Functionalism views society as a system of interdependent parts that work together to maintain social order and meet the system's needs. Parsons argues that shared social norms and values create a value consensus that integrates individuals and ensures their behavior meets society's goals. He identifies four subsystems - adaptation, goal attainment, integration, and latency - that fulfill the system's basic functions. Functionalism has been criticized for being too deterministic and for neglecting conflict and social change.

1. FUNCTIONALISM &
SOCIETY
Chapter 4: Sociological Theory

2. Organic Analogy
When describing society, functionalists use an organic
analogy – they see society as similar to a biological
organism. Parsons identifies 3 similarities…
 Both are self-regulating systems of inter-related
interdependent parts that fit together in fixed ways
 Both have needs which must be met in order to
survive (e.g. members must be socialised and
organisms need nutrition)
 The functions maintain the system ensuring its
survival (e.g. the circulatory system and the
economy)

3. How is Social Order possible?
Parsons argues social order is achieved through the
existence of a value consensus (shared norms &
values) which he believes is the glue that holds society
together. The basic function of the value consensus is
to integrate individuals into the social system thereby
directing them to ensure its needs are met.

4. How does it do this?
Parsons identifies two mechanisms within the system
which ensure individuals conform to the value
consensus…
1. Socialisation: the system socialises individuals to
do what it wants them to do. Society therefore
becomes part of an individuals personality structure
2. Social Control: conforming to the value consensus
must be rewarded but deviant acts must be
punished
As a result, an individuals behaviour is orientated
towards pursuing society’s goals and meeting its

5. ‘Building Block’ Model
Parsons model of the social system…
Individual actions governed by
norms
These norms come in clusters
called ‘status roles’
Status roles also come in clusters
known as institutions. Related
institutions are grouped into sub-
systems
Factories
Bank
s
Shops
Farm
s
These sub-systems make up the
social system

6. ‘AGIL’ Schema
Parsons identifies four basic needs of the system, all
of which are met by sub-systems…
1. Adaption: the economic system meets its members
material needs
2. Goal Attainment: the political sub-system set goals
and resources to achieve them
3. Integration: the religion, media and education sub-
system integrate to pursue shared goals
4. Latency: the kinship sub-system provides pattern
management (socialisation) and tension
management (a place to ‘let off steam’)

7. Types of Society
Traditional Society Modern Society
Ascription: status is based on
fixed characteristics
Achievement: status is based on
performance
Diffuseness: relationships are
broad with a range of purposes
Specificity: relationships are
narrow and limited to specific
purposes
Particularism: norms emphasise
treating people differently
Universalism: norms emphasise
equality
Affectivity: immediate
gratification of desires
Affective Neutrality: deferred
gratification
Collective Orientation: putting
the group’s interests first
Self orientation: individualism

8. Social Change
If there are two types of society, how do societies
change from one to the other? For Parsons, change is
a gradual, evolutionary process of increasing
complexity and structural differentiation. Referring
back to the organic analogy, organisms have evolved
from simple structures like the amoeba to highly
complex organisms like humans. This is similar in
societies. In traditional society a single institution
performs many institutions but as society develops,
this institution (namely the kinship sub-system) loses
its functions to other institutions. In addition, there is
dynamic equilibrium where a change occurs in one
part of the system and this produces compensatory

9. Internal Critiques - Merton
 Indispensability: Parsons assumes that everything in
society is functionally indispensable in its existing
form. Merton argues this is an untested assumption
and he points to the possibility of ‘functional
alternatives’. For example, a single-parent family
may socialise their child just as well or better than
the nuclear family
 Universal Functionalism: Parsons assumes that
everything in society performs a positive function for
society as a whole but some things may be
dysfunctional for some.

10. Internal Critiques - Merton
 Functional Unity: Parsons assumes all parts of
society are tightly integrated into a ‘unity’ and that
each part is functional for all the rest. Similarly, he
assumes that change in one part will have a ‘knock
on’ effect on all other parts. In reality, instead of
functional unity, some parts may have ‘functional
autonomy’ from others. Complex modern societies
have many parts some of which may only be
distantly ‘related’ to one another.
The central point behind Merton’s criticisms is that we
cannot simply assume that society is always and

11. Manifest & Latent Functions
Merton also contributes a useful distinction between
‘manifest’ and ‘latent’ functions. He cites the example
of the Hopi Indians who, in times of drought, perform a
rain-dance with the deliberate aim of magically
producing rain. This is its manifest (intended) function.
The ritual may also have a latent (unintended) function
such as promoting a sense of social solidarity in times
of hardship.
This distinction is useful in helping to reveal the hidden
connections between social phenomena which the
actors themselves may not be aware of.

12. External Critiques
 Logical Criticisms: teleology is the idea that things
exist because of their effect or function. Critics argue
logically, a cause must come before its effect.
Functionalism explains the existence of the family in
terms of something else that can only be its effect
(socialisation) since socialisation can only come after
we have families.
It is also criticised for being unscientific as it is not
possible to falsify the theory. For example,
functionalists see deviance as both dysfunctional
and functional (think back to chapter 2, topic 1).

13. External Critiques
 Conflict Perspective: conflict theorists such as
Marxists criticise functionalism for its inability to
explain conflict and change which arises partly from
the organic analogy. Marxists argue society is not a
harmonious whole; it is based on exploitation and
divided into classes with conflicting interests and
unequal power. Stability is the result of the dominant
class using ideological manipulation & shared values
are a cloak concealing the interests of the dominant
class. They see functionalism as a conservative
ideology legitimating the status quo – the privileged
position of the powerful groups who would have
most to lose from any fundamental changes in

14. External Critiques
 Action Perspective Criticisms: Wrong criticises
functionalist’s ‘over-socialised’ (deterministic) view of
the individual. He argues functionalists effectively
say individuals have no free will and we are puppets
whose strings are pulled by the social system. In
contrast, the action approach sees individuals as
creating society by their interactions. A related
criticism is that functionalism reifies society (they
treat is as a distinct ‘thing’ over and above
individuals, with its own needs).

15. External Critiques
 Postmodernist Criticisms: postmodernists argue
functionalism assumes that society is stable and
orderly. As such, it cannot account for the diversity
and instability that exists. In the postmodernist view,
functionalism is an example of a meta-narrative that
attempts to create a model of the workings of society
as a whole. However, according to postmodernists,
such an overall theory is no longer possible due to
society being increasingly fragmented.

16. Conclusion
Functionalism seeks to answer the fundamental
question of how social order is possible – even if its
answer neglects conflict and is too deterministic. It can
also be said that Merton’s move away from Parsons’
‘grand theory’, his notion of dysfunctions, and his
distinction between manifest and latent functions, all
provide useful starting points for research. It is also
true that many of functionalism’s critics – especially
conflict theorists – end up ‘borrowing’ its basic notion
that society is a system of interdependent parts. As
Craib notes, Parsons’ theory ‘has its faults, but at