The document discusses several key ideas about the nature and social aspects of science: 1) Science has had a huge impact on society but its claims of absolute truth are challenged by thinkers like Popper who see science as fallible and open to criticism through falsification of theories. 2) Sociologists like Merton argue science is guided by social norms like communalism, universalism, and organized skepticism that promote open sharing and testing of knowledge. 3) However, interpretivists see science as socially constructed, with facts produced through dominant paradigms and needing community acceptance of interpretations. 4) Marxists and feminists critique science for serving the interests of dominant social groups like men and capitalists rather than

2. Science and technology have had
an enormous impact on society
over the last few centuries,
undermining religion and leading
to a widespread ‘faith in science’ –
a belief that science can deliver
the goods. The key feature is its
cognitive power: science enables
us to explain, predict and control
the world. However, science may
cause problems as well through
‘manufactured risks’ such as
pollution and weapons of mass
destruction, which threaten the
planet.

3. Popper claims science is an
open belief system (BS), open
to criticism and testing.
Science is based on the
principle of falsificationism:
scientists try to falsify existing
theories by seeking evidence
to disprove them. If evidence
contradicts a theory, the theory
is discarded and a better one
sought. In this way, knowledge
grows. But, this means
scientific knowledge is not
absolute truth.

4. Merton argues that science as an
organised social activity has a set of
norms that promote the growth of
knowledge by encouraging
openness:
• Communism; Knowledge must be
shared with the scientific
community
• Universalism; Scientific
knowledge is judged by objective,
universal criteria
• Disinterestedness; seeking
knowledge for its own sake
• Organised Scepticism; every
theory is open to criticism and
testing

5. Some argue that science is a
self-sustaining, closed belief
system. Polanyi argues that all
belief systems, including religion,
reject fundamental challenges to
their knowledge-claims and
science is no different. Horton
distinguishes between open and
closed BS. Like Popper, he sees
science as an open system, but
religion as a closed one. A closed
belief system has ‘get-out-
clauses’ that prevent it from being
disproved in the eyes of its
believers.

6. Polanyi argues belief systems
have three devices to sustain
themselves in the face of
contradictory evidence…
1. Circularity
2. Subsidiary Explanations
3. Denial of Legitimacy to
Rivals

7. Witchcraft among the Azande
Evans-Pritchards explains how the
Azande believe natural events have
natural causes but they don’t
believe in coincidence or chance.
So, they explain misfortune in terms
of witchcraft. They apply ‘benge’ to
a chicken and ask if the accused is
the source of witchcraft. If the
answer is yes, the chicken dies.
This performs useful social
functions, such as preventing
grudges and encouraging
neighbourly behaviour as the
accused can apologise for their
actions, which they believe were
done unconsciously.

8. Kuhn argues mature science
is based on a scientific
paradigm (a set of shared
assumptions). It tells scientists
what reality is like, problems to
solve, methods to use etc.
Most of the time, scientists are
involved in normal science
(‘puzzle solving’). But,
Scientists who challenge the
paradigm are likely to be
ridiculed – except during rare
periods of a scientific
revolution, when accumulated
evidence undermines it.

9. In 1950, Dr. Velikovsky
published his book Worlds In
Collision which put forward a
new theory on the origins of
the earth thereby challenging
some of the fundamental
assumptions (the paradigm).
Instead of trying to falsify this
knowledge-claim, the scientific
community rejected the theory
without even having read it
and a boycott was organised.
Scientists who wanted to test
the theory were victimised and
often sacked.

10. Interpretivists argue that
scientific knowledge is socially
constructed by social groups.
Knorr-Cetina argues that
what scientists study in the
laboratory is highly
‘constructed’ and far removed
from the ‘natural’ world they
are supposedly studying. So,
‘facts’ are the products of a
paradigm that tell scientists
what they should expect to see
and which instruments to use.

11. Woolgar says scientists are in
the process of making sense of
the world as everyone else –
scientists then need to
persuade the scientific
community to accept their
interpretations. For example,
the discovery of Pulsars led
scientists to annotate patterns
to stand for ‘little green men’.
This was seen as an
unacceptable interpretation so
they settled for a different
interpretation.

12. Marxists and Feminists see
science as far from the pure truth
and that is serves the interest of
dominant groups (ruling class or
men). Many advances in ‘pure’
science have been driven by the
needs of capitalism for certain
types of knowledge to make
profit. Postmodernists also reject
science’s claims to have the
truth. Some argue science has
become technoscience, serving
capitalist interests by producing
commodities for profit. Lyotard
says science is a meta-narrative
– one more discourse used to
dominate people.

13. Ideology refers to a belief
system, worldview or set of
ideas. The term often
includes negative aspects;
for example, beliefs that are
false or offer a biased view
of reality; legitimate
inequalities and prevent
change; closed to criticism.

14. Marxism believes the
capitalist class exploit
workers’ labour to produce
profit. It is therefore in the
workers’ interests to
overthrow capitalism by
revolution and create a
classless communist society.
However, revolution cannot
occur until the working class
develop a class
consciousness.

15. Gramsci refers to the ruling
class’ ideological domination of
society as hegemony. This
prevents class consciousness
by legitimating capitalism.
However, he believes the
working class have a dual
consciousness and believes
they will eventually overthrow
capitalism under leadership of
organic intellectuals.

16. Some critics argue it isn’t the
existence of a dominant
ideology that keeps the
workers in line and prevents
the overthrow of capitalism.
Abercrombie argues it is the
economic factors (e.g. fear of
unemployment) that keep the
workers from rebelling.

17. Mannheim sees all belief
systems as a one sided
worldview resulting from the
viewpoint of one particular
group/class and its interests.
There are two different types of
belief system; ideological thought
(justify keeping things as they
are) and utopian though (justifies
social change). Mannheim sees
this as the conflict in society.
Different intellectuals, linked t
different groups and classes,
produce opposed and
antagonistic ideas that justify the
interests and claims of their
groups as against others.

18. In Mannheim’s view, the
solution is therefore to detach
the intellectuals from the social
groups they represent and
create a non-aligned ‘free
floating intelligentsia’ standing
above conflict. This will create
a ‘total’ worldview that
represents the interests of
society.
But, elements of the different
political ideologies are
opposed to one another, so
how can they be synthesised?

19. Feminists see gender
inequality as legitimated by
patriarchal ideology. Religious
beliefs and practices often
define women as inferior, for
example menstruating women
regarded as unclean and
excluded from rituals. Marks
describes how scientific ideas
justify excluding women from
education, for example it was
said higher education would
result in women being unable
to suckle infants.

20. Not all religious belief
systems subordinate
women. For example,
before the monotheistic
patriarchal religions,
matriarchal religions with
female deities were
common.