1) Pharmacognosy is the study of drugs from natural sources, especially medicinal plants. It draws from fields like botany, chemistry, and pharmacology.
2) Many important drugs were originally derived from plants, including morphine, quinine, taxol, and physostigmine. Extracting and isolating the active compounds from plants was an important early step in drug development.
3) While many plant-derived drugs can now be synthesized, plants remain an important source of new drug leads and templates for designing novel pharmaceuticals due to their vast chemical diversity and potential for novel structures. Extensive further screening of plants is still needed.
Herbal medicine is the use of plants or plant extracts for medicinal purposes (especially plants that are not part of the normal diet).
Phytonutrient or nutraceutical or functional food
Natural substances that aid the body to maintaining health and combating disease such as anthocyanidins, isoflavones and carotenoids.
Natural product : is biosynthetic substances produced by living cells.
Crude Drug: It’s a medically useful drug of plant or animal origin without any further processing or modification.
Pharmacognosy is "the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs, drug substances or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources".
Herbal medicine is the use of plants or plant extracts for medicinal purposes (especially plants that are not part of the normal diet).
Phytonutrient or nutraceutical or functional food
Natural substances that aid the body to maintaining health and combating disease such as anthocyanidins, isoflavones and carotenoids.
Natural product : is biosynthetic substances produced by living cells.
Crude Drug: It’s a medically useful drug of plant or animal origin without any further processing or modification.
Pharmacognosy is "the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs, drug substances or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources".
Introduction of Pharmacognosy, Scope and Traditional system of MedicineSHIVANEE VYAS
The term Pharmacognosy comes from two Greek words: “Pharmakon" meaning drug or medicine, and "gnosis" meaning knowledge or study. Pharmacognosy also defined as the systemic study of crude drugs obtained from natural origin like plants, animals, minerals, and microbes. Pharmacognosy defined as the branch of science which involves details study of drug obtained from natural origin including name, collection, cultivation, macroscopy, microscopy, physical property, chemical constituents, therapeutic action and uses.
https://youtu.be/gxOVfntCCB8
This presentation comprehensively tells about not only the classical methods of extraction but also the modern methods by which herbal products can be easily and efficiently extracted for further use in isolation and formulation
to download this presentation form this link
https://mohmmed-ink.blogspot.com/2020/11/herbal-medicine.html
herbal medicine in Gaza .. use and side effect
this work first was done by a medic student in the islamic University .... because its a good work i shared it . and i never asked for the permission .... sorry
but this link will lead to the original one...
http://www.slideshare.net/FaToOoMaa/final-herbal-medicine
Gums & mucilage have similar constitutions and on hydrolysis yield a mixture of sugars & uronic acids.
Gums are considered to be pathological products, While mucilage is formed by normal metabolism.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology-Approaches of Traditional Medicine Studies, Traditional use & management of medicinal plants in Asian countries, Application of Ethnobotany to community conservation and medicinal plant resource management
These slides represent a comprehensive view of history of using natural products caused to appearance of pharmacognosy as a science and show several aspects of pharmacognosy and natural products use and final their importance in discovering new drugs.
Introduction of Pharmacognosy, Scope and Traditional system of MedicineSHIVANEE VYAS
The term Pharmacognosy comes from two Greek words: “Pharmakon" meaning drug or medicine, and "gnosis" meaning knowledge or study. Pharmacognosy also defined as the systemic study of crude drugs obtained from natural origin like plants, animals, minerals, and microbes. Pharmacognosy defined as the branch of science which involves details study of drug obtained from natural origin including name, collection, cultivation, macroscopy, microscopy, physical property, chemical constituents, therapeutic action and uses.
https://youtu.be/gxOVfntCCB8
This presentation comprehensively tells about not only the classical methods of extraction but also the modern methods by which herbal products can be easily and efficiently extracted for further use in isolation and formulation
to download this presentation form this link
https://mohmmed-ink.blogspot.com/2020/11/herbal-medicine.html
herbal medicine in Gaza .. use and side effect
this work first was done by a medic student in the islamic University .... because its a good work i shared it . and i never asked for the permission .... sorry
but this link will lead to the original one...
http://www.slideshare.net/FaToOoMaa/final-herbal-medicine
Gums & mucilage have similar constitutions and on hydrolysis yield a mixture of sugars & uronic acids.
Gums are considered to be pathological products, While mucilage is formed by normal metabolism.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology-Approaches of Traditional Medicine Studies, Traditional use & management of medicinal plants in Asian countries, Application of Ethnobotany to community conservation and medicinal plant resource management
These slides represent a comprehensive view of history of using natural products caused to appearance of pharmacognosy as a science and show several aspects of pharmacognosy and natural products use and final their importance in discovering new drugs.
Classification of Crude Drugs. HARMACognosy & Phytochemistry-I (BP405T)Unit-I...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
Classification of Crude Drugs.PHARMACognosy & Phytochemistry-I (BP405T)Unit-I Part-2.
A method of classification should be:
a) simple,
b) easy to use, and
c) free from confusion and ambiguities.
TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION.
1.Alphabetical classification
2.Taxonomical classification
3.Morphological classification
4.Pharmacological classification
5.Chemical classification
6.Chemotaxonomical classification
7. Serotaxanomical Classification
This slideshow is used to teach botany to Master Gardeners in Beauregard Parish, LA. Mr. Jeff McMillian, Advanced Master Gardener, teaches this class and developed this PPT in collaboration with another PPT cited in this presentation.
PMT: Class 8
Outline:
Poisonous Hemlock
The Legumes
(Nodulation)
Last time: Agriculture and
the Grains, Wheat, Maize and
Rice.
Feb 19, Monday - in
one week is Exam I
Poisonous Hemlock
Carrot family – Apiaceae,
Also know as the parsley
family Umbelliferae.
300 genera & ~ 3000
Species: ¼ of genera
native to U.S.
Contains important food
plants: Carrots, parsnips, celery
Coriander seeds, cilantro,
Caraway, parsley & dill –
also poison hemlock.
Poisonous Hemlock
Conium maculatum L.
Description: A tall, usually much
- branched, imposing plant with
purple-spotted stems,
compound leaves, and small
compound umbels of white
Flowers.
Height: Two to ten feet.
Leaves: Pinnate compound.
Poisonous Hemlock:
Flowering: 2mm long, five petals,
compound umbel.
Habitat: Waste places, weedy areas, and
woodland borders.
Range: Throughout East, except Newfoundland &
Arctic, also in much of Western U.S.
All parts of this plant are poisonous,
containing the toxic alkaloid called coniine.
Toxin is a volatile oily compound.
Coniine was the first alkaloid synthesized
in the laboratory.
Piperidine structure: nitrogen in a
six-member ring.
Coniine killed Socrates!
Socrates drank a potent solution of poisonous hemlock 399 BC
Coniine causes paralysis of the diaphragm
and subsequent respiratory failure
No plant extract should be consumed by
unqualified practitioners!
Poisonous hemlock is a narcotic
herb that sedates and relieves pain.
The young leaves and fresh seeds
contain the highest alkaloid content.
Used by Greek and Arab physicians for a variety
of problems including arthritis.
It was not always effective …caused death... as
the difference btw. a therapeutic and a toxic
amount or measure can be very slight..
Poisonous Hemlock:
Overdoses can produce paralysis
and loss of speech being followed
by depression of the respiratory
function then death!
No plant extract should be consumed by
unqualified humans (practitioners)!
A current issue with poisonous hemlock is:
prevent livestock from consuming poisonous
hemlock while grazing (in large open rangelands)!
Paper: Hemlock alkaloids and Socrates to
poison Aloes (Aloe ruspoliana): on mycourses
• 399 BC poisoning of Socrates by poisonous
hemlock.
• Active constituents are of the piperidine
alkaloids family
• ~all related to coniine alkaloids all of very
simple chemical structures.
The Legumes
The Legumes:
Legume family (Leguminosae)
Synonymous with pod, the fruit produced
Seeds are inside the pod or legume
Examples include: Peas, Soybean,
Beans, Clover, Alfalfa & Peanuts
With N-fixing
root nodules
Importance of Legumes:
Major plant source of protein & oil
Major nitrogen fixers with symbiotic bacteria in
root modifications called root nodules – fixes
nitrogen from air and makes it available to plant
Vegetative Characteristics:
Legumes plants are mostly herbs with
compound leaves and most are annuals
Flowers are irregular, .
Arrangement of plants in an orderly sequence based upon their similarities and relationship in hierarchy such as species, genus, family, order, class and division in conformity with the nomenclatural system
The closely related plants are kept within a group and unrelated plants are kept far apart in separate groups.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Here is the updated list of Top Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and Indigestion and those are Gas-O-Go Syp for Dyspepsia | Lavizyme Syrup for Acidity | Yumzyme Hepatoprotective Capsules etc
Rasamanikya is a excellent preparation in the field of Rasashastra, it is used in various Kushtha Roga, Shwasa, Vicharchika, Bhagandara, Vatarakta, and Phiranga Roga. In this article Preparation& Comparative analytical profile for both Formulationon i.e Rasamanikya prepared by Kushmanda swarasa & Churnodhaka Shodita Haratala. The study aims to provide insights into the comparative efficacy and analytical aspects of these formulations for enhanced therapeutic outcomes.
Adv. biopharm. APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMSAkankshaAshtankar
MIP 201T & MPH 202T
ADVANCED BIOPHARMACEUTICS & PHARMACOKINETICS : UNIT 5
APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS By - AKANKSHA ASHTANKAR
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
1. S1 L1 Introduction to
Pharmacognosy
Anna Drew
with slide contribution from Bob Hoffman
& grateful acknowledgement for inspirational teaching received at the
School of Pharmacy, University of London
2. • ‘Pharmacognosy’
– pharmakon ‘a drug’ (Greek)
– gignosco ‘ to acquire knowledge of’ (Greek)
– OR cognosco ‘to know about’ (Latin)
• Johann Adam Schmidt (1759-1809)
– Lehrbuch der Materia Medica
– Published Vienna 1811
– Beethoven’s physician
3. Naturally occurring substances having
a medicinal action:
• Surgical dressings prepared from natural fibres
• Flavourings and suspending agents
• Disintegrants
• Filtering and support media
• Other associated fields:
– Poisonous and hallucinogenic plants
– Raw materials for production of oral contraceptives
– Allergens
– Herbicides and insecticides
4. Pharmacognosy is related to:
– Botany
– Ethnobotany
– Marine biology
– Microbiology
– Herbal medicine
– Chemistry (phytochemistry)
– Pharmacology
– Pharmaceutics
5. Skills & techniques valuable elsewhere:
Analysis of other commodoties
• Foods, spices, gums, perfumes, fabrics, cosmetics
Used by
• Public analysts, forensic sciences, quality-control scientists
Role in pure sciences
• Botany, plant taxonomy, phytochemistry
Botanists and chemists looking at:
• Chemical plant taxonomy, genetic/enzymatic studies involving 2y
metabolites
• Artificial and tissue culture
• Effects of chemicals on plant metabolites
• Induction of abnormal syntheses
• Bioassay-guided isolation techniques
6. Vegetable drugs can be arranged for study:
– Alphabetical
– Taxonomic**
• botanical classification
– Morphological
• Organised drugs: leaves, flowers, fruit, seeds etc
• Unorganised drugs: extracts, gums, resins, oils etc
– Pharmacological/therapeutic*
• Increasingly used with screening
• Constituents of one drug may fall into several groups
– Chemical/biogenetic
• Constituents or biosynthetic pathways
7. CLASS Angiospermae (Angiosperms) Plants which produce flowers
Gymnospermae (Gymnosperms) Plants which don't produce flowers
SUBCLASS Dicotyledonae (Dicotyledons, Dicots) Plants with two seed leaves
Monocotyledonae (Monocotyledons, Monocots) Plants with one seed leaf
SUPERORDER A group of related Plant Families, classified in the order in which they are thought to have
developed their differences from a common ancestor.
There are six Superorders in the Dicotyledonae (Magnoliidae, Hamamelidae, Caryophyllidae,
Dilleniidae, Rosidae, Asteridae), and four Superorders in the Monocotyledonae
(Alismatidae, Commelinidae, Arecidae, Liliidae)
The names of the Superorders end in -idae
ORDER Each Superorder is further divided into several Orders.
The names of the Orders end in -ales
FAMILY
Each Order is divided into Families. These are plants with many botanical features in common,
and is the highest classification normally used. At this level, the similarity between plants
is often easily recognisable by the layman.
Modern botanical classification assigns a type plant to each Family, which has the particular
characteristics which separate this group of plants from others, and names the Family after
this plant.
The number of Plant Families varies according to the botanist whose classification you follow.
Some botanists recognise only 150 or so families, preferring to classify other similar plants
as sub-families, while others recognise nearly 500 plant families. A widely-accepted
system is that devised by Cronquist in 1968, which is only slightly revised today.
The names of the Families end in -aceae
SUBFAMILY The Family may be further divided into a number of sub-families, which group together plants
within the Family that have some significant botanical differences.
The names of the Subfamilies end in -oideae
8. TRIBE A further division of plants within a Family, based on smaller botanical differences, but still usually
comprising many different plants.
The names of the Tribes end in -eae
SUBTRIBE A further division, based on even smaller botanical differences, often only recognisable to botanists.
The names of the Subtribes end in -inae
GENUS This is the part of the plant name that is most familiar, the normal name that you give a plant - Papaver
(Poppy), Aquilegia (Columbine), and so on. The plants in a Genus are often easily recognisable as
belonging to the same group.
The name of the Genus should be written with a capital letter.
SPECIES This is the level that defines an individual plant. Often, the name will describe some aspect of the plant
- the colour of the flowers, size or shape of the leaves, or it may be named after the place where it
was found. Together, the Genus and species name refer to only one plant, and they are used to
identify that particular plant. Sometimes, the species is further divided into sub-species that
contain plants not quite so distinct that they are classified as Varieties.
The name of the species should be written after the Genus name, in small letters, with no capital letter.
VARIETY A Variety is a plant that is only slightly different from the species plant, but the differences are not so
insignificant as the differences in a form. The Latin is varietas, which is usually abbreviated to var.
The name follows the Genus and species name, with var. before the individual variety name.
FORM A form is a plant within a species that has minor botanical differences, such as the colour of flower or
shape of the leaves.
The name follows the Genus and species name, with form (or f.) before the individual variety name.
CULTIVAR A Cultivar is a cultivated variety, a particular plant that has arisen either naturally or through deliberate
hybridisation, and can be reproduced (vegetatively or by seed) to produce more of the same plant.
The name follows the Genus and species name. It is written in the language of the person who
described it, and should not be translated. It is either written in single quotation marks or has cv.
written in front of the name.
9. Example
• Linnaeus (1707-1778), Swedish biologist
• Division Angiospermae
• Class Dicotyledoneae
• Subclass Sympetalae
• Order Tubiflorae
• Suborder Verbenineae
• Family Labiatae (Lamiaceae)
• Subfamily Stachydoideae
• Tribe Satureieae
• Genus Mentha
• Species Mentha piperita Linnaeus (peppermint)
• Varieties Mentha piperita var. officinalis Sole
(White Peppermint); Mentha piperita var.
vulgaris Sole (Black Peppermint)
10. Contribution of plants to
medicine and pharmacy
• 18th
century drugs plant based
• 19th
century a range of drugs was isolated:
• 1805 morphine
• 1817 emetine
• 1819 strychnine
• 1820 quinine
• Famous plants/plant drugs?
11. Quinine
• Cinchona bark, South American tree
• Used by Incas; dried bark ground and mixed
with wine
• First used in Rome in 1631
• Extracted 1820
• Large scale use 1850
• Chemical synthesis 1944
• Actual tree remains the most economic source
16. Efik Law
• Trial by ordeal
“A suspected person is given 8 beans ground and
added to water as a drink. If he is guilty, his mouth
shakes and mucus comes from his nose. His
innocence is proved if he lifts his right hand and
then regurgitates” (Simmons 1952)
• Deadly esere
• Administration of the Calabar bean
• First observed by WF Daniell in 1840
• Later described by Freeman 1846 in a
Communication to the Ethnological
Society of Edinburgh
18. ‘Taxol’
• Pacific Yew tree, Taxus brevifolia, bark
• 1964 activity discovered at NCI
• 1966 paclitaxel isolated
• Mitotic inhibitor
– interferes with normal microtubule growth during cell div
• Used for cancer chemotherapy
– lung, ovarian, breast, head & neck, Kaposi’s sarcoma
19. • 1969
• 1200kg bark -> 28kg crude extract -> 10g pure
• 1975 active in another in vitro assay
• 1977 7000 pounds bark requested to make 600g
• 1978 Mildly active in leukaemic mice
• 1979 Horowitz; unknown mechanism
• involved stabilising of microtubules
• 1980 20,000 pounds of bark needed
• 1982 Animal studies completed
20. • 1984 Phase I trials
• 12,000 pounds for Phase II to go ahead
• 1986 Phase II trials began
• Recognised 60,000 pounds miniumum needed
• Environmental concerns voiced
• 1988
• An effect in melanoma
• RR of 30% refractory ovarian cases
• Annual destruction of 360,000 trees to treat all US cases
• 1989 NCI handed over to BMS
• Agreed to find alternative production pathway
• 1992 BMS given FDA approval & 5yrs marketing rights
• Trademark ‘Taxol’ Generic paclitaxel
• 2000 sales peaked US$1.6 billion
• Now available as generic
21. Alternative production
– 1967-1993 all sourced from Pacific Yew
– Late 1970s synthetic production from petrochemical-
derived starting materials
– 1981 Potier isolated 10-deacetylbaccitin from Taxus
baccata needles
– 1988 published semi-synthetic route
– 1992 Holton patented improved process improving
yield to 80%
– 1995 use of Pacific Yew stopped
– Now plant cell fermentation (PCF) technology used
– Also found in fungi
– Race for synthetic production -> docetaxel
22. Why do we need plants?
1. Source of drug molecules
• Most drugs can be synthesised
• Still more economical to use the plant
Papaver opium -> morphine, codeine (strong medicinal
pain)
Ergot fungus –> ergotamine (headache), ergometrine
(direct action on uterine muscle)
24. 2. Source of complex molecules that can be
modified to medicinal compounds
• Examples:
Droscera yam: molecule -> steroids
Soya: saponins -> steroids
25. 3. Source of toxic molecules
• To study the way the body responds to their
pharmacological use
• Investigating pharmacological mechanisms
picrotoxin – nerve conduction
26. Morphine:
No better painkiller. Once structure worked out wanted
to improve it. What is required?
Diacetylmorphine (heroin):
OH group -> O-O-diacetyl. Still addictive?
Codeine:
Methylate hydroxyl phenolic; O-Me. 1/5 analgesic
capacity of morphine, useful to suppress cough reflex
Dihydromorphinone:
Reduced =, oxidised 2y alc. Potential analgesic.
4. Source of compounds to use as
templates for designing new drugs
27. Dihydrocodeine:
Me-ether of previous. More powerful than codeine,
less than morphine.
Dextromethorphan:
Good against cough reflex
Is lower ring necessary?
Pentazocin
Phenazocine
Is middle ring needed?
Pethidine
Methadone
28. • 5. Source of novel structures
• these might never be thought of
Catharanthus periwinkle -> vincristine (alkaloid dimer)
29. • 6. Source of plant drugs
• As a powder or extract
• The pure compound is often not isolated because:
» Active ingredient is unknown
» Active ingredient is unstable
» Isolation process is too costly
30. • 250,-500,000 species of higher plants on earth
• <10% investigated and only for one activity
• Huge potential in plant kingdom
Future: intense screening
» Anticancer - NCI
» Antimicrobial
» Antiviral
» Antimalarial
» Insecticidal
» Hypoglycaemic
» Cardiotonic
» Antiprotozoal
» Antifertility - WHO
31. • Screening
– Pharmacological – in vitro testing
– Chemical – certain constituents Eg alkaloids
• Failed screening work
– Incorrect identification of plant material
– Plants exist in chemical races – different
constituents
– Low yield of active compound
– Solubility – have to find correct solvent
32. Future
80% world population rely on natural
remedies
• Westernization of societies
(‘traditional’ knowledge)
• Extermination of species
» conservation, retain gene pools
• Natural resources exhausted
» cultivation, artificial propogation
33. Conclusion
• Natural products very important to
medicine
• Exist in range of structures that one
wouldn’t think of synthesizing
• Can act as templates for new drug
development
• Untapped reservoir of new compounds
Editor's Notes
The classic anticholinergic syndrome is described as below:-
Hot as hell
Blind as a bat
Red as a beet
Dry as a bone
Mad as a hatter
Patients may have:-
Elevated BP, red dry skin, dilated pupils, bowel sounds, urinary retention, delirium and convulsion
It can occur with any anticholinergic drugs e.g. cogentin, anticholinergic plants e.g. datura, as well as antihistamines, antidepressant drugs and antipsychotic drugs.