Variables: Types and their Operational Definitions
Unit III: Problem identification formulation of research objectives and hypothesis (as part of M.Optom Curriculum of Pokhara University, Nepal)
Variables: Types and their Operational Definitions
Unit III: Problem identification formulation of research objectives and hypothesis (as part of M.Optom Curriculum of Pokhara University, Nepal)
Research variable - Chinn and Kramer stated that variables are concepts at different levels of the abstraction that are concisely defined to promote their measurement or manipulation with in study.
A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative statement, which provides direction to investigate the variables under the study.
Research variable - Chinn and Kramer stated that variables are concepts at different levels of the abstraction that are concisely defined to promote their measurement or manipulation with in study.
A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative statement, which provides direction to investigate the variables under the study.
Biostatics and Research Methodology are essential components of the field of Pharmacy related research. They involve the application of statistical techniques and research methodologies to analyze and interpret data in biological, medical, and public health studies. This subject is applicable to B. Pharm as well as M. pharm students
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
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- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
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Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
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4. SIGNIFICANCE OF OPERATIONAL
DEFINITION
FUNDEMENTAL ATTRIBUTES OF ACONCEPTS/
VARIABLES UNDER STUDY
MEASUREMENT OF THE CONCEPTS AND ITS
CHARACTERISTICS IN WHOLE.
5. TOOL TO ENERGIZE THE RESEARCHER TO
FOCUS ON OBSERVATION OR MEASUREMENT
OF VARIABLE OF INTEREST
6. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
IS AN ACTIVE STATEMENT WHICH DESCRIBES
WHAT IS TO BE ACHIVED BY THE STUDY AND
HOW THE STUDY IS GOING TO ANSWER THE
SPECIFIC RESEARCH QUESTION.
8. CONT:
It is a concrete statement describing what the
research trying to achieve
It should be feasible, logical , observable, and
measurable.
Obtaining answer to research question or testing
the hypothesis.
9. TYPES OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
General objectives: main objectives of the research
study. Focused on broad outcomes a researcher
has to achieve at the end of the study.
10. Specific objectives: its prepared on the basis of
general objectives and is usually short term goal
oriented.
Specific objectives merge together to make a
general objectives.
11.
12. WRITING RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Should be clear, concise and written in declarative
format.
Should be written in present tense.
Use appropriative action verb makes the objectives
realistic and achievable.
13. CONT:
Well written objective should be specific to a
variable.
Should be omit the words that are repetitively used
in objective statement. ie,of ,an,is among etc
Written in measurable format.
14.
15. ASSUMPTIONS
Are those principles which are accepted to be true
but without empirical evidence or proof.
Defined as the statement that are taken granted or
are considered true without any empirical
evidences or any scientific testing.
16. TYPES OF ASSUMPTIONS
Universal assumption: There are belief that
assumed to be true by a large part of society or
universe.
Assumptions based on theories: Based on some
theory finding we have assume that it is true.
17. Methodological assumption: methodological
assumption to conduct thestudy.
Eg : self structured knowlwdge questionnaire can
assess the knowlwdge regarding universal precautions
among staff nurses.
o Warranted assumption: it states along with the
proof or evidences to support.
o Eg : exercise can reduce the weight.
19. TYPE I ERROR AND TYPE II ERROR
Type I error:
The rejection of a null hypothesis that is actually true,
i.e, saying an intervention is effective when it is
acutually not.
20. Type II error
The acceptance of null hypothesis that is actually false,
i.e, saying an intervention is ineffective when it actually
is.
21. LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE( )
Is usually a set by researcher in view of the serious
consequences that might arise on account of
making a mistake in accepting a false research
hypothesis.
p
22. It is set at .05 or .01 , it means that researcher is
willing to risk being wrong to the extend of 5% or
1%
Researcher tells that there is 5 chances in 100 or 1
chance in 100 of making a mistake in accepting
research hypothesis when it is actually false.