report Hy wire concept car

HY- WIRE CONCEPT CAR
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The potential for hydrogen and fuel cell energy systems to make a substantial
contribution to clean, sustainable energy systems has long been identified. Hydrogen
powered fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) received much exposure during the
2000s, but a lack of commercial models contributed some disillusion and a switch of
attention to battery electric vehicles. Nevertheless, hydrogen and fuel cell vehicles
may now be approaching commercial maturity as major manufacturers including
Honda, Toyota and Hyundai launch the first mass-produced FCEV passenger
vehicles. FCEVs are also becoming dominant in niche markets such as forklift trucks.
After ten years of commercialization, fuel cells are also taking off for residential
combined heat and power (CHP), with over 180,000 systems now sold in Japan, and
large field trials featuring a British manufacturer (Ceres Power) continuing in Europe.
In the UK, the potential for hydrogen to decarbonizes heat is gaining traction.
Hydrogen is also used to support the integration of renewable in Germany, through
power-to-gas plants hat convert excess electricity into hydrogen injected into the gas
networks.
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO HYDROGEN AND FUEL CELLS
Hydrogen is the only zero-carbon alternative energy carrier to electricity under
serious consideration in the UK. It has many potential uses across all sectors of the
economy, as a supplement or replacement for natural gas, to power high efficiency
fuel cells, and to provide storage in a variety of forms and scales. These technologies
potentially offer some significant advantages for consumers compared to electric
alternatives.
Hydrogen has been used in the UK energy system since the 1800s, as the largest
constituent of town gas, which was produced by coal gasification. Since the
switchover from town gas to natural gas in the 1970s, hydrogen has primarily been
used in industry, for ammonia production, in oil refineries, and elsewhere. There are
2,400 km of high-pressure hydrogen pipelines worldwide, principally in Europe and
North America, with the oldest operating since 1938. The UK has only a few short

pipe lines that connect merchant hydrogen plants to customers at present. Hydrogen
can be produced from coal, natural gas, biomass or electricity, and transported by
pipe line or by road to the point of consumption, or produced locally in a
decentralized system.
A range of hydrogen-fuelled technologies has been developed. Most
technologies that are fuelled by natural gas can be adapted to use hydrogen, including
boilers in homes and internal combustion engines in compressed natural gas (CNG)
vehicles. Fuel cells are an advanced technology that produces electricity from
hydrogen at high efficiencies, with no air quality emissions. They are scalable, with
high conversion efficiencies at even very small sizes. They can be used in a variety of
sectors, for example to power electric motors in vehicles, for CHP generation in
buildings, and for electricity generation. FCEVs have long been the most promising
market, since hydrogen can be stored more easily in tanks than electricity in batteries,
and tanks can be refilled in a similar time to existing petrol vehicles.
1.3 FUTURE ROLES FOR HYDROGEN AND FUEL CELLS
Hydrogen and fuel cells are already taking a strong role in several markets. In
Transport purpose fuel cell forklift trucks are taking an increasing market share in
warehouses in preference to battery forklifts due to their longer lifetime, zero
emissions, smaller space requirements and fast refueling.
In heat provision, Fuel cell CHP has been deployed in commercial buildings
and district heat networks for several decades. Fuel cell micro-CHP is supported by
both governments and industry, and is now being deployed in Japan, South Korea and
Europe, with over 180,000 houses using a fuel cell in Japan alone.
In electricity, fuel cells are widely used to provide emergency backup power
(e.g. for telecommunications during natural disasters), and primary power in computer
data centers. Electrolysers are being used in Europe and the US in power-to-gas
applications to help integrate high levels of renewable into electricity systems.
Road transport has long been seen as the most promising market for hydrogen
and fuel cells. Numerous companies have active development programmers for
FCEVs, and Hyundai and Toyota have recently launched mass-produced FCEVs for
the first time. The industry has sponsored research to examine the case for FCEVs

and public–private H2Mobility programmers have been founded in several countries
to explore how refueling infrastructure could be provided economically. At Davos in
2017, a new “Hydrogen Council” of CEOs from thirteen vehicle manufacturers and
chemical companies was announced, which intends to invest $10bn over five years on
refueling infrastructure. Such investments suggest that many vehicles companies
believe that FCEVs are ready for widespread commercialization. Environmental
challenges such as air quality in London and other major cities are only likely to
increase the pressure for investing in such zero-emission vehicles.
1.4 HY-WIRE CONCEPT CAR
Automobiles as we know today are very complicated machines even though their
basic purpose is transportation. The fundamental processes that a car performs are
acceleration of wheel speed, their control through braking, the turning of the wheels
with the help of the steering mechanism & so on. Given that the overall function of a
car is so basic it seems a little strange that almost all cars have the same collection of
complex devices crammed under the hood and the same general mass of mechanical
and hydraulic linkages running throughout. So considering these facts, automotive
engineers for many years, pondered over the question as to why do cars need all these
complicated machinery at all. And funnily they found that cars actually don’t need all
these gizmos and in the future they won’t need these.
1.5 OBJECTIVES
The primary objective of this work is to introduce a car with following features
 Fuel efficient - a fuel cell vehicle could provide twice the fuel efficiency of a
comparably sized conventional vehicle.
 Environment friendly - the only bi-product formed is water, which is a non-
pollutant.
 3. High stability - a low center of gravity, gives the architecture both a high
stability and superior handling.
1.6 APPROACH
This seminar deals with such a futuristic vision which the automotive
engineers at GM (General Motors) have realized. The HY-WIRE concept car the

name symbolizes the combination of hydrogen as fuel for the fuel cell propulsion
system, and the replacement of conventional mechanical and hydraulic control
linkages for steering, braking and other control systems by a drive-by-wire system.
"By combining fuel cell and by-wire technology, we've packaged this vehicle in a
new way, opening up a new world of chassis architectures and customized bodies for
individualized expressions and . It is a significant step towards a new kind of
automobile that is substantially friendlier to the environment and provides consumers
positive benefits in driving dynamics, safety and freedom of individual expression”.
1.7 REPORT OUTLINE
The chapter bifurcation in brief is as follows. Initially, Chapter 2 deals with
background information on the approaches and studies which are related to the
hydrogen fuel cell and steer by wire technology. It also includes an exhaustive
literature review. Chapter 3 discusses deeply about hy-wire car. It gave a clear idea
about working of fuel cell and implementation of wire technology towards steering. In
chapter 4 compare the fuel cell and battery electric vehicle, gasoline engine vehicle. It
gives a clear idea about benefits of fuel cell vehicle over other conventional vehicle.
Finally, the report concludes with Chapter 5 which highlights the main contributions
of this seminar, outlines potential direction for further work and commercialization of
fuel cell vehicle.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a literature survey of past research
effort such as journals or articles related to fuel cell vehicle and to study the new
inventions related to this topic. Moreover, review of other relevant research studies
are made to provide more information in order to understand more on this research.
2.2 JOURNAL STUDIES ON HY-WIRE CAR
2.2.1 Vehicle Steer-By-Wire Technology by Lokesh Kumar Chaudhary
This journal says about vehicle steer by wire technology. There is much
advancement in steering control technology with time. Steering –by-wire (SBW)
system is the most modern and efficient technique, the steer-by-wire is replacing the
traditional steering device of the vehicle in which the conventional steering system is
replaced by electronic system. This paper focus to introduce steer-by-wire technology
and methodology and angle sensor is preferred to have the good accuracy. Finally
steer-by-wire technology is better than conventional system with respect to their
advantage over conventional system.
A steer-by-wire system replaces the traditional mechanical linkage between
the steering wheel and the road wheel actuator (e.g., a rack and pinion steering
system) with an electronic connection. The system provides precise control over the
direction of the front wheel, moderates the correct amount of effort required to turn
the front wheel, transmits feedback to the driver and absorbs intrusive shocks and
bumps the conventional steering system is shown. A conventional steering typically
consists of the hand wheel (steering wheel), the steering column, intermediate shaft,
rotary spool valve (an integral part of the hydraulic power assist system), the Rack
and pinion, and steering linkages. The steer-by-wire implementation makes use of all
the conventional steering system components except for the intermediate steering
shaft, which is cut fifty-fifty with the upper end totally uprooted.SBW system
eliminate the mechanical linkage between the steering wheel and the front wheels,
and supplant them with electronic sensors, control system ,and actuator

2.2.2 Hydrogen fuel cell vehicle by Prasad M Chavan
This journal gives details about fuel cell vehicle. A fuel cell is similar to a
battery in that it generates electricity from an electrochemical reaction. Both batteries
and fuel cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy and also, as a by-product
of this process, into heat. However, a battery holds a closed store of energy within it
and once this is depleted the battery must be discarded, or recharged by using an
external supply of electricity to drive the electrochemical reaction in the reverse
direction.
A fuel cell, on the other hand, can run indefinitely as long as it is supplied with
a source of hydrogen fuel (hence the name) and is similar to an ICE in that it oxidizes
fuel to create energy; but rather than using combustion, a fuel cell oxidizes hydrogen
electrochemically in a very efficient way. During the reaction, hydrogen ions react
with oxygen atoms to form water; in the process electrons are released and flow
through an external circuit as an electric current. The only exhaust is water vapor
The fuel cell type used in the automotive industry is the proton exchange
membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), a low-temperature, hydrogen-fuelled cell containing a
platinum catalyst; it is the most common type of fuel cell and allows for variable
electrical output, ideal for vehicle use.
2.2.3 The role of hydrogen and fuel cells in future energy systems by Paul Ekins
This White Paper has been commissioned by the UK Hydrogen and Fuel Cell
(H2FC) supergen Hub to examine the roles and potential benefits of hydrogen and
fuel cell technologies within each sector of future energy systems, and the transition
infrastructure that is required to achieve these roles. The H2FC SUPERGEN Hub is
an inclusive network encompassing the entire UK hydrogen and fuel cells research
community, with around 100 UK-based academics supported by key stakeholders
from industry and government. It is funded by the UK EPSRC research council as
part of the RCUK Energy Programme. This paper is the third of four that were
published over the lifetime of the Hub

2.2.4 Fuel Cell and Battery Electric Vehicles Compared by C. E. Thomas
Several alternative vehicle and fuel options are under consideration to alleviate
the triple threats of climate change, urban air pollution and foreign oil dependence
caused by motor vehicles. This paper evaluates the primary transportation alternatives
and determines which hold the greatest potential for averting societal threats. We
developed a dynamic computer simulation model that compares the societal benefits
of replacing conventional gasoline cars with vehicles that are partially electrified,
including hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrids fueled by gasoline, cellulosic
ethanol and hydrogen, and all-electric vehicles powered exclusively by batteries or by
hydrogen and fuel cells. These simulations compare the year-by-year societal benefits
over a 100-year time horizon of each vehicle/fuel combination compared to
conventional cars. We conclude that all-electric vehicles will be required in
combination with hybrids, plug-in hybrids and bio fuels to achieve an 80% reduction
in greenhouse gas emissions below 1990 levels, while simultaneously cutting
dependence on imported oil and eliminating nearly all controllable urban air pollution
from the light duty vehicle fleet. Hybrids and plug-ins that continue to use an internal
combustion engine will not be adequate by themselves to achieve our societal
objectives, even if they are powered with bio fuels. There are two primary options for
all-electric vehicles: batteries or fuel cells. We show that for any vehicle range greater
than 160 km (100 miles) fuel cells are superior to batteries in terms of mass, volume,
cost, initial greenhouse gas reductions, refueling time, well-to-wheels energy
efficiency using natural gas or biomass as the source and life cycle costs.
2.2.5 General motors’ Hy wire car history
General Motors, the American automobile behemoth, is essentially the
company bringing out the HY WIRE car. But this was not the first alternate fuel
powered vehicle that they were bringing out. GM’s overarching advanced technology
strategy for propulsion systems was designed to build capability for increased power
and energy efficiency and reduced emissions with the long-term vision of making the
transition to hydrogen-fueled fuel cell powered vehicles that emit only clean water
and offer twice the energy efficiency of traditional engines. This technology
development focuses on fuel cell power systems, hydrogen production (electrolysis

and fuel processing), electric drive control and system integration, hydrogen storage,
and affordability.
At the 2002 North American International Motor Show at Detroit, GM
unveiled the AUTOnomy car which was the first purpose-designed vehicle
combining the benefits of fuel cells and drive by wire technology. Discarding the
restrictions of conventional vehicle design based around the internal combustion
engine, the vehicle consists of an innovative, skateboard-like chassis, incorporating all
the running gear, such as fuel cell powered electric drive, steering and braking
systems, onto which a variety of different body styles, from a two-seater sports car to
a people carrier, can be placed as required.
The GM Hy-wire incorporates the features first envisioned in the AUTOnomy
concept vehicle. All of the touring sedan's propulsion and control systems are
contained within an 11-inch-thick skateboard-like chassis, maximizing the interior
space for five occupants and their cargo. GM designers and engineers in the United
States developed the vehicle chassis and body design, as well as the engineering and
electrical system integration. Engineers at GM's research facility in Mainz-Kastel,
Germany, integrated the fuel-cell propulsion system, which is the same system used in
the HydroGen3 concept, based on an Opel Zafira and shown at the 2001 Frankfurt
Motor Show. American designers also worked closely with Italian design house Stile
Bertone in Turin, where the body was built. The SKF Group, headquartered in
Sweden, developed the by-wire technology in the Netherlands and in Italy.

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 GENERAL MOTORS CONCEPT OF HY-WIRE CAR
Conventional cars possess other complex machinery in addition to the ‘heart’
of the car i.e. the IC engine such as carburetor, gearbox, ignition systems, radiator etc.
If you've ever looked under the hood of a car, you know an internal combustion
engine requires a lot of additional equipment to function correctly. No matter what
else they do with a car, designers always have to make room for this equipment. The
same goes for mechanical and hydraulic linkages. The basic idea of this system is that
the driver maneuvers the various actuators in the car (the wheels, brakes, etc.) more or
less directly, by manipulating driving controls connected to those actuators by shafts,
gears and hydraulics. In a rack-and-pinion steering system, for example, turning the
steering wheel rotates a shaft connected to a pinion gear, which moves a rack gear
connected to the car's front wheels. In addition to restricting how the car is built, the
linkage concept also dictates how we drive: The steering wheel, pedal and gear-shift
system were all designed around the linkage idea.
The defining characteristic of the Hy-wire (and its conceptual predecessor, the
autonomy) is that it doesn't have either of these two things. Instead of an engine, it has
a fuel cell stack, which powers an electric motor connected to the wheels. Instead of
mechanical and hydraulic linkages, it has a drive by wire system -- a computer
actually operates the components that move the wheels, activate the brakes and so on,
and based on input from an electronic controller. This is the same control system
employed in modern fighter jets as well as many commercial planes. The result of
these two substitutions is a very different type of car -- and a very different driving
experience. There is no steering wheel, there are no pedals and there is no engine
compartment. In fact, every piece of equipment that actually moves the car along the
road is housed in an 11-inch-thick (28 cm) aluminum chassis -- also known as the
skateboard -- at the base of the car. Everything above the chassis is dedicated solely to
driver control and passenger comfort.

Figure 3.1: Skate board chassis
This means the driver and passengers don't have to sit behind a mass of
machinery. Instead, the Hy-wire has a huge front windshield, which gives everybody
a clear view of the road. The floor of the fiberglass-and-steel passenger compartment
can be totally flat, and it's easy to give every seat lots of leg room. Concentrating the
bulk of the vehicle in the bottom section of the car also improves safety because it
makes the car much less likely to tip over.
But the coolest thing about this design is that it lets you remove the entire
passenger compartment and replace it with a different one. If you want to switch from
a van to a sports car, you don't need an entirely new car; you just need a new body
(which is a lot cheaper).
` Before we get to the further features of the car, we will discuss about the 2
most defining technologies that make up the HY WIRE car i.e. the drive by wire
system & Hydrogen fuel cell technology
3.1.2 What led to this name?
GM originally dubbed its working concept for a drive-by-wire fuel-cell car the
autonomy, to highlight the flexibility of the computer control and switch able car
bodies. When it came time to name the actual drivable version, the design team
recruited a group of kids, ranging from six to 15 years old, to come up with interesting

possibilities. Hy-wire, it nicely summarized the hydrogen-fuel-cell and drive-by-wire
concepts at the vehicle's core.
3.2 DRIVE BY WIRE
Drive-By-Wire technology is the incorporation of electrical devices to
supplant the use of mechanical linkages within a vehicle. This implementation can use
electro hydrostatic. Electro pneumatic or electromechanical means. Drive-by-wire
systems are forecast to replace many of the traditional hydraulic and mechanical
systems in vehicles. Originally known as ‘fly-by-wire’, it was used in fighter jets &
for other aviation purposes. The past few years has seen its introduction into military
vehicles (such as tanks etc.) and heavy vehicles (like Caterpillars). The drive-by-wire
system follows closely the fly-by-wire concepts used successfully by the aerospace
industry for many years. In conventional control, the movements the driver makes
with the steering wheel are transmitted mechanically via the steering column to the
steering rack and then to the front wheels. In a by-wire system, the driver’s physical
movement on the steering wheel is sensed and converted into a digital electronic
signal that is transmitted to a smart electro-mechanical actuation unit (SEMAU) that
controls the wheels. The same principle can be applied to the braking and gearbox
systems.
Like so many of today's technologies, drive-by-wire is primarily a response to
tightening emission standards. As with fuel injection and integrated engine
controllers, drive-by-wire systems improve engine efficiency while cutting vehicle
emissions. They do this by replacing clunky and inaccurate mechanical systems with
highly advanced and precise electronic sensors. Currently, drive-by-wire applications
are being used to replace the throttle-cable system on newly developed cars like the
models already mentioned.
These systems work by replacing conventional throttle-control systems.
Instead of relying on a mechanical cable that wind from the back of the accelerator
pedal, through the vehicle firewall, and onto the throttle body, drive-by-wire consists
of a sophisticated pedal-position Sensor that closely tracks the position of the
accelerator and sends this information to the Engine Control Module (ECM). This is
superior to a cable-operated throttle system for the following reasons:

Figure 3.2: Drive by wire
a. By eliminating the mechanical elements and transmitting a vehicle's throttle
position electronically. The drive-by-wire greatly reduces the number of moving
parts in the throttle system. This means greater accuracy, reduced weight, and,
theoretically, no service requirements (like oiling and adjusting the throttle cable).
b. The greater accuracy not only improves the driving experience (increased
responsiveness and consistent pedal feel regardless of outside temperature or
pedal position), but it allows the throttle position to be tied closely into ECM
information like fuel pressure, engine temperature and exhaust gas re-circulation.
This means improved fuel economy and power delivery as well as lower exhaust
emissions.
c. With the pedal inputs reduced to a series of electronic signals, it becomes a simple
matter to integrate a vehicle's throttle with non-engine specific items like ABS,
gear selection and traction control. This increases the effectiveness of these
systems while further reducing the amount of moving parts, service requirements
and vehicle weight.
For the driver, the most striking aspects of the interior design of the vehicle are the
absence of pedals and steering column. This creates considerably more space inside
the car. Drive-by-wire technology eliminates heavy, space-consuming hydraulic and
mechanical components, and it has positive environmental implications through the
elimination of brake fluids, as well as significant safety benefits.

Electro-mechanical control could allow the steering column and pedals to be
removed, a significant potential for improving passive safety for the driver in case of
a crash.
In this concept vehicle, the driver’s control system combines all the controls
that the driver needs in a single unit. Throttle, braking and steering are presented as
hand controls. Gear selection is made by a button system that is familiar from the
world of motor racing. Lights, windscreen wipers, audio, heating and air conditioning
are all located within the driver’s immediate reach. The right and left steering control
yokes, which are linked, have a travel of +/- 20 degrees. The amount of “feel”
experienced by the driver is fully programmable, as is the relationship between the
movement of the yokes and the movement of the front wheels. For the Filo, the
steering actuator fits into the original platform’s sub-frame assembly.
3.2.1 What does it do to the car?
 Increases responsiveness of the system, leading to better steering & braking.
 Negates the usage of a steering column & reduces the number of moving
parts.
 It has positive environmental implications through the elimination of brake
fluids, as well as significant safety benefits.
 Increased capability due to fault monitoring and diagnostics
3.2.2 What does it mean for driver?
 Enhanced driving experience & Less tiring
 Less or nil maintenance due to near absence of any moving parts
 Provides more space for passengers upfront due to absence of steering column
& associated linkages.
3.3 FUEL CELL POWER
A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device that converts
hydrogen and oxygen into water, producing electricity and heat in the process. It is
very much like a battery that can be recharged while you are drawing power from it.
Instead of recharging using electricity, however, a fuel cell uses hydrogen and
oxygen. A fuel cell provides a DC (direct current) voltage that can be used to power

motors, lights or any number of electrical appliances. There are several different types
of fuel cells, each using a different chemistry. Fuel cells are usually classified by the
type of electrolyte they use. Some types of fuel cells show promise for use in power
generation plants. Others may be useful for small portable applications or for
powering cars. The proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is one of the most
promising technologies. This is the type of fuel cell that will end up powering cars,
buses and maybe even your house. The proton exchange membrane fuel cell
(PEMFC) uses one of the simplest reactions of any fuel cell. It is the type of fuel cell
used in the Hy-Wire car.
Figure 3.3: Fuel cell
First, let's take a look at what's in a PEM fuel cell. We can see there are four
basic elements of a PEMFC:
The anode, the negative post of the fuel cell, has several jobs. It conducts the
electrons that are freed from the hydrogen molecules so that they can be used in an
external circuit. It has channels etched into it that disperse the hydrogen gas equally
over the surface of the catalyst. The cathode, the positive post of the fuel cell, has
channels etched into it that distribute the oxygen to the surface of the catalyst. It also
conducts the electrons back from the external circuit to the catalyst, where they can

recombine with the hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water. The electrolyte is the
proton exchange membrane. This specially treated material, which looks something
like ordinary kitchen plastic wrap, only conducts positively charged ions. The
membrane blocks electrons. The catalyst is a special material that facilitates the
reaction of oxygen and hydrogen. It is usually made of platinum powder very thinly
coated onto carbon paper or cloth. The catalyst is rough and porous so that the
maximum surface area of the platinum can be exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen.
The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces the PEM.
3.3.1 Working
The pressurized hydrogen gas (H2) enters the fuel cell on the anode side. This
gas is forced through the catalyst by the pressure. When an H2 molecule comes in
contact with the platinum on the catalyst, it splits into two H+ ions and two electrons
(e-). The electrons are conducted through the anode, where they make their way
through the external circuit (doing useful work such as turning a motor) and return to
the cathode side of the fuel cell.
Meanwhile, on the cathode side of the fuel cell, oxygen gas (O2) is being
forced through the catalyst, where it forms two oxygen atoms. Each of these atoms
has a strong negative charge. This negative charge attracts the two H+ ions through
the membrane, where they combine with an oxygen atom and two of the electrons
from the external circuit to form a water molecule (H2O).
This reaction in a single fuel cell produces only about 0.7 volts. To get this
voltage up to a reasonable level, many separate fuel cells must be combined to form a
fuel-cell stack.
PEMFCs operate at a fairly low temperature (about 176 degrees Fahrenheit, 80
degrees Celsius), which means they warm up quickly and don't require expensive
containment structures. Constant improvements in the engineering and materials used
in these cells have increased the power density to a level where a device about the size
of a small piece of luggage can power a car.

3.3.1.1 Chemistry of a Fuel Cell
Anode side
2𝐻2 → 4𝐻+
+4𝑒−
Cathode side
𝑂2++4𝐻+
+4𝑒−
→ 2𝐻2o
Net reaction
2𝐻2+𝑂2 → 2𝐻2o
We learned in the last section that a fuel cell uses oxygen and hydrogen to
produce electricity. The oxygen required for a fuel cell comes from the air. In fact, in
the PEM fuel cell, ordinary air is pumped into the cathode. The hydrogen is not so
readily available, however. Hydrogen has some limitations that make it impractical
for use in most applications. For instance, you don't have a hydrogen pipeline coming
to your house, and you can't pull up to a hydrogen pump at your local gas station.
Hydrogen is difficult to store and distribute, so it would be much more
convenient if fuel cells could use fuels that are more readily available. This problem is
addressed by a device called a reformer. A reformer turns hydrocarbon or alcohol
fuels into hydrogen, which is then fed to the fuel cell. Unfortunately, reformers are
not perfect. They generate heat and produce other gases besides hydrogen. They use
various devices to try to clean up the hydrogen, but even so, the hydrogen that comes
out of them is not pure, and this lowers the efficiency of the fuel cell.
Some of the more promising fuels are natural gas, propane and methanol.
Many people have natural-gas lines or propane tanks at their house already, so these
fuels are the most likely to be used for home fuel cells. Methanol is a liquid fuel that
has similar properties to gasoline. It is just as easy to transport and distribute, so
methanol may be a likely candidate to power fuel-cell cars.

3.4 APPILICATIONS OF FUEL CELL
As we've discussed, fuel cells could be used in a number of applications. Each
proposed use raises its own issues and challenges.
3.4.1 Automobiles
Fuel-cell-powered cars will start to replace gas- and diesel-engine cars in
about 2005. A fuel-cell car will be very similar to an electric car but with a fuel cell
and reformer instead of batteries. Most likely, you will fill your fuel-cell car up with
methanol, but some companies are working on gasoline reformers. Other companies
hope to do away with the reformer completely by designing advanced storage devices
for hydrogen.
3.4.2 Portable power
Fuel cells also make sense for portable electronics like laptop computers,
cellular phones or even hearing aids. In these applications, the fuel cell will provide
much longer life than a battery would, and you should be able to” recharge" it quickly
with a liquid or gaseous fuel.
3.4.3 Buses
Fuel-cell-powered buses are already running in several cities. The bus was one
of the first applications of the fuel cell because initially, fuel cells needed to be quite
large to produce enough power to drive a vehicle. In the first fuel-cell bus, about one-
third of the vehicle was filled with fuel cells and fuel-cell equipment. Now the power
density has increased to the point that a bus can run on a much smaller fuel cell.
3.4.4 Home power generation
This is a promising application that you may be able to order as soon as 2002.
General Electric is going to offer a fuel-cell generator system made by Plug Power.
This system will use a natural gas or propane reformer and produce up to seven
kilowatts of power (which is enough for most houses). A system like this produces
electricity and significant amounts of heat, so it is possible that the system could heat
your water and help to heat your house without using any additional energy.

3.5 FEATURES OF THE HY-WIRE CAR
3.5.1 Power transmission
The components which comprise the power transmission mechanism are the
Hydrogen fuel cell stack & the 3-phase ac motor. We have discussed the working of
the fuel cell just before. Now the reaction in a single fuel cell produces only about 0.7
volts. To get this voltage up to a reasonable level, many separate fuel cells must be
combined to form a fuel-cell stack. The fuel-cell stack in the Hy-wire is made up of
200 individual cells connected in series, which collectively provide 94 kW (125 bhp)
of continuous power and 129 kW (173 bhp) at peak power. This system delivers DC
voltage ranging from 125 to 200 volts, depending on the load in the circuit. Three
cylindrical storage tanks made by Quantum Fuel Systems Technologies Worldwide,
Irvine, CA, rated at 5,000 psi (350 bar) so far provide a range of about 100 km (60
miles), with refueling in five minutes. But judging from earlier comments by GM's
vice president of research and development, Larry Burns, higher-pressure tanks of
10,000 psi are
Under consideration” The motor controller boosts this up to 250 to 380 volts
and converts it to AC current to drive the three-phase electric motor that rotates the
wheels (this is similar to the system used in conventional electric cars).
The electric motor's job is to apply torque to the front wheel axle to spin the
two front wheels. The control unit varies the speed of the car by increasing or
decreasing the power applied to the motor. When the controller applies maximum
power from the fuel-cell stack, the motor's rotor spins at 12,000 revolutions per
minute, delivering a torque of 159 pound-feet. A single-stage planetary gear, with a
ratio of 8.67:1, steps up the torque to apply a maximum of 1,375 pound-feet to each
wheel. That's enough torque to move the 4,200-pound (1,905-kg) car 100 miles per
hour (161 kph) on a level road. Smaller electric motors maneuver the wheels to steer
the car, and electrically controlled brake calipers bring the car to a stop.

3.5.2 Control
The Hy-wire's "brain" is a central computer housed in the middle of the
chassis. It sends electronic signals to the motor control unit to vary the speed, the
steering mechanism to maneuver the car, and the braking system to slow the car
down.
At the chassis level, the computer controls all aspects of driving and power
use. But it takes its orders from a higher power -- namely, the driver in the car body.
The computer connects to the body's electronics through a single universal docking
port. This central port works the same basic way as a USB port on a personal
computer: It transmits a constant stream of electronic command signals from the car
controller to the central computer, as well as feedback signals from the computer to
the controller. Additionally, it provides the electric power needed to operate all of the
body's onboard electronics. Ten physical linkages lock the body to the chassis
structure. The driver's control unit, dubbed the X-drive, is a lot closer to a video game
controller than a conventional steering wheel and pedal arrangement. The controller
has two ergonomic grips, positioned to the left and right of a small LCD monitor. To
steer the car, you glide the grips up and down lightly -- you don't have to keep
rotating a wheel to turn, you just have to hold the grip in the turning position. To
accelerate, you turn either grip, in the same way you would turn the throttle on a
motorcycle; and to brake, you squeeze either grip.
Figure 3.4: Hy-wires’s X drive

Electronic motion sensors, similar to the ones in high-end computer joysticks,
translate this motion into a digital signal the central computer can recognize. Buttons
on the controller let you switch easily from neutral to drive to reverse, and a starter
button turns the car on. Since absolutely everything is hand-controlled, you can do
whatever you want with your feet. The 5.8-inch (14.7-cm) color monitor in the center
of the controller displays all the stuff you'd normally find on the dashboard (speed,
mileage, fuel level). It also gives you rear-view images from video cameras on the
sides and back of the car, in place of conventional mirrors. A second monitor, on a
console beside the driver, shows you stereo, climate control and navigation
information.
Since it doesn't directly drive any part of the car, the X-drive could really go
anywhere in the passenger compartment. In the current Hy-wire sedan model, the X-
drive swings around to either of the front two seats, so you can switch drivers without
even getting up. It's also easy to adjust the X-drive up or down to improve driver
comfort, or to move it out of the way completely when you're not driving.
One of the coolest things about the drive-by-wire system is that you can fine-
tune vehicle handling without changing anything in the car's mechanical components -
-all it takes to adjust the steering, accelerator or brake sensitivity is some new
computer software. In future drive-by-wire vehicles, you will most likely be able to
configure the controls exactly to your liking by pressing a few buttons, just like you
might adjust the seat position in a car today. It would also be possible in this sort of
system to store distinct control preferences for each driver in the family.
Figure 3.5: Hy-Wire Skateboard Chassis

A Rear crush zone
B Universal docking connection
C Control system
D Body attachment
E Heat dissipation
F Fuel cell system
G Wheel motor
H Front crush zone
3.6 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
Top speed : 161 kph
Weight : 1,898 kg
Chassis length : 4.3 meters
Chassis width : 5 1.67 meters
Chassis thickness : 28 cm
Wheels : Eight-spoke, light alloy wheels.
Tires : 51cm in front and 56cm in back
Fuel-cell power : 94 kilowatts continuous, 129 kilowatts peak
Motor : 250-380-volt three-phase asynchronous electric
motor
Crash protection : Front and rear "crush zones" to absorb impact
energy
Fuel-cell-stack voltage : 125 to 200 volts
Related GM patents in progress: 30
3.7 A FEW CONCERNS OF HY-WIRE CAR
The big concern with drive-by-wire vehicles is safety. Since there is no
physical connection between the driver and the car's mechanical elements, an
electrical failure would mean total loss of control. In order to make this sort of system
viable in the real world, drive-by-wire cars will need back-up power supplies and
redundant electronic linkages. With adequate safety measures like this, there's no

reason why drive-by-wire cars would be any more dangerous than conventional cars.
In fact, a lot of
Designers think they'll be much safer, because the central computer will be
able to monitor driver input. Another problem is adding adequate crash protection to
the car. The other major hurdle for this type of car is figuring out energy-efficient
methods for producing, transporting and storing hydrogen for the onboard fuel-cell
stacks. With the current state of technology, actually producing the hydrogen fuel can
generate about as much pollution as using gasoline engines, and storage and
distribution systems still have a long way to go. For that and other reasons, GM is still
exploring other storage techniques such as metal hydrides. To make fuel cell cars
attractive, they must match current life time expectations of 150,000 miles or more
and GM is pretty optimistic about that aspect. Says Larry Burns “….other than the
flow of electrons and protons, the only moving parts will be the wheels, the
suspension and the compressor, so it should have a pretty good life." In terms of
production volumes, Burns said some 55 million cars are added each year to the
global car park, minus "the old ones that are being retired. By 2010 we estimate the
industry will be producing about 70 million a year." And how many of these might be
fuel cell vehicles? "We see affordable and compelling vehicles as possible by 2010,"
said Burns. A decade after that he expects "we will move to high penetration,
"probably hundreds of thousands of units in the 2020 time frame." Not all stacks will
go to transportation because there may be other, stationary applications, but that order
of magnitude, says Burns, "makes a lot of sense." Hy-wire is likely to spawn changes
in other vehicles, and the first commercial one may not necessarily look like Hy-wire,
according to Burns: "we might find fuel cells in conventional vehicles," for example,
as well as by-wire technology. Big economies of scales are likely to be derived from
the skateboard chassis concept: Today, says Burns, GM has to design and build 12-14
different "platforms" to cover the entire market. But with the skateboard, "there will
be fewer platforms" - maybe only two or three. And fuel cell stacks can be "snapped
together" - from 10 kW for a house to 1,000 kW for a locomotive.
So will we ever get the chance to buy a Hy-wire? General Motors says it fully
intends to release a production version of the car in 2010, assuming it can resolve the
major fuel and safety issues. But even if the Hy-wire team doesn't meet this goal, GM

and other automakers are definitely planning to move beyond the conventional car
sometime soon, toward a computerized, environmentally friendly alternative. In all
likelihood, life on the highway will see some major changes within the next few
decades.
Figure 3.6: Interior of Hy-wire car

CHAPTER 4
RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 FUEL CELL AND BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLES COMPARED
4.1.1 Introduction
Detailed computer simulations demonstrate that all electric vehicles will be
required to meet our energy security and climate change reduction goals. As shown in
Figure4.1, hybrid electric vehicles (HEV’s) and plug in hybrid electric vehicles
(PHEV’s) both reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, but neither of these vehicles
that still use internal combustion engines will be adequate to cut GHGs to 80% below
1990 levels, the goal set by the climate change community, even if bio fuels such as
cellulosic ethanol are used in place of gasoline to power the internal combustion
engines.
Figure 4.1: Projected greenhouse gases for different alternative vehicle scenarios over
the 21st century for the US light duty vehicle fleet, assuming that both the electrical
grid and hydrogen production reduce their carbon footprints over time (BEV= battery
electric vehicle; H2 ICE HEV = hydrogen internal combustion engine hybrid electric
vehicle)
Similarly, Figure 4.2 shows that HEV’s and PHEV’s powered by bio fuels could not
reduce oil consumption in the US to levels that would allow us to produce most of our

petroleum from American sources if needed in a crisis. To achieve oil “quasi-
independence” and to cut GHGs to 80% below 1990 levels, we will have to eliminate
the internal combustion engine from most light duty vehicles. We will have to
transition to all electric vehicles over the next few decades to meet our societal goals.
Figure 4.2: Oil consumption from US light duty vehicles over the 21st century for
different alternative vehicle scenarios
We have but two choices to power all electric vehicles: fuel cells or batteries.
Both produce electricity to drive electric motors, eliminating the pollution and
inefficiencies of the venerable internal combustion engine. Fuel cells derive their
power from hydrogen stored on the vehicle, and batteries obtain their energy from the
electrical grid. Both hydrogen and electricity can be made from low or zero carbon
sources including renewable energy and nuclear energy.
4.1.2 Fuel cell and battery comparisons
In the following section we compare hydrogen-powered fuel cell electric
vehicles (FCEV’s) with battery-powered electric vehicles (BEV’s) in terms of weight,
volume, greenhouse gases and cost.

4.1.3 Vehicle weight
Figure 4.3 compares the specific energy (energy per unit weight) of current
deep discharge lead acid (Pb-A) batteries, nickel metal hydride (NiMH), Lithium-Ion
and the US ABC (Advanced Battery Consortium) goal with the specific energy of a
PEM fuel cell plus compressed hydrogen storage tanks. Two hydrogen pressures are
shown: 5,000 psi and 10,000 psi with fiber-wrapped composite tanks. The 10,000 psi
tanks weigh more than the 5,000 psi tanks due to the requirement for extra fiber wrap
to provide the needed strength.
Figure 4.3: The specific energy of hydrogen and fuel cell systems compared to the
specific energy of various battery systems
Compressed hydrogen and fuel cells can provide electricity to a vehicle
traction motor with weights that are between eight to 14 times less than current
batteries, and four times less than the US ABC goal. As a result, EVs must be much
heavier than FCVs for a given range, as shown in Figure 4.4 This chart is based on a
5passenger Ford AIV (aluminum intensive vehicle) Sable with a FCEV test weight of
1280 kg, drag coefficient of 0.33, frontal area of 2.127 m2, and rolling resistance of
0.0092

Figure 4.4: Calculated weight of fuel cell electric vehicles and battery electric
vehicles as a function of the vehicle range
As shown here, the extra weight to increase the range of the fuel cell EV is
negligible, while the battery EV weight escalates dramatically for ranges greater than
100 to 150 miles due to weight compounding. Each extra kg of battery weight to
increase range requires extra structural weight, heavier brakes, a larger traction motor,
and in turn more batteries to carry around this extra mass, etc.
4.1.4 Storage volume
Some analysts are concerned about the volume required for compressed gas
hydrogen tanks. They do indeed take up more space than a gasoline tank, but
compressed hydrogen tanks take up much less space (including the fuel cell system)
than batteries for a given range. The basic energy density of the hydrogen fuel cell
system in watt-hours per liter is compared with that of batteries in Figure 4.5.
The hydrogen system has an inherent advantage in basic energy density. But
this advantage is amplified on a vehicle as a result of weight compounding. Thus the
battery EV requires more stored energy per mile than the FCEV as a result of the
heavier batteries and resulting heavier components. The net effect on the volume
required for the energy supply on the car is shown in Figure 4.6, again as a function of
range. The space to store lead acid batteries would preclude a full five passenger
vehicle with a range of more than 150 miles, while the NiMH would be limited in
practice to less than 200 to 250 miles range.

Figure 4.5: Energy density of hydrogen tanks and fuel cell systems compared to the
energy density of batteries
An EV with an advanced Li-Ion battery could in principle achieve 250 to 300
miles range, but these batteries would take up 400 to 600 liters of space (equivalent to
a 100 to 160 gallon gasoline tank!). The fuel cell plus hydrogen storage tanks would
take up less than half this space, and, if the DOE hydrogen storage goals are achieved,
then the hydrogen tanks would occupy only 100 liters (26 gallons) volume for 300
miles range.
Figure 4.6: Calculated volume of hydrogen storage plus the fuel cell system compared
to the space required for batteries as a function of vehicle range

4.1.5 Greenhouse gas pollution
The greenhouse gas (GHG) implications of charging battery EVs with today’s
power grid are serious. Since on average 52% of our electricity in the US comes from
coal, and since the grid efficiency is on the order of only 35%, GHGs would be much
greater for EVs than for hydrogen-powered FCEVs, assuming that most hydrogen was
made by reforming natural gas for the next decade or so.
The increased weight of the EV to achieve reasonable vehicle range increases
fuel consumption as the vehicle becomes heavier. The impact on GHGs with today’s
marginal grid mix is shown in Figure 8 below. Once again, the hydrogen FCEV
running on hydrogen made from natural gas can achieve the 300 to 350 mile range
demanded by American drivers without sacrificing GHG reductions. For frame of
reference, the gasoline ICE version of the AIV Sable produces about 480 g/mile of
CO2equivalent emissions, so the hydrogen FCV would immediately cut GHG
emissions by more than 50% compared to regular cars. This GHG calculation
includes all “well to wheel” GHGs adjusted for a 100year atmospheric lifetime. From
this analysis, a 5passenger battery EV range would be limited to about 60 to 70 miles
before that EV with lead acid batteries would generate more net GHGs than the
gasoline version of the same car generating about 480 g/mile. The no-net-GHG
increase range for a NiMH battery EV would be about 125 to 150 miles with these
data, and an EV with advanced Li-Ion batteries would be limited to 250 miles range
on a GHG limitation. Greater range is possible, but only by generating more GHGs
than current cars of the same size.
Figure 4.7: Well-to-wheels greenhouse gas emissions as a function of vehicle range
for the average US marginal grid mix; all hydrogen is made from natural gas

4.1.6 Conclusions
The fuel cell EV is superior to the advanced Li-ion battery full function EV on six
major counts; the fuel cell EV:
 Weighs less.
 Takes up less space on the vehicle.
 Generates less greenhouse gases.
 Costs less.
 Requires less well-to-wheels energy.
 Takes less time to refuel.
4.2 FUEL CELL AND GASOLINE ENGINE VEHICLE
4.2.1 Introduction
Joan Ogden of the Princeton Environmental institute discussed the future of
hydrogen as a fuel and described the operation of hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells. Ogden
stated that practical fuel cells2 are up to 60%efficient in converting hydrogen energy
into electrical energy although not necessarily at the rated power, significantly higher
than the 45% efficiency of using hydrogen in an internal combustion engine.
However, these estimates do not include the losses in producing hydrogen from
various hydrocarbon sources (Fig 4.8). Clearly, hydrogen is not a naturally occurring
terrestrial fuel. Rather, it is an energy carrier.
4.2.2 Well-to-wheels efficiency
A typical well-to-wheels analysis is shown in Fig. 4.9 Although the details of
the analyses behind Fig. 4.8 are not readily available, the kind of breakdown of
energy losses shown in Fig. 4.9 underlies each the power train options considered.

Figure 4.8: Net energy losses to Wells to wheels. For fuel cell vehicles
For example, the equivalent fuel economy of a compressed natural gas, spark
ignited, hybrid electric vehicle (CNG SI/HEV) is 48.6 mpg, whereas a fuel cell
vehicle powered by hydrogen derived from methane is projected to get 82.0 mpg, a
substantial improvement. However, if viewed from the standpoint of well-to-wheels
energy consumed per unit of distance traveled, the difference is more modest: 2867
versus 2368 BTU/mi. If CO2 is sequestered in the forming of hydrogen, the amount
emitted into the atmosphere is only 25 g/mi for the fuel cell vehicle compared to 196
g/mi for the CNG vehicle. This additional benefit favors the fuel cell vehicle. Clearly
hydrogen fuel cells do not entirely eliminate CO2 emissions unless the hydrogen is
generated without combusting or reforming hydrocarbon fuels, e.g. by electrolysis of
water using nuclear, solar or wind power. The emission of CO, NOx and
hydrocarbons associated with the ICE are removed, but may be emitted to some
extent in a different location by the chemical plant generating H2.

Figure 4.9: Well-to-wheel Efficiency for various vehicle scenarios
Even if production losses are taken into account, the fuel cell vehicle surpasses
the conventional internal combustion engine in efficiency, although the overall
efficiency is only about 30% in the best case, less than the 60% x 70% = 42% well-to-
wheels efficiency objective of Fuel cell car (Fig 5.10), where 60% is the energy-to-
wheels goal and 70% is the well-to-pump efficiency.
Further comparison of internal combustion engine and fuel cells for fuel
economy and CO2 emissions is shown in Table I.
In a draft report prepared last year for the Office of Transportation
Technologies, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, U.S Department of Energy,
national lab scientists and others indicated an optimistic mid-term future for fuel cell
vehicles (Table II).
Ogden pointed out major obstacles that must be overcome before automotive
fuel cell technology can be considered viable. First, today’s cost of $1500 to $10 000
per kilowatt of power must come down to the range of $50-100 per kilowatt to be
competitive. According to Ogden, the most expensive component is the membrane
electrolyte, typically made of the polymer Nafion. Also, A.D. Little has indicated that

the current platinum requirement for a 50-kW system would cost $57/kW, which is
higher than the Fuel cell car cost target for the entire fuel cell system. Second, a
breakthrough in on-board hydrogen storage is required. The currently preferred
method is to use a carbon-fiber wrapped compressed-gas cylinder (at a pressure of 34
MPA or 5000 psi, with mass of 32.5 kg, and volume of 186 L for a 500-km range).
An infrastructure to produce and distribute hydrogen economically is the third major
problem to be solved. Presently most hydrogen is produced thermo chemically (500-
1700 C) in oil refineries and chemical plants by reforming natural gas and other
hydrocarbons with steam or oxygen. Unlike petroleum, natural gas supplies are
abundant and come mostly from within the United States or are imported from
Canada. Production facilities operate at approximately 70% of capacity and the
distribution infrastructure has excess capacity. Thus, at least initially, natural gas
production and distribution does not appear to be a limiting factor in the availability
of hydrogen
A different approach that does not rely on hydrocarbons has been analyzed by
C. W. Forsberg and K. L. Peddicord. They discussed the economics of H2 production
using nuclear energy to provide the energy for electrolysis of water and concluded
.The technology has the potential for economic production of H2.. Likewise,
hydrogen production from renewable sources such as wind power could be
interesting, but has not been analyzed here. Fortunately, the distribution of H2 may
not be as daunting as one might think. Fosberg, in a private communication, noted the
existence of several hydrogen pipelines in Europe, the United States and Japan.
However, natural gas lines would have to be retrofitted with new valves and
compressors before hydrogen could be transported through them.
Initially the auto industry felt that sufficient hydrogen fuel would not be
available quickly enough, so engineers pursued a path that required on-board
reforming of gasoline or methanol. DaimlerChrysler demonstrated an example in
October 2000. The Jeep Commander 2 (similar to the Jeep Grand Cherokee sport
utility vehicle) reformed pure, electronic-grade methanol to power two Ballard fuel
stacks. Although DaimlerChrysler demonstrated 23.5 mpg fuel efficiency (almost
twice that of a comparable gasoline vehicle) with acceptable performance and
acceleration, they found that fuel reforming must be improved because the cold-start
time was unacceptable.

Table 1: Fuel Economy, Energy Use and CO2 Emissions for Alternative Fueled
Automobiles
FUEL ECONOMY
Mpg equiv - LHV basis
(from GREET model;
except fuel cell vehicles
and 𝐻2ICE HEVs from
DTI)
Well-to-Wheel
Energy
consumption
(BTU mi)
Well-to-
Wheel 𝐶𝑂2
Emission
(g/mile)
Ic engine vehicle
Conventional
Gasoline SI Engine
22.4 6492 514
CNC SI Engine 20.3 6702 459
Avd. Diesel CI
Engine
37.0 4565 378
ICE/hybrid
vewhicles
Gasoline SIDI/HEV 46.9 3092 252
CNG SI/HEV 48.6 2867 196
Ethenol SIDI/HEV 46.9 4921 67
𝐻2 SI/HEV 50.0
3466 w/o
𝐶𝑂2 seq
3580 w/𝐶𝑂2 seq
234 w/o 𝐶𝑂2 seq
41 w/𝐶𝑂2 seq
Disel CIDI/HEV 56.8 2487 208
FUEL CELL
VEHICLE
Gasoline (probable)
(best)
38.0
49.4
3819
2938
304
234
Methanol
(probable)
(best)
56.0
64.2
3212
2802
199
174
Hydrogen (from
natural gas with
stem reforming.
Pipe line delivery
and compression to
5000 psi for on
board storage)
82.0
2368 w/o 𝐶𝑂2
seq
2446 w/𝐶𝑂2 seq
143 w/o 𝐶𝑂2 seq
25 w/𝐶𝑂2 seq

Vehicle
System
Fuel
Economy
Improvement
Potential
Criteria
Emission
Year To
Mass
Market
Introduction
Current
Incremental
Cost
Other Issues
Enhanced
Conventional
Moderate
(50%)
Continued
Through
reduced
Very near
Term
(0-5y)
Minimal
(5%)
High
Consumer
acceptance,
Continued
Petroleum
dependence
Hybrid
Substantial
(100-200%)
Some
zero
emission
Range
possible
Near term
(2-7 y)
Substantial
(10-20%)
Grade
climbing
ability or
towing
capacity may
be reduced
Fuel cell
Very high
(150-300%)
Low to
zero
tailpipe
and
total
Mid term
(7-12 y)
Very high
(>20%
Potential
petroleum
independence
Battery-
electric
Very high
(300%)
Zero
tailpipe
Near term
(2-7 y)
Very high
(>20%)
Energy
storage,
range
concerns, low
petroleum use
Table 2: Optimistic mid-term future for fuel cell vehicles
Figure 4.10: Comparison of Energy Efficiencies for Fuel Cells, Internal
Combustion and Hybrid Vehicles

On May 1, 2002, according to a press release, General Motors demonstrated
the world’s first drivable fuel cell vehicle (a Chevrolet S-10 fuel cell pickup) that
extracts hydrogen from gasoline. "This vehicle and the reforming technology in it
move us closer to a hydrogen economy," said Larry Burns, GM’s Vice President of
Research and Development, and Planning. The fuel cell pickup was equipped with a
fuel processor that reformed low-sulfur gasoline. When linked with a fuel cell stack,
GM said the vehicle could achieve up to 40 percent overall energy efficiency, which
is a 50 percent improvement over a conventional internal combustion engine.
Ron Sims, Ford Motor Co. research engineer (retired) and consultant to
ORNL, feels that gasoline reformers (and presumably methanol as well) on-board the
vehicle are no longer viable because they are too costly and too complex. Obviously,
the reformer adds another chemical plant to the vehicle. an undesirable feature.
However, stationary reformers at gas stations might make sense.
Sims thinks it will take 10-15 y for commercialization of fuel cell vehicles, 20
y before internal combustion engine sales will notice the impact of fuel cells. On the
other hand, Larry Burns and other GM executives have publicly stated, .By the end of
this decade, you can expect to see affordable, profitable fuel cell vehicles on the
road."
By 2000, Ford had built a hydrogen refueling station at the Engineering and
Research Center in Dearborn, Michigan and had developed a hydrogen (no reforming)
fuel cell vehicle with on-board storage of compressed gas.
According to Toyota is preparing a fuel cell hybrid vehicle, called FCHV-4,
for production. Two vehicles have been delivered to the University of California for
research purposes The Toyota vehicle uses compressed hydrogen gas, as does the
Honda FCX, currently being tested in California. The 2003 Honda FCX has just been
certified in the US as a zero emission vehicle. General Motors exhibited a new
prototype fuel cell hybrid named .Hy-wire. at the Paris Motor Show in September
2002. Although this vehicle has a top speed of 100 mph, it has a range of only 100
miles, far short of the acceptable driving range of 300 miles.

In the May 2002 press release Larry Burns, while still maintaining that GM
will produce affordable, customer-friendly fuel cell vehicles by 2010, believes GM
will only .sell them profitably and in large numbers by 2020.. Clearly the timetable is
rather long, consistent with the opinion of Ron Sims. For more information on
prototype fuel cell vehicles,
Other engineering issues that all manufacturers face, although seemly
mundane, are nonetheless challenging:
 Cold weather operation
 Packaging
 Reliability
 Safety

5 CONCLUSION
The technology is extremely interesting to people in all walks of life because
it offers a means of making power more efficiently and with less pollution. But the
coolest thing about this design is that it lets you remove the entire passenger
compartment and replace it with a different one. If you want to switch from a van to a
sports car, you don't need an entirely new car; you just need a new body (which is a
lot cheaper).
The GM concept provides much more value than just zero emissions and twice
the fuel economy .It would provide very affordable all-wheel drive, unprecedented
safety and comfort, and no oil changes, maintenance worries or trips to the gas
station.
6 SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK
6.1 FUTURE OF HY-WIRE
Looking in to the future, Burns says he thinks fuel cells offer a promising
alternative, but he recognizes that they need to be compelling, affordable, and
profitable. One area GM is tackling is hydrogen storage. GM partnered with Quantum
Technologies to develop a prototype tank that will give you a driving range of up to 300
miles before you have to refuel.
Burns says GM is looking into other ways it can store compressed hydrogen,
“There’s liquid for hydrogen and there’s also metal hydride when you’re storing
hydrogen in a solid state,” he said. Keebler says another solution could be to build a
hydrogen reformer into the car, which would enable it to turn other fuels into hydrogen.
You could also house these reforms at gas stations, he says. Burns says you could
distribute the gasoline the same way you do today, but it would go through a reformer at
the pump, creating hydrogen from the gas. Burns sees a world where GM overcomes
those obstacles and your car becomes part of your energy solution and not the problem.
“Let’s imagine a world in which you could come home at night and pull your
hydrogen fuel cell vehicle into your garage. The first thing you do is connect it to some
compressed hydrogen tanks that are also in your garage and you put hydrogen into your

vehicle. You are refueling at home,” he said. At the end of the day, if you have some
leftover hydrogen in your tank, you could also use it to power your home. He says he
also envisions you being able to plug your car into your city’s electric grid and selling
back fuel you don’t use. Keebler says he likes what he has seen from the Hy-wire
overall. He hasn’t been able to test-drive it yet. But he said, “If they can pull that off,
they will have indeed leaped over the completion.”
6.2 THE COMMERCIALIZATION OF HY-WIRE CAR
General Motors has the longest fuel cell history of any automaker, with the
Electro Van demonstrating the potential for fuel cell technology nearly 50 years ago.
The company has had a succession of fuel cell test and demonstration vehicles,
including the world’s first publicly drivable FCEV in 1998. 2007 saw the launch of
the HydroGen4 (marketed in the USA as the Chevrolet Equinox, above), representing
the fourth generation of GM’s stack technology. More than 120 test vehicles have
been deployed since 2007 under Project Driveway, which put the vehicles into the
hands of customers and has been the world’s largest FCEV end user acceptance
demonstration: the vehicles have accumulated more than two million miles on the
road
Figure 6.3: General motors

A fifth-generation fuel cell stack, half the size and with significantly less
platinum than its predecessor, was integrated into a fuel cell concept of the now
popular Chevrolet Volt/Vauxhall Ampere but has yet to reach test vehicles.
Shortly after Project Driveway launched, the automotive industry crisis hit
America. In June 2009 General Motors Corporation filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy
reorganization in a pre-packaged solution that saw all original investment lost and the
company’s remaining profitable assets sold to a new government-backed entity,
General Motors Company, which issued an IPO in 2010, the largest in US history at
$20.1 billion. GM subsequently returned to profit last year.
Despite these severe changes in the business, including recent cuts to R&D
staff, the fuel cell development division has remained; this is a positive reminder of
GM’s belief in the technology. It is understandable that the company has neither
released further demonstration vehicles since the HydroGen4, nor affirmed any
substantial details of fuel cell commercialization. With successful trials completed in
California and Germany, and with the promise of further infrastructure in these areas,
it seems likely that this is where GM will commercialize first; one would hope still
within the 2015 timeframe.

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