Science plays a fundamental role in modern society. But what exactly is science? In philosophy this question is known as the demarcation problem (Popper, Kuhn, Laudan and others).
This document discusses the key differences between science and pseudo-science. It defines science as relying on evidence from meaningful experiments and testing of hypotheses, while pseudo-science lacks experiments and relies on subjective beliefs. Evolution and acupuncture are provided as examples of science, while flat earth theory and creationism represent pseudo-science. The document emphasizes that science is testable and falsifiable, while pseudo-science is not, and that scientific theories are constantly updated based on new evidence.
The document discusses the nature of science, defining it as the discovery of nature through following scientific methods like making hypotheses, conducting experiments and observations, and using reason and evidence to organize facts into theories. It contrasts science with pseudoscience, noting that pseudoscience lacks supporting evidence. The document also outlines what teachers should understand about science, such as its historical and cultural development and distinguishing characteristics compared to other ways of thinking.
Science v Pseudoscience: What’s the Difference? - Kevin KorbAdam Ford
Science has a certain common core, especially a reliance on empirical methods of assessing hypotheses. Pseudosciences have little in common but their negation: they are not science.
They reject meaningful empirical assessment in some way or another. Popper proposed a clear demarcation criterion for Science v Rubbish: Falsifiability. However, his criterion has not stood the test of time. There are no definitive arguments against any pseudoscience, any more than against extreme skepticism in general, but there are clear indicators of phoniness.
Post: http://www.scifuture.org/science-vs-pseudoscience
The document discusses the nature of science. It describes science as understandable, following consistent basic rules everywhere, and producing durable yet changing knowledge. Scientific inquiry uses evidence and facts to develop hypotheses and theories, which are continually tested through experimentation and observation. Well-established scientific theories represent our best current explanations but are still subject to revision. The scientific process aims to identify and avoid bias while building knowledge through self-correction.
Presentation on structure of scientific revolutionsalmansmd
This document summarizes Thomas Kuhn's theory of scientific revolutions as presented in his influential book "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions". Kuhn argued that science progresses not through linear knowledge accumulation, but through periodic paradigm shifts in which the underlying assumptions and framework of a scientific field are suddenly transformed. The document outlines Kuhn's five phases of scientific revolutions - from a pre-paradigm state with competing theories to a post-revolution state with a new dominant paradigm established. Examples of major paradigm shifts in sciences such as astronomy, physics and biology are also provided.
philosophy of science, Falsification theory, Karl popperKhalid Zaffar
The document discusses falsification and its importance in philosophy of science. [1] Falsification proposes that for a theory to be considered scientific, it must be possible to prove it false through testing or observation. [2] Karl Popper introduced the principle of falsification, stating that a theory is scientific if we can identify potential evidence that could show it is incorrect. [3] Being able to falsify theories allows them to be rigorously tested and improved in science, distinguishing science from non-falsifiable claims.
This document discusses the key differences between science and pseudo-science. It defines science as relying on evidence from meaningful experiments and testing of hypotheses, while pseudo-science lacks experiments and relies on subjective beliefs. Evolution and acupuncture are provided as examples of science, while flat earth theory and creationism represent pseudo-science. The document emphasizes that science is testable and falsifiable, while pseudo-science is not, and that scientific theories are constantly updated based on new evidence.
The document discusses the nature of science, defining it as the discovery of nature through following scientific methods like making hypotheses, conducting experiments and observations, and using reason and evidence to organize facts into theories. It contrasts science with pseudoscience, noting that pseudoscience lacks supporting evidence. The document also outlines what teachers should understand about science, such as its historical and cultural development and distinguishing characteristics compared to other ways of thinking.
Science v Pseudoscience: What’s the Difference? - Kevin KorbAdam Ford
Science has a certain common core, especially a reliance on empirical methods of assessing hypotheses. Pseudosciences have little in common but their negation: they are not science.
They reject meaningful empirical assessment in some way or another. Popper proposed a clear demarcation criterion for Science v Rubbish: Falsifiability. However, his criterion has not stood the test of time. There are no definitive arguments against any pseudoscience, any more than against extreme skepticism in general, but there are clear indicators of phoniness.
Post: http://www.scifuture.org/science-vs-pseudoscience
The document discusses the nature of science. It describes science as understandable, following consistent basic rules everywhere, and producing durable yet changing knowledge. Scientific inquiry uses evidence and facts to develop hypotheses and theories, which are continually tested through experimentation and observation. Well-established scientific theories represent our best current explanations but are still subject to revision. The scientific process aims to identify and avoid bias while building knowledge through self-correction.
Presentation on structure of scientific revolutionsalmansmd
This document summarizes Thomas Kuhn's theory of scientific revolutions as presented in his influential book "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions". Kuhn argued that science progresses not through linear knowledge accumulation, but through periodic paradigm shifts in which the underlying assumptions and framework of a scientific field are suddenly transformed. The document outlines Kuhn's five phases of scientific revolutions - from a pre-paradigm state with competing theories to a post-revolution state with a new dominant paradigm established. Examples of major paradigm shifts in sciences such as astronomy, physics and biology are also provided.
philosophy of science, Falsification theory, Karl popperKhalid Zaffar
The document discusses falsification and its importance in philosophy of science. [1] Falsification proposes that for a theory to be considered scientific, it must be possible to prove it false through testing or observation. [2] Karl Popper introduced the principle of falsification, stating that a theory is scientific if we can identify potential evidence that could show it is incorrect. [3] Being able to falsify theories allows them to be rigorously tested and improved in science, distinguishing science from non-falsifiable claims.
The document discusses Karl Popper's theory of falsification and its evolution over time. It explains that Popper argued scientific theories are never truly verified, but can be falsified by a single contradictory observation. Theories should aim to be falsifiable to be considered scientific. Later, Popper acknowledged natural selection as testable despite initial doubts. The document also examines criticisms of falsification, such as that theories may not be falsified even when observations contradict them, depending on how the theory is modified in response.
Natural science uses valid scientific methodology and supporting evidence to build testable explanations about the world. Pseudoscience lacks this methodology and evidence. Examples of natural science include physics, chemistry, and biology, while pseudoscience examples are astrology, creationism, crystology, and graphyology. Astrology in particular is considered pseudoscience because it is not scientifically proven, can involve confirmation bias, makes vague claims, and uses exceptions in a flexible way, rather than being falsifiable.
This document provides summaries of various philosophical concepts and movements throughout history. It includes brief explanations of concepts like empiricism, rationalism, positivism, utilitarianism, idealism, pragmatism, existentialism, structural realism, and phenomenology. For each entry it lists one or two prominent thinkers associated with that concept. The document serves as a high-level overview of major topics and figures in the history of philosophy.
Science In Everyday Life ( About how we use Science In Daily Life )
Want more slides Follow me on --> http://www.slideshare.net/619anshsethi
Made by --> Ansh
Class --> 9th
The document provides an overview of various Western philosophical traditions including Idealism, Realism, Naturalism, Pragmatism, Existentialism, and Marxism. It discusses their key ideas and implications for education in areas such as curriculum, teaching methods, the role of the teacher, discipline, and the purpose of schools. Some of the main points made are:
- Idealism focuses on spiritual development and eternal truths, while Realism emphasizes preparing students for real life and developing their senses. Naturalism prioritizes natural development and adaptation.
- Curriculums vary from focusing on humanities for Idealism to vocational subjects for Realism to science for Naturalism.
-
Science is knowledge through observation and experimentation. It is facts of principles gained by systematic study. In order to participate in doing science, we must adhere to a "philosophy of science:" There is order to the universe, humans are able to comprehend this order, and scientists should be able to repeat experiments. There are two major kinds of science - empirical science and forensic science. However, science can't answer a lot of questions, and scientists often make mistakes.
Meaning and nature of philosophy -.pptxIdrisMammadov
1. Philosophy is defined as the rational inquiry into fundamental questions about life, the universe, and reality.
2. There are different conceptions of philosophy, including having a personal set of beliefs, critically reflecting on beliefs, seeking a unified worldview, analyzing language, and investigating perennial problems.
3. The main branches of philosophy are logic, metaphysics, epistemology, and value theory. Metaphysics studies the nature of reality, epistemology studies the nature and validity of knowledge, and value theory includes ethics, aesthetics, and social and political philosophy.
This document provides instructions and content for a science class on the limits of science. It discusses three key areas where science cannot provide answers: questions of value, morality, and the supernatural. It also defines pseudoscience and provides examples like astrology, phrenology, and numerology. The document instructs students on note taking for the lesson, including underlining, italics, and subheadings to guide notetaking.
Thomas Kuhn was an American physicist who radically changed views on the nature of science. He argued that science progresses not through linear knowledge gathering, but through periodic "paradigm shifts" where the nature of scientific inquiry in a field is suddenly transformed. A paradigm is the basic framework of assumptions and methods shared by a scientific community that governs their work. During normal science, scientists work within a paradigm to solve puzzles, but over time anomalies can lead to a paradigm shift opening up a new approach. Kuhn emphasized that science is shaped by subjective perspectives and there can be competing views until a new paradigm is widely accepted.
My Favourite Scientists - Albert Einstein & APJ Abdul Kalammeeravettoor
This document provides an overview of Albert Einstein's life and career accomplishments from his birth in 1879 to his death in 1955. Some key points:
- Einstein was born in Germany and showed an early interest in science after being impressed by a compass as a young boy. He had difficulties with exams but developed his Special Theory of Relativity in 1905 while working as a patent clerk.
- In 1915, Einstein completed his General Theory of Relativity which proposed gravity as the warping of space-time. This was proven correct by an eclipse observation in 1919, making Einstein an overnight celebrity.
- Throughout his life, Einstein published groundbreaking papers on many topics in physics and won the Nobel Prize in 1921. He imm
Dmitri Mendeleev was a Russian scientist born in 1834 who is considered the father of the periodic table. He arranged the elements in order of atomic mass, noticing patterns that allowed him to predict properties of undiscovered elements. His periodic table was published in 1869 and proved remarkably accurate, with three predicted elements discovered shortly after. Mendeleev made many contributions in chemistry and is honored by having the radioactive element with atomic number 101 named after him as Mendelevium. He died in 1907 at age 73.
This document outlines the key components and characteristics of scientific investigations. It discusses that scientific investigations involve making predictions, developing testable questions, planning and carrying out experiments, collecting and analyzing quantitative data, identifying patterns, and comparing results to hypotheses. The document also notes that scientific investigations use variables that can be controlled or measured, and involve accurate record keeping. It describes characteristics of good scientific investigations as being well documented, controlling variables, repeating experiments, and undergoing peer review before publication.
Epistemology of positivism and post positivism Nasif Chowdhury
This document provides an overview of epistemological foundations from rationalism to positivism and beyond. It discusses rationalist approaches from Descartes that sought to deduce knowledge from reason and certainty. It then examines empiricist views from Locke that knowledge comes from sensory experience. Positivism developed as an epistemology where genuine knowledge is based on observable evidence through science. However, later post-positivist thinkers like Popper, Quine, and Kuhn challenged positivism by arguing theories cannot be fully verified and scientific paradigms change for complex non-rational reasons.
Positivism is a philosophical system rooted in science and empiricism that rejects metaphysics and holds that knowledge is only derived from logical reasoning and sensory experience. It views society and the physical world as operating according to general laws that can be observed and measured scientifically. Some key aspects of positivism include its rejection of introspection and intuition, focus on observation and experimentation to verify phenomena, and belief that anything beyond direct observation cannot be known. Logical positivism refined these ideas, proposing that philosophy should only consider statements that are verifiable or confirmable through observation or experiment.
This document discusses the definitions and purposes of history, philosophy, and science. It provides:
- History is the study of the past, specifically how it relates to humans. Philosophy comes from the Greek word for "love of wisdom" and investigates the most general questions about existence, knowledge, values, and meaning.
- Science is a disciplined attempt to find out what exists, how things work, why they work that way, what could exist, how things could work if they did exist, what cannot exist and why. It progresses from craft to establishing theories through representation, ontology, and techniques for modeling.
- The boundaries between craft, science and engineering are blurred. Philosophy of science is concerned with
- Albert Einstein was born in Germany in 1879 and is considered one of the greatest physicists of the 20th century.
- In his "miracle year" of 1905, the 26-year-old Einstein published four groundbreaking papers, including his paper on the photoelectric effect which won him the Nobel Prize and his theory of special relativity which introduced his famous equation E=mc2.
- Einstein's work was instrumental in the development of the atomic bomb during World War II and he is renowned for his intellectual achievements as well as his pacifist views.
Aristotle believed that education was essential for citizens and the state. He felt that education helped cultivate people's rationality and allowed them to determine right from wrong. Aristotle saw the universe as orderly and balanced, and felt that education created a balanced state by producing good citizens. Only citizens, and specifically men, were to be educated under Aristotle's views, as he believed women and slaves to be intellectually inferior.
At the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to observe the inner structure of atoms, including electrons, protons, and neutrons. The idea that all matter is composed of indivisible particles called atoms originated with Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus in the 5th century BC. Democritus proposed an early atomic model consisting of simply round spheres with no internal structure. Alchemy dominated chemistry for 2000 years, during which some alchemists made discoveries like several chemical elements and acids, while others pursued mysticism. Robert Boyle performed early quantitative experiments relating the pressure and volume of air and disagreed with alchemists' views that metals were not true elements.
The document discusses where hypotheses come from in scientific research. It begins by defining a hypothesis as a suggested explanation for an observable phenomenon, event, or scientific problem that can be tested. Hypotheses are generated through a variety of methods, including making logical guesses based on prior knowledge, observing patterns in natural phenomena, and testing ideas to find connections between variables. The document emphasizes that hypotheses allow scientists to make predictions that can be empirically tested, with hypotheses that are supported being elevated to theories and those not supported being rejected or refined.
The document discusses whether sociology can be considered a science. It outlines three positions in the debate: 1) sociology is a science and should be studied similarly to natural sciences, 2) sociology is not quite the same as natural sciences but is scientific enough, 3) knowledge in sociology is socially constructed so it cannot be considered an objective science. It also discusses challenges sociologists face in conducting research on people.
The document discusses Karl Popper's theory of falsification and its evolution over time. It explains that Popper argued scientific theories are never truly verified, but can be falsified by a single contradictory observation. Theories should aim to be falsifiable to be considered scientific. Later, Popper acknowledged natural selection as testable despite initial doubts. The document also examines criticisms of falsification, such as that theories may not be falsified even when observations contradict them, depending on how the theory is modified in response.
Natural science uses valid scientific methodology and supporting evidence to build testable explanations about the world. Pseudoscience lacks this methodology and evidence. Examples of natural science include physics, chemistry, and biology, while pseudoscience examples are astrology, creationism, crystology, and graphyology. Astrology in particular is considered pseudoscience because it is not scientifically proven, can involve confirmation bias, makes vague claims, and uses exceptions in a flexible way, rather than being falsifiable.
This document provides summaries of various philosophical concepts and movements throughout history. It includes brief explanations of concepts like empiricism, rationalism, positivism, utilitarianism, idealism, pragmatism, existentialism, structural realism, and phenomenology. For each entry it lists one or two prominent thinkers associated with that concept. The document serves as a high-level overview of major topics and figures in the history of philosophy.
Science In Everyday Life ( About how we use Science In Daily Life )
Want more slides Follow me on --> http://www.slideshare.net/619anshsethi
Made by --> Ansh
Class --> 9th
The document provides an overview of various Western philosophical traditions including Idealism, Realism, Naturalism, Pragmatism, Existentialism, and Marxism. It discusses their key ideas and implications for education in areas such as curriculum, teaching methods, the role of the teacher, discipline, and the purpose of schools. Some of the main points made are:
- Idealism focuses on spiritual development and eternal truths, while Realism emphasizes preparing students for real life and developing their senses. Naturalism prioritizes natural development and adaptation.
- Curriculums vary from focusing on humanities for Idealism to vocational subjects for Realism to science for Naturalism.
-
Science is knowledge through observation and experimentation. It is facts of principles gained by systematic study. In order to participate in doing science, we must adhere to a "philosophy of science:" There is order to the universe, humans are able to comprehend this order, and scientists should be able to repeat experiments. There are two major kinds of science - empirical science and forensic science. However, science can't answer a lot of questions, and scientists often make mistakes.
Meaning and nature of philosophy -.pptxIdrisMammadov
1. Philosophy is defined as the rational inquiry into fundamental questions about life, the universe, and reality.
2. There are different conceptions of philosophy, including having a personal set of beliefs, critically reflecting on beliefs, seeking a unified worldview, analyzing language, and investigating perennial problems.
3. The main branches of philosophy are logic, metaphysics, epistemology, and value theory. Metaphysics studies the nature of reality, epistemology studies the nature and validity of knowledge, and value theory includes ethics, aesthetics, and social and political philosophy.
This document provides instructions and content for a science class on the limits of science. It discusses three key areas where science cannot provide answers: questions of value, morality, and the supernatural. It also defines pseudoscience and provides examples like astrology, phrenology, and numerology. The document instructs students on note taking for the lesson, including underlining, italics, and subheadings to guide notetaking.
Thomas Kuhn was an American physicist who radically changed views on the nature of science. He argued that science progresses not through linear knowledge gathering, but through periodic "paradigm shifts" where the nature of scientific inquiry in a field is suddenly transformed. A paradigm is the basic framework of assumptions and methods shared by a scientific community that governs their work. During normal science, scientists work within a paradigm to solve puzzles, but over time anomalies can lead to a paradigm shift opening up a new approach. Kuhn emphasized that science is shaped by subjective perspectives and there can be competing views until a new paradigm is widely accepted.
My Favourite Scientists - Albert Einstein & APJ Abdul Kalammeeravettoor
This document provides an overview of Albert Einstein's life and career accomplishments from his birth in 1879 to his death in 1955. Some key points:
- Einstein was born in Germany and showed an early interest in science after being impressed by a compass as a young boy. He had difficulties with exams but developed his Special Theory of Relativity in 1905 while working as a patent clerk.
- In 1915, Einstein completed his General Theory of Relativity which proposed gravity as the warping of space-time. This was proven correct by an eclipse observation in 1919, making Einstein an overnight celebrity.
- Throughout his life, Einstein published groundbreaking papers on many topics in physics and won the Nobel Prize in 1921. He imm
Dmitri Mendeleev was a Russian scientist born in 1834 who is considered the father of the periodic table. He arranged the elements in order of atomic mass, noticing patterns that allowed him to predict properties of undiscovered elements. His periodic table was published in 1869 and proved remarkably accurate, with three predicted elements discovered shortly after. Mendeleev made many contributions in chemistry and is honored by having the radioactive element with atomic number 101 named after him as Mendelevium. He died in 1907 at age 73.
This document outlines the key components and characteristics of scientific investigations. It discusses that scientific investigations involve making predictions, developing testable questions, planning and carrying out experiments, collecting and analyzing quantitative data, identifying patterns, and comparing results to hypotheses. The document also notes that scientific investigations use variables that can be controlled or measured, and involve accurate record keeping. It describes characteristics of good scientific investigations as being well documented, controlling variables, repeating experiments, and undergoing peer review before publication.
Epistemology of positivism and post positivism Nasif Chowdhury
This document provides an overview of epistemological foundations from rationalism to positivism and beyond. It discusses rationalist approaches from Descartes that sought to deduce knowledge from reason and certainty. It then examines empiricist views from Locke that knowledge comes from sensory experience. Positivism developed as an epistemology where genuine knowledge is based on observable evidence through science. However, later post-positivist thinkers like Popper, Quine, and Kuhn challenged positivism by arguing theories cannot be fully verified and scientific paradigms change for complex non-rational reasons.
Positivism is a philosophical system rooted in science and empiricism that rejects metaphysics and holds that knowledge is only derived from logical reasoning and sensory experience. It views society and the physical world as operating according to general laws that can be observed and measured scientifically. Some key aspects of positivism include its rejection of introspection and intuition, focus on observation and experimentation to verify phenomena, and belief that anything beyond direct observation cannot be known. Logical positivism refined these ideas, proposing that philosophy should only consider statements that are verifiable or confirmable through observation or experiment.
This document discusses the definitions and purposes of history, philosophy, and science. It provides:
- History is the study of the past, specifically how it relates to humans. Philosophy comes from the Greek word for "love of wisdom" and investigates the most general questions about existence, knowledge, values, and meaning.
- Science is a disciplined attempt to find out what exists, how things work, why they work that way, what could exist, how things could work if they did exist, what cannot exist and why. It progresses from craft to establishing theories through representation, ontology, and techniques for modeling.
- The boundaries between craft, science and engineering are blurred. Philosophy of science is concerned with
- Albert Einstein was born in Germany in 1879 and is considered one of the greatest physicists of the 20th century.
- In his "miracle year" of 1905, the 26-year-old Einstein published four groundbreaking papers, including his paper on the photoelectric effect which won him the Nobel Prize and his theory of special relativity which introduced his famous equation E=mc2.
- Einstein's work was instrumental in the development of the atomic bomb during World War II and he is renowned for his intellectual achievements as well as his pacifist views.
Aristotle believed that education was essential for citizens and the state. He felt that education helped cultivate people's rationality and allowed them to determine right from wrong. Aristotle saw the universe as orderly and balanced, and felt that education created a balanced state by producing good citizens. Only citizens, and specifically men, were to be educated under Aristotle's views, as he believed women and slaves to be intellectually inferior.
At the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to observe the inner structure of atoms, including electrons, protons, and neutrons. The idea that all matter is composed of indivisible particles called atoms originated with Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus in the 5th century BC. Democritus proposed an early atomic model consisting of simply round spheres with no internal structure. Alchemy dominated chemistry for 2000 years, during which some alchemists made discoveries like several chemical elements and acids, while others pursued mysticism. Robert Boyle performed early quantitative experiments relating the pressure and volume of air and disagreed with alchemists' views that metals were not true elements.
The document discusses where hypotheses come from in scientific research. It begins by defining a hypothesis as a suggested explanation for an observable phenomenon, event, or scientific problem that can be tested. Hypotheses are generated through a variety of methods, including making logical guesses based on prior knowledge, observing patterns in natural phenomena, and testing ideas to find connections between variables. The document emphasizes that hypotheses allow scientists to make predictions that can be empirically tested, with hypotheses that are supported being elevated to theories and those not supported being rejected or refined.
The document discusses whether sociology can be considered a science. It outlines three positions in the debate: 1) sociology is a science and should be studied similarly to natural sciences, 2) sociology is not quite the same as natural sciences but is scientific enough, 3) knowledge in sociology is socially constructed so it cannot be considered an objective science. It also discusses challenges sociologists face in conducting research on people.
Challenges to Science Philosophy and TheoryRuss Reinsch
This document provides an overview of challenges to science philosophy and theory in the 20th century. It discusses how science moved from an overly strict empiricist view in the early 1900s to incorporate more moderate philosophies. Key challenges included the problem of induction, demarcating science from non-science, and theoretical issues raised by Kuhn and the Duhem-Quine thesis. The document examines proposed solutions from philosophers like Popper, Kuhn, Quine, and Laudan. It argues that science can understand reality using evidentiary theories, without needing perfect truths, and that Laudan provided clarity on evaluating and choosing between theories.
This document summarizes Larry Laudan's argument that philosophers have failed to identify features that clearly demarcate science from other domains of knowledge. It discusses past attempts by philosophers like Aristotle, logical positivists and Popper to establish criteria for demarcating science. Laudan argues that these attempts have failed due to heterogeneity within science and problems with proposed criteria. He concludes that demarcation is a "pseudo-problem" and we should instead focus on what makes beliefs well-founded. The document also briefly summarizes Massimo Pigliucci's response that abandoning demarcation would be premature given issues like anti-vaccination movements.
The document discusses different views of scientific method, including:
1) The simplistic view that unbiased observation precedes theory is incorrect, as what we observe depends on our existing knowledge and theories.
2) Induction is problematic because there are multiple possible generalizations from any set of facts.
3) Falsificationism holds that theories should aim to disprove, not prove, themselves through falsifiable predictions. However, it is difficult to definitively falsify theories.
4) Scientism claims science can explain all human aspects, but this is self-refuting and ignores aspects beyond scientific quantification.
This document provides an overview of a course on the philosophy of science. It discusses the interaction between philosophy and science, key concepts in the philosophy of science like scientific realism and falsificationism, and views of the scientific method from thinkers like Popper, Duhem and Kuhn. The course will examine general questions about science as well as specific issues in cosmology and cognitive sciences.
The document summarizes the perspectives of Thomas Kuhn, Paul Feyerabend, and Imre Lakatos on the philosophy of science. Thomas Kuhn argued that science progresses through paradigms and paradigm shifts, rather than through a uniform progression. Paul Feyerabend believed there is no rational scientific progress even within paradigms, and that creativity and social factors are more important. Imre Lakatos sought to balance rational scientific progress with Kuhn's ideas by proposing research programs that allow for development over time.
1. TEN MYTHS OF SCIENCE REEXAMINING WHAT WE THINK WE KNOW...W. .docxambersalomon88660
1. TEN MYTHS OF SCIENCE: REEXAMINING WHAT WE THINK WE KNOW...
W. McComas 1996
This article addresses and attempts to refute several of the most widespread and enduring misconceptions held by students regarding the enterprise of science. The ten myths discussed include the common notions that theories become laws, that hypotheses are best characterized as educated guesses, and that there is a commonly-applied scientific method. In addition, the article includes discussion of other incorrect ideas such as the view that evidence leads to sure knowledge, that science and its methods provide absolute proof, and that science is not a creative endeavor. Finally, the myths that scientists are objective, that experiments are the sole route to scientific knowledge and that scientific conclusions are continually reviewed conclude this presentation. The paper ends with a plea that instruction in and opportunities to experience the nature of science are vital in preservice and inservice teacher education programs to help unseat the myths of science.
Myths are typically defined as traditional views, fables, legends or stories. As such, myths can be entertaining and even educational since they help people make sense of the world. In fact, the explanatory role of myths most likely accounts for their development, spread and persistence. However, when fact and fiction blur, myths lose their entertainment value and serve only to block full understanding. Such is the case with the myths of science.
Scholar Joseph Campbell (1968) has proposed that the similarity among many folk myths worldwide is due to a subconscious link between all peoples, but no such link can explain the myths of science. Misconceptions about science are most likely due to the lack of philosophy of science content in teacher education programs, the failure of such programs to provide and require authentic science experiences for preservice teachers and the generally shallow treatment of the nature of science in the precollege textbooks to which teachers might turn for guidance.
As Steven Jay Gould points out in The Case of the Creeping Fox Terrier Clone (1988), science textbook writers are among the most egregious purveyors of myth and inaccuracy. The fox terrier mentioned in the title refers to the classic comparison used to express the size of the dawn horse, the tiny precursor to the modem horse. This comparison is unfortunate for two reasons. Not only was this horse ancestor much bigger than a fox terrier, but the fox terrier breed of dog is virtually unknown to American students. The major criticism leveled by Gould is that once this comparison took hold, no one bothered to check its validity or utility. Through time, one author after another simply repeated the inept comparison and continued a tradition that has made many science texts virtual clones of each other on this and countless other points.
In an attempt to provide a more realistic view of science and point out issues o.
The document discusses the scientific method and its key components. It defines science as a methodology of testing knowledge claims through empirical observation and experimentation. This includes formulating hypotheses, designing experiments, analyzing results, developing scientific laws and theories, and repeating the cycle through peer review and attempts at falsification. The scientific method aims to approach truth through successive testing and revision of ideas, without claiming absolute certainty.
The document discusses research methods and the scientific method. It provides an overview of key figures in the development of science like Galileo, Popper, Kuhn, and Lakatos. It describes Galileo's experiment dropping objects from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to test hypotheses. It also summarizes Popper's concept of falsifiability, Kuhn's idea of paradigms, and Lakatos' attempt to find common ground between Popper and Kuhn.
Evolutionary epistemology versus faith and justified true belief: Does scien...William Hall
This presentation explores the basis for scientific rationality by testing our claims about the world against nature as described by Karl Popper's evolutionary epistemology versus accepting claims based on justified true belief. The presentation is particularly concerned to show the philosophical problems with religious fundamentalism.
This document provides an overview of the contents of a CD produced by Dialogue Education for use by teachers in the classroom. It contains 17 pages covering various topics in the philosophy of science like definitions of key terms, theories of demarcation, induction, and the theory-dependence of observation. The CD also includes videos, games, and a bibliography for further reading. It is intended solely for use by schools that have purchased the CD from Dialogue Education.
This document provides an introduction to the author's paper on objectivity in science. It begins by outlining the debate around whether objectivity exists in science. The author then defines key terms like objectivity and science. The main body discusses the problem of underdetermination, which questions objectivity by showing that multiple hypotheses can be consistent with the evidence. The author argues this problem strikes a "death blow" to the idea of objective science. They intend to later argue that using perspectives and context, an intellectual consensus can be reached that approaches objectivity, though true objectivity cannot be achieved.
The document discusses several current epistemological theories of science:
1. Evolutionary epistemology views the development of human knowledge as proceeding through a natural selection process of variation, selection, and retention, influenced by both biological and cultural factors.
2. Kuhn's paradigm model describes normal science within a stable paradigm and revolutionary science during a paradigm shift caused by anomalies. Paradigm shifts are incommensurable and influenced by social factors.
3. Lakatos' methodology of scientific research programs defines a "hard core" of theories protected by a belt of testable hypotheses. Progress is determined by explanatory and predictive power rather than falsification.
4. The strong program in sociology of science, like
Karl Popper proposed that scientific knowledge is provisional and falsifiable rather than absolutely certain or proven true. He rejected the traditional view that science discovers descriptive laws through induction from facts. Instead, he argued that scientific theories can never be proven true but can be tested by attempting to falsify them through experiments and observations. This view resolved issues with the logical problem of induction and provided a rationale for how scientific knowledge advances through falsification of theories.
This presentation discusses and compares Objective science and Contemporary Science.
Watch the presentation on YouTube.
The content of the seminar comes from the recently published book:
Gurdjieff's Hydrogens: Volume 1 The Ray of Creation.
The Presentation series is organized by The Austin Gurdjieff Society. (The group website is: https://austingurdjieff.org/)
One of the Group leaders is Robin Bloor, a pupil of Rina Hands who was, in turn, a pupil of Gurdjieff. He is the author of several books on The Work. For more information on his books click on the following link:
https://tofathomthegist.com/books/
[Seminar content includes: Side by side comparison of two sciences, the suggestibility problem, a review of the scientific method, mathematics and reality, the degeneration of science, a litany of assertions, Newton’s thought experiments, the SAFIRE project, the concepts of Objective Science, knowledge]
1. The document discusses the extent to which imagination is more important than knowledge in fields and professions. It agrees with Einstein that imagination embraces possibilities beyond current knowledge and understanding, while knowledge is limited to what is already known.
2. Creativity and dissenting viewpoints are important for progress, as seen in scientific revolutions that overturned existing paradigms, like Einstein's theory of relativity. However, knowledge and experience are also needed, as unfounded ideas without empirical evidence amount to ignorance.
3. Both imagination and knowledge play important roles. Imagination is needed to envision new possibilities and theories, while knowledge, including data from experimentation, is necessary to test ideas and advance understanding of nature.
RelativismEpistemic RelativismWe have now presented a philos.docxcarlt4
Relativism
Epistemic Relativism
We have now presented a philosophical argument behind the whole basis of accepted scientific truth.
Let's introduce another philosophical term important in that dabate:
Epistemic Relativism: the position that knowledge is valid only relatively to a specific context, society, culture or individual.
In the following video, Duncan Pritchard, from the University of Edinburgh introduces the concept of Epistemic Relativism. You will learn about the well-known Bellarmine–Galileo controversy about the validity of Ptolemy’s geocentric system vs Copernicus’s heliocentric system, This historical episode is well documented, and it has been the battleground of important discussions about what epistemologists call epistemic relativism, namely the view that norms of reasoning and justification for our knowledge claims seem to be relative.
From "The Little Thinker‘s Blog“
This historical example illustrates the epistemic relativist’s ‘no neutral ground’ argument, and the difficulty of identifying a common ground or a common measure to assess and evaluate knowledge claims in their historical and social context.
** Content from Online Course: Philosophy and the Sciences: Introduction to the Philosophy of Physical Sciences by The University of Edinburgh
https://youtu.be/MYnZgJeOqqg
Popper's Falsification
From inductivism to Popper’s falsification
From: Philosophy and the Science for Everyone by Michela Massimi. ISBN: 9781138785434
Karl Popper
Philosophers of science are interested in understanding the nature of scientific knowledge and its distinctive features. For a very long time, they strove to find what they thought might be the distinctive method of science, the method that would allow scientists to make informed decisions about what counts as a scientific theory.
The importance of demarcating good science from pseudo-science is neither otiose nor a mere philosophical exercise. It is at the very heart of social policy, when decisions are taken at the governmental level about how to spend taxpayers’ money.
Karl Popper (28 July 1902 – 17 September 1994) was, undoubtedly, one of the most influential philosophers of the early twentieth century to have contributed to the debate about demarcating good science from pseudo-science. In this section we very briefly review some of his seminal ideas.
Popper’s battleground was the social sciences. At the beginning of the twentieth century, in the German-speaking world, a lively debate took place between the so-called Naturwissenschaften (the natural sciences, including mathematics, physics, and chemistry) and the Geisteswissenschaften (the human sciences, including psychology and the emergent psychoanalysis), and whether the latter could rise to the status of proper sciences on a par with the natural sciences.
This is the historical context in which Popper began his philosophical reflections in the 1920s. Popper’s reflections were influenced by the Vienna Circle, a group of young int.
Scientific method vs. hollow earth theoryMarcus 2012
http://marcusvannini2012.blogspot.com/
http://www.marcusmoon2022.org/designcontest.htm
Shoot for the moon and if you miss you'll land among the stars...
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...Travis Hills MN
Travis Hills of Minnesota developed a method to convert waste into high-value dry fertilizer, significantly enriching soil quality. By providing farmers with a valuable resource derived from waste, Travis Hills helps enhance farm profitability while promoting environmental stewardship. Travis Hills' sustainable practices lead to cost savings and increased revenue for farmers by improving resource efficiency and reducing waste.
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
ESPP presentation to EU Waste Water Network, 4th June 2024 “EU policies driving nutrient removal and recycling
and the revised UWWTD (Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive)”
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
Sharlene Leurig - Enabling Onsite Water Use with Net Zero Water
What is science? Science, pseudoscience, non-science
1. What is Science?
Science, Pseudoscience, Non-science
Dennis Miller
07.09.2020
Presented to the Arbeitskreis Philosophie Kelkheim. Originally in German as Was ist Naturwissenschaft?
2. Introduction
Science plays a fundamental and increasing role in modern society. It is the basis of
widely used technologies, e.g. mobile phones, medical imaging, plastics. Many areas
of politics and legislation need a strong scientific input (e.g. mitigating climate
change, ensuring the safety of medicines).
But what exactly is science?
In philosophy this question is known as the demarcation problem: what is the
difference between science and other ways of knowing (or claiming to know) about
the world? Is scientific knowledge different (maybe better) than other types of
knowledge? These questions are part of epistemology (theory of knowledge).
Asking what science is often also has another purpose: an attack on anti-scientific
ideas and pseudoscience. These are a variety of teachings and practices that reject
scientific principles, though many of them claim to be scientific. They are at best
useless distractions, at worst positively harmful.
3. Terminology
Modern use (from about mid-19th century)
English German
Natural sciences Naturwissenschaft
Social sciences Sozialwissenschaft
Humanities Geisteswissenschaft
‘Science’ now generally refers to natural sciences (physics, chemistry, biology, ...). Before the modern use of the
term it referred to knowledge in general, corresponding to German Wissenschaft. Natural science, esp. physics, was
called ‘natural philosophy’ (not the same as the German Naturphilosophie movement).
The term ‘social sciences’ indicates that they aspire to the rigorous methods of natural sciences. However, their
subject matter, human behaviour, makes is much more difficult to avoid ideological and subjective influences.
The term ‘scientist’ was coined in 1834 by William Whewell. Before that, there was no general term to cover all
those working in fields we now refer to as science.
4. Science, Non-science, Pseudoscience
Science
Physics Astronomy
Chemistry Geology
Biology
Social Sciences
Psychology
Economics
Sociology
Humanities
Philosophy
Literature
......
Logic
Pure mathematics
Technology
Craftsmanship
Pseudoscience
Freudian Psychoanalysis
Marxist History
Anti-Vaxx
Creation Science
Climate Denial
Astrology
Homeopathy
*
**
Green: Science
Blue: In principle not science
but strong overlap in practice
Red: Pseudoscience (claims to be
science but isn't)
Grey: Non-science, doesn't claim to
be science
* Popper's examples
** McIntyre's examples
§ Majority of medical community considers it pseudoscience,
but a significant minority supports and practices homeopathy.
§
The social sciences are considered here
as a special category. They have become
scientific by taking on principles used in
natural sciences; this is an ongoing process.
5. What is Science? – Various Approaches
• Philosophical
Logic, justification of arguments, analysis of method
Science vs. other claims to obtain knowledge: demarcation problem
• Historical
How has science developed?
How and why have theories been discarded?
Has the meaning of ‘science’ changed?
• Sociological
Social framework: research institutes, universities, carriers, financing
• Education
What is science for schools and universities? What is not science?
6. Demarcation Problem
General Description of Scientific Method
Observe
Hypothesize
Predict new observations
Test predictions (experiment)
Analyze results: revise hypothesis
Does a particular method define science?
Realistic description of science
in practice?
Applies to all branches of science?
What are the requirements for a
scientific hypothesis/theory?
Agreement between prediction and
result does not prove hypothesis is
correct (Induction Problem).
This is the description of scientific method often found in indroductory textbooks.
7. Induction Problem
Induction: deduce future observations from previous ones
general statement from particular one
‘All swans are white’
I see lots of swans, all of them white → It's true.
Perhaps, but that does't prove the statement is true.
One black swan is found → This single observation proves the statement is false.
But in practice, we accept this type of argument, even though it is not logically
correct and occasionally does give the wrong answer. Everyday life would be
impossible if we only reasoned according to formal logic.
In Europe the black swan became metaphor for something which could not exist. It was originally used by the Roman author Juvenal (AD 82). ‘All swans
are white’ was considered a standard example of a well-known truth. The first European to record seeing an Australian black swan was the Dutch
explorer Willem de Vlamingh (1697). Recently the term has come to be used for rare and unpredictable events.
8. Karl Popper - falsifiability
Scientific theories are falsifiable.
A statement is falsifiable if some observation might show it to be false.
Scientific theories make predictions which can be expressed as falsifiable statements (typically via an
experiment to test the theory).
Theories that can always offer an explanation for every imaginable result are not scientific.
Examples
General Relativity: the 1919 Eclipse test was a good example of scientific method. It showed that light was
deflected towards heavy bodies. “The theory is incompatible with certain possible results of observation – in
fact results which everyone before Einstein would have expected.” [1]
Psychoanalysis: nothing could, even in principle, falsify psychoanalytic theories. Their ability to explain every
possible form of human behaviour is, in fact, a weakness.
Marxist theory of history: though originally scientific (falsifiable) later versions were unscientific. Addition of
ad hoc hypotheses made it always compatible with the facts.
9. Karl Popper – falsifiability (cont.)
“I wished to distinguish between science and pseudoscience; knowing very well that science often errs, and that
pseudo-science may happen to stumble on the truth.”
Focus is on logical aspects rather than how scientists actually think science progresses.
- Science is not defined by a specific method.
- Naturalistic methodology, i.e. what scientists do in practice: gives interesting information but should not be the
basis of the philosophy of science.
Psychological theories of Adler and of Freud
- Both are systems that can explain every conceivable case: no set of symptoms or behaviour can be imagined that
would disprove them.
- Therefore these theories are not falsifiable, not science.
- However, their work contains important and interesting ideas and observations, which might well be useful in
developing scientific psychology.
Detailed account of falsifiablility in The Logic of Scientific Discovery [2]
- Theory (logical viewpoint): a single instance serves to falsify a theory.
- Practice (methodological): In practice a single conflicting or counter-instance is not sufficient to falsify a theory.
Reproducibility problems, experimental uncertainties and auxiliary hypotheses must be considered. Scientific
theories are often retained, at least for a time, in spite of conflicting evidence or anomalous results.
- Falsifiability is a criterion for demarcation, not for meaning.
10. Karl Popper - Quotes
“I wished to distinguish between science and pseudoscience; knowing
very well that science often errs, and that pseudo-science may happen
to stumble on the truth.”
Freud and Adler:
“The two psycho-analytic theories were ... simply non-testable,
irrefutable. There was no conceivable human behaviour which could
contradict them. This does not mean that Freud and Adler were not
seeing certain things correctly: I personally do not doubt that much of
what they say is of considerable importance, and may well play its
part one day in a psychological science which is testable.”
11. Falsifiability – criticism
Idealised picture of science
Focus on famous episodes such as 1919 eclipse experiment
→ not typical scientific research.
Non-scientific theories may be falsifiable:
→ Astrology can make specific predictions.
Astrology: The predictions to be found in newspapers and magazines may often appear to contain a surprising amount of truth.
They are written so that most readers will find something that can be interpreted as corresponding to a real event. But astrology
(and all sorts of esoteric systems) can also make specific predictions. If the prediction fails (or could have failed), it was falsifiable.
A theory can be scientific but wrong; indeed many scientific theories have been falsified by subsequent work.
12. Falsifiability – Duhem-Quine Thesis
A scientific hypothesis cannot be tested in isolation: auxiliary hypotheses are always required for an
empirical test.
Examples of auxiliary hypotheses
Measuring instruments. For complex instruments, e.g. electron microscope, there is great deal of
theory underlying their operation. This can make the interpretation more difficult.
Correction terms. To obtain accurate positions of astronomical bodies corrections must be made for
refraction by the Earth's atmosphere.
Previous scientific theory. The idea that the Earth is in motion was rejected by some people because
birds do not get thrown into the sky when they let go of a branch. Modern theories of mechanics
(Galileo, Newton) resolved this objection.
→ If an experiment appears to refute a theory or hypothesis we don't discard it at once. First
consider whether the auxiliary hypotheses are correct.
The Duhem-Quine thesis is based on ideas presented by Pierre Duhem (1861-1916) and Willard van Orman Quine (1908-2000).
13. Falsifiability/Demarcation: an alternative approach
Thomas Kuhn
Popper approaches demarcation from a logical point of view, whereas Kuhn concentrates on the history of
science.
The paradigm is a central concept in Kuhn's work. It refers to the accepted theories, methods, training, etc.
- Periods of normal science are punctuated by scientific revolutions involving a change of paradigm.
- The paradigm concept was criticised as being vague. Kuhn made tried to make it more precise and in later
work used other terms instead.
Falsification is not how science really works.
- When accepted theory disagrees with new results:
▪ Try to find explanations within the current theory.
▪ Patch up the theory as long as possible.
▪ When theory no longer tenable: paradigm shift to new ideas.
Kuhn's 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions [3] was considered revolutionary. His approach was different
from previous historians and philosophers of science. These had viewed science either from a logical point of view or,
from the vantage point of present, as an error to truth progression.
14. Demarcation Problem: are we asking the wrong question?
Larry Laudan
Since antiquity many attempts have been made to define science, but “philosophy has largely failed to deliver
the relevant goods”.
There is no satisfactory demarcation (i.e. well defined necessary and sufficient conditions that define science).
→ We should discard the demarcation problem.
Alternative approach: distinguish between reliable and unreliable knowledge.
Lee McIntyre
Science cannot be defined by its method.
The scientific attitude is important: protects us from pseudoscience, denialism and fraud.
15. Scientific attitude
Good
View of empirical Evidence
Evidence is the primary consideration for theories
- Other considerations (scope, fruitfullnes, simplicity)
less important
Earnest attempts to find the relevant evidence *
Willingness to revise theories in the light of evidence
Personal qualities
Earnest
Open-minded
Intellectually honest
Curious
Self-critical
Bad
View of empirical Evidence
Disregarding evidence (Denialism)
Uncritical acceptance of favoured theories
Personal qualities
Narrow-minded view (often idealogically motivated)
Group-think
Lack of objectivity (e.g. career or economic motivations)
Acceptance of poor experimental methods
Tendency to believe implausible conspiracy theories
* There are, however, different views on evidence: Baysian vs. frequentist statistics,
dealing with outliers, excluding artefacts, deciding what is relevant.
16. Scientific Errors
Statistical and Methodological
Cherry picking: biased data selection to support favoured theory (or discredit one that is disliked)
Curve fitting with too many variables
p-Hacking
Data set too small
Keeping experiment open until desired result found
p-Hacking: This refers to trying various correlations until one is found that statistically significant according to the p < 0.05 test. If many correlations are
tried, a more stringent criterion should be used. Tukey described such a test as which he called the Honestly Significant Difference Test, implying a lack of
honesty elsewhere.
Psychological
Cognitive bias: lack of objectivity because one prefers one's own theory
17. Scientific attitude – the scientific community
Personal competence, integrity and professional ethics are important for good practice, but we cannot rely only on these.
Science is a group activity: the scientific community has various principles and instruments to promote high quality.
Peer review of scientific publications
Guidelines for good scientific practice: documentation, statistical methods, standards for
publication of results
Criticism by others → science as self-correcting system
Replication (often this is closely related work rather than exact replication)
Retraction of papers for major errors or scientific misconduct
Peer review: typically, the editor of a journal sends the paper to two scientists working in the same field. They recommend acceptance (often with revision)
or rejection.
Retraction: retractions, though uncommon, are an important correcting mechanism. In 2018 the retraction rate was reported as 4 per 10,000 papers [7].
18. Anti-Scientific Positions
Denialism: rejection of well-established theory in spite of overwhelming evidence
Typical denialists exaggerate uncertainties:
‘the science is not settled’
‘some other theory might be true’
This is a misunderstanding about how science works:
- Scientific theories can never claim complete certainty: there is always the possibility that they may be revised.
- It is unreasonable to reject a theory for which there is good evidence and instead favour a hypothetical future one.
- Complete agreement is seldom – there are usually a few scientists who disagree with generally accepted theories.
Pseudoscience: claims to be scientific but is not
Bad methods (experimental and/or theoretical)
Lack of scientific attitude
20. Conclusion
Science
Pseudoscience
Non-Science
Difficult to define:
many attempts and controversies
Upholding quality of scientific work
Protection against pseudoscience, denialism, fraud
Improve the social sciences
Help protect society from harmful anti-scientific trends
Demarcation
Problem
A task for Philosophy
of Science
Scientific
Attitude
21. Literature
1 Karl Popper, Conjectures and Refutations, Routledge & Kegan Paul (1963) p. 36
2 Karl Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery, Hutchinson & Co. (1959). [Reprinted Routledge Classics 2002]
3 Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Univ. Chicago Press (2nd ed. 1970) [50th anniv. ed. 2012]
4 Larry Laudan, The Demise of the Demarcation Problem, in R. S. Cohen and L. Laudan (eds.), Physics,
Philosophy and Psychoanalysis, 111-127, D. Reidel Publ. Co. (1983)
5 Lee McIntyre, The Scientific Attitude, MIT Press (2019)
6 Eric Loken, The replication crisis is good for science, The Conversation (Apr. 8 2019)
https://theconversation.com/the-replication-crisis-is-good-for-science-103736
7 Julia Belluz, A huge database of scientific retractions is live. That's great for science. (2018)
www.vox.com/2018/10/29/18022148/retractions-science-database