوبيت در ارزيابی در نظر گرفته شود اگر با فردی که بسیار ضعیف
استمقايسه شود، و همين فرد می تواند به عنوان کمترين مطلوبيتدر
ارزيابی پذيرفته شود اگر با فردی که بسیار قوی استمقايسه شود.
زمانی که مسئولیتپذیری فردی را در یکجلسه بر اساسحضور نسبتا
فعالش را با مسئولیت پذیری فرد مشابه دیگری که درست در جلسه
قبل کاملا فاقد مشارکت بوده استمقایسه کنیم.
16. باور درباره ثبات و يا امکان تغيیر تواناييهای ديگران
مديران ممكن است به صورت عمومي دو نوع پيشفرضمهم را درباره توانايي هاي
ديگران در ذهن خود داشته باشند:
ويژگيهای انسان ثابت است، و چندان با كسب تجربه بيشتر تغيير نمی کند )پیش
فرضافراد با نظریه ماهیتطبیعی(.
ويژگيهای انسان ممكن است با تجربه تغيير کنند و توانايي هاي وي توسعه يافته و
کاملتر شوند )پیش فرض افراد با نظریه افزایش ی(.
نکته مهم اینست که ممکن است در مورد افراد مختلفدر عالم واقع، هر کدام از
این پیشفرضها در حوزه های خاص ی تا حدیصحیح باشند...
اما ممکن است پیش فرضهای ذهنی تعمیم یافته و شکل یافته ما درباره ماهیت
انسان با واقعیاتبسیاری از افراد متفاوتباشند.
17. نتایج تحقیقات
مدیران با نظریه ماهیت طبیعی بیشتر از مدیران با نظریه افزایش ی اقدام
به قالبی اندیشیدن می کنند.
مدیران با نظریه ماهیت طبیعی در قضاوت های قطعی خود سریعتر
عمل می کنند و به اطلاعات متفاوت با قضاوتشان کمتر توجه دارند.
مدیران با نظریه ماهیت طبیعی، بر اساس استراتژی های منحصر به فرد
و متکی به افراد مجری عمل می کنند در حالیکه مدیران با نظریه
افزایش ی با انعطاف بیشتر سعی در حل مسئله با تغیير استراتژی و
امتحان استراتژی های گوناگون دارند.
18. خطای بنيادين اسناد
تمايل به ضعيف ديدن تاثير عوامل بيروني و قوي ديدن تاثير
عوامل دروني هنگاميکه درباره ی رفتار ديگران قضاوت می
کنيم.
به عنوان مثال: تاخير يك نفر در حضور در جلسه را به بي
برنامه بودن وي ولي تاخير خود را به بي برنامه بودن سيستم ويا
مشكلاتمحيطي نسبتدهيم.
19. چگونه پیش فرضها و قضاوت های خود را مورد
ارزيابي قرار دهيم؟
شناسايي نردبان استنتاج در ذهن خود
تقويت مهارت هاي گفتگو
20. شناسايي نردبان استنتاج در ذهن خود
بر اساس مطالعات آ رجريس و شان ) 1996 ( افراد به صورت گ زينش ی
اطلاعات لازم را از محيطشان اخذ می کنند. سپسممکن است به سرعت
زنجيره ای از استنباطها را در ذهن شکل داده، وسپسروابطي بين اطلاعات
جديد و فرضها و باورها را با تفاسير خود از اطلاعات موجود ايجاد کنند،
ونهاي
ً
تا رفتارهايشان را بر اساساستنباطهايشان بــــرو ز دهند.
چنين استنباطهاي
ً
ی معمولا آزمون نشده و متاسفانه گاهی غير صحيح می
باشند.
23. تقويت مهارتهاي گفتگو
:(inquiry) و پرسشگري (reflection) تاملات ذهنی
تاملاتذهنی به کنترل سرعت فرآيند تفکر استنباطی به
منظور ايجاد آگاهی بيشتر از چگونگی تاثير گذاری الگ وهاي
.) ذهنی بر قضاوت و عمل ما اشاره دا رد)سنگه 1994
پرسشگری به کنترل شرايط گفتگو و طرح سؤالات
هوشمندانه ا زديگران اشاره دارد تا بتوان شناخت لازم را درباره
.) پيش فرضهای يكديگر بــــــدست آور د )سنگه 1994
24. مثال 1
مدیری در پایان روز کاری درباره یکی از مکالمات خود با یکی از کارشناسان می اندیشد:
”وقتی که وی به من گفت که او نمی تواند کار پیشنهادی مرا انجام دهد، من به خود گفتم که او فرد
مسئولیت پذیری نیست و از اینرو دیگر به وی اصرار نکردم چون نگران بودم که با سپردن کار به وی
موجبات شکست آن را فراهم آورم. راستی...چرا وی آن کار را نپذیرفت؟ آیا ممکن است دلایل دیگ ری هم
وجود داشته باشد که برای هر فرد دیگری که این کار را به او ارجاع دهم ممکن است تاثير گذار باشد؟
چرا بلافاصله عدم تقبل کار را به معنای فقدان روحیه مسئولیتپذیری گرفتم؟ ”
نکته مهم در اینجا اینستکه ممکن استقضاوتما درستباشد، اما اگر نبود چه؟
توصیه به تلاشتا حد امکان و مقدوراتاجرایی و زمان در اختیار برای معلق نگاه داشتن
پیشفرضها و تلاشبرای کسباطلاعاتبر اساسواقیتها است.
25. مثال 2
به گفتگوی بين یک مدیر و کارشناس تحت سرپرستی اش دقت
نمایید:
م. راستی من متوجه شده ام که شما با فروش محصولات الف به مشتریان ب مخالف هستید؟ اینطور است؟
ک. بله. به نظر من شرکت با وارد شدن به این حوزه خود را وارد خطر بزرگی می کند.
م. اما به نظر من اصلا اینطور نیست. شرکتهای رقیب وارد این حوزه شده اند و در حال افزایش درآمد خود هستند و
ما اینجا دست روی دست گذاشته ایم.
ک. اما شرکتهای رقیب هم دارای مشکلات زیادی در ورود و تثبیت حضورشان در این بازار هستند.
م. بر اساس اطلاعاتی که من دارم آنها در حال افزایش درآمد خود هستند. به گمانم بهتر است شما اطلاعات بیشتری
درباره بازار داشته باشید. من به اقتضای شغلم اطلاعات بیشتری دستم می رسد.
ک. اما من هم دوستانی دارم که اطلاعات خوبی درباره بازار این محصولات دارند و شرایط را برای ورود ما به این بازار
خیلی ریسکی می دانند.
م. به هر حال این تصمیمی است که بیشتر مدیران شرکت با آن موافقند.
ک. من که برای اجرای این تصمیم خیلی نگرانم.
م. )با خود می گوید: این فرد برای کار در این واحد مناسب نیست....باید فکر یک جانشين برای وی باشم.“
26. مثال 2 )ادامه(
در گفتگوی فوق هیچ کدام از دو طرف به مدل های ذهنی یکدیگر که
موجب نتیجه گيری هایشان شده است اشاره نکردند.
بیش از فهم یکدیگر، با هم بحث کرده )مسابقه پینگ پنگ( و به هم
فشار وارد می کنند )بحث به جای دیالوگ(
به دلیل عدم فهم و بهبود احتمالی پیش فرضهای طرفين، یادگيری تیمی
بوجود نمی آید.
اگر در شرایطی عمومی شما جای مدیر بودید چه کار می کردید؟
27. جمع بندی
ادراکات و پیش فرضهای انسان شکل دهنده قضاوتهای ما هستند و از اینرو در خیلی
مواقع ممکن است ما را به قضاوت های نادرست هدایت کنند.
برای بهبود یادگيری در تعاملات خود باید تا حدی که محدودیت های مکانی و زمانی
اجازه می دهد سعی در معلق کردن پیش فرضها و تلاش برای یافتن اطلاعاتبر
اساس حقایق عینی نماییم.
مهارتهای گفتگو و تاملات ذهنی، بستری برای ارتقای توانمندی یادگيری ما فراهم می
آورد.
دستیابی به عینی گرایی بالا نیازمند تمرین و توجه در طی زمان است.