Radical reactions in biological systems
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This document summarizes radical organic chemistry reactions that occur in biological systems. It discusses how free radicals are atoms with unpaired valence electrons that make them highly reactive. Radical reactions proceed in three steps: initiation, propagation, and termination. It provides examples of early discoveries of free radicals in 1900 and 1929. It also discusses how the enzyme ribonucleotide reductase catalyzes the reduction of ribonucleotides to deoxyribonucleotides in DNA synthesis using a radical reaction. Finally, it poses three problems involving mechanisms of radical reactions and the role of antioxidants in interrupting these reactions.
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Free radicals are unstable molecules that can damage cells. This document discusses free radicals, how they are produced in the body, and how they damage lipids, proteins, and DNA through oxidation. It also describes biomarkers that are used to measure free radical damage, such as markers of lipid peroxidation (MDA, HNE), protein oxidation (protein carbonyls), and DNA oxidation (8-OHdG). Antioxidants in the body help neutralize free radicals and prevent oxidative damage.
Chap 8 concept checks
The document provides information about photosynthesis including:
1. Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts located in plant leaves. The light reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes and produce ATP and NADPH.
2. The Calvin cycle uses the products of the light reactions along with CO2 to produce G3P, which can then be converted into glucose and other organic molecules.
3. The two main stages, the light reactions and Calvin cycle, work together to ultimately convert sunlight, water and CO2 into oxygen and energy-rich organic compounds through the overall process of photosynthesis.
8.2 photosynthesis
Photosynthesis uses light energy to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water. It consists of light-dependent and light-independent reactions. The light-dependent reactions use chlorophyll to absorb light and generate ATP and NADPH through electron transport. The light-independent reactions use ATP and NADPH to fix carbon and produce glucose. Limiting factors like light intensity, temperature, and carbon dioxide concentration can affect the rate of photosynthesis.
free radical ppt nw.pptx
Free radicals are molecules with unpaired electrons that make them highly reactive. They are formed through homolytic cleavage of bonds which leaves each atom with one electron. Common sources of free radicals include mitochondria, xanthine oxidase, peroxisomes, inflammation, and phagocytosis. Free radicals can damage biomolecules like lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. This damage is associated with aging, cancer, and acute inflammation. Antioxidants act as neutralizing agents by donating electrons to free radicals and preventing cellular damage. While free radicals can be harmful, they also play beneficial roles in immunity and cellular processes in limited amounts.
Free radicals
A free radical is a molecule or molecular fragment that contains one or more unpaired electrons in its outermost orbital.
Free radical is generally represented by superscript dot.
Therotical Organic Chemistry.pptx
This document discusses structural theory in organic chemistry. It covers topics like bond fission and its types (homolysis and heterolysis), organic reagents (electrophiles, nucleophiles, free radicals), types of organic reactions (substitution, elimination, addition, rearrangement), inductive effect and its applications, and mesomeric effect and its applications. Bond fission can occur through homolysis, where the electron pair is split equally forming neutral radicals, or heterolysis where one atom takes both electrons forming charged species like carbocations or carbanions. The document defines different organic reagents and reactions. It also explains inductive and mesomeric effects which influence molecular stability and reactivity in organic compounds.
Photosynthesis Part A
This document summarizes the process of photosynthesis. It begins by explaining that photosynthesis harvests solar energy to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. It then provides the general equation for photosynthesis and notes that some bacteria use hydrogen donors other than water. The significance of photosynthesis is discussed, including its role in producing oxygen and storing energy from the sun. Key parts of the chloroplast and thylakoid membrane where photosynthesis takes place are described. The two phases of photosynthesis - light and dark reactions - are explained, along with the role of photosynthetic pigments like chlorophyll and carotenoids.
Metabolism
1. Drug metabolism involves Phase I and Phase II reactions that can generate reactive species like electrophiles and free radicals.
2. Electrophiles are generated through cytochrome P450 enzymes and can cause toxicity by covalently binding to tissues, potentially causing cancer through DNA binding.
3. Free radicals are also generated through cytochrome P450 and other enzymes and cause toxicity through lipid peroxidation of cellular components, with their toxicity potential greater than electrophiles.
4. Certain compounds are metabolically activated to form these reactive species, linking specific metabolic pathways to toxicities like cancer, teratogenesis, and nephrotoxicity.
Photosynthesis Lab Report
This lab report examines the effect of light conditions on the rate of photosynthesis. The experiment measured the rate of photosynthesis by timing how long it took for photosynthesis to occur in leaf disks placed in a CO2 solution under different lighting conditions. As predicted, the results showed that the rate of photosynthesis was higher for leaf disks in direct sunlight compared to those in the shade. The conclusion was that light and carbon dioxide are necessary for photosynthesis, and that more light leads to a higher photosynthetic rate.
Homework_Lesson 15.pdf
This document provides an overview of bioenergetics and common pathways of catabolism. It defines key terms like bioenergetics, thermodynamics, entropy, free energy and discusses the two laws of thermodynamics. It explains the two types of metabolic pathways - catabolic and anabolic. The three stages of catabolism are described along with high energy compounds like ATP. The two pathways of ATP synthesis are oxidative phosphorylation and substrate level phosphorylation. Finally, it briefly mentions the electron transport chain, oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate, tricarboxylic acid cycle, and shuttle systems that transport reducing equivalents into mitochondria.
Oxidative stress
The document discusses oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species (ROS). It defines ROS and lists some examples like superoxide anion radical, hydroxyl radical, and hydrogen peroxide. It describes how ROS are produced endogenously through processes like mitochondrial electron transport, and exogenously through factors like pollution, radiation, and xenobiotics. The effects of ROS include DNA damage and modulation of signal transduction pathways. It also discusses antioxidants, dividing them into antioxidant enzymes like superoxide dismutase and catalase, chain breaking antioxidants like vitamins C and E, and transition metal binding proteins.
Reaction.pptx
This document discusses structural theory in organic chemistry. It covers topics like bond fission and its types (homolysis and heterolysis), organic reagents (electrophiles, nucleophiles, free radicals), types of organic reactions (substitution, elimination, addition, rearrangement), inductive effect and its applications, and mesomeric effect and its applications. Examples are provided to illustrate key concepts. Essay and short answer questions are also included at the end to test understanding of topics covered.
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF RADIOTHERAPY
1. Radiobiology is the study of the effects of ionizing radiation on living things. When radiation passes through living matter, it loses energy by interacting with atoms and molecules, causing ionization and excitation that can alter living cells.
2. The biological effects of radiation occur on different time scales - physical interactions are instantaneous, chemical changes occur within milliseconds, and biological effects can take hours to years to present.
3. Radiation can directly damage DNA through ionization, but the probability is low since DNA is a small target within cells. More likely, radiation interacts with water in cells, producing free radicals that can diffuse and indirectly damage critical targets like DNA through chemical reactions.
Introduction to organic chemisry
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds. It was originally thought that compounds found in living things were fundamentally different than non-living compounds, but we now know this is not true. Organic structures can be represented using condensed or skeletal structures, assuming carbons and hydrogens are present. Common organic reactions include substitution, elimination, and addition reactions. Substitution reactions involve replacing one group with another. The SN2 substitution reaction proceeds in one step with simultaneous attack of the nucleophile and departure of the leaving group. This results in inversion of configuration at any chiral centers.
(25) session 25 introduction to organic reactions
This document provides an introduction to organic reactions for medical students. It defines key terms like electrophiles, nucleophiles, and reaction mechanisms. The main categories of organic reactions - addition, elimination, substitution, and rearrangement - are outlined. Examples are given of each reaction type. Curly arrows are introduced to show the movement of electron pairs in reaction mechanisms. The roles of electrophiles and nucleophiles are explained, and homolytic and heterolytic bond cleavage are defined.
2012Brookins_TeQuion
The document describes a thesis submitted by TeQuion Brookins on March 26, 2012 about the influence of the protein cross-linker diethyl acetylenedicarboxylate (DAD) on degradation of proteins by the 20S core particle of the 26S proteasome. The thesis explores how DAD-mediated electrophilic modification can cross-link proteins like the peroxiredoxin Tsa1, inactivate them, and potentially inhibit their degradation by the proteasome. Experiments were conducted to detect increased accumulation of ubiquitin, known proteasomal substrates, and damaged proteins like Tsa1 when yeast cells were treated with DAD, which would indicate disturbance of the cellular protein degradation mechanism. P
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Microbial interaction
Microorganisms interacts with each other and can be physically associated with another organisms in a variety of ways.
One organism can be located on the surface of another organism as an ectobiont or located within another organism as endobiont.
Microbial interaction may be positive such as mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism or may be negative such as parasitism, predation or competition
Types of microbial interaction
Positive interaction: mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism
Negative interaction: Ammensalism (antagonism), parasitism, predation, competition
I. Mutualism:
It is defined as the relationship in which each organism in interaction gets benefits from association. It is an obligatory relationship in which mutualist and host are metabolically dependent on each other.
Mutualistic relationship is very specific where one member of association cannot be replaced by another species.
Mutualism require close physical contact between interacting organisms.
Relationship of mutualism allows organisms to exist in habitat that could not occupied by either species alone.
Mutualistic relationship between organisms allows them to act as a single organism.
Examples of mutualism:
i. Lichens:
Lichens are excellent example of mutualism.
They are the association of specific fungi and certain genus of algae. In lichen, fungal partner is called mycobiont and algal partner is called
II. Syntrophism:
It is an association in which the growth of one organism either depends on or improved by the substrate provided by another organism.
In syntrophism both organism in association gets benefits.
Compound A
Utilized by population 1
Compound B
Utilized by population 2
Compound C
utilized by both Population 1+2
Products
In this theoretical example of syntrophism, population 1 is able to utilize and metabolize compound A, forming compound B but cannot metabolize beyond compound B without co-operation of population 2. Population 2is unable to utilize compound A but it can metabolize compound B forming compound C. Then both population 1 and 2 are able to carry out metabolic reaction which leads to formation of end product that neither population could produce alone.
Examples of syntrophism:
i. Methanogenic ecosystem in sludge digester
Methane produced by methanogenic bacteria depends upon interspecies hydrogen transfer by other fermentative bacteria.
Anaerobic fermentative bacteria generate CO2 and H2 utilizing carbohydrates which is then utilized by methanogenic bacteria (Methanobacter) to produce methane.
ii. Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis:
In the minimal media, Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis are able to grow together but not alone.
The synergistic relationship between E. faecalis and L. arobinosus occurs in which E. faecalis require folic acid
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其他信息：根据不同的专业和学位，可能会有一些特定的信息或章节。
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Anti-Universe And Emergent Gravity and the Dark Universe
Recent theoretical progress indicates that spacetime and gravity emerge together from the entanglement structure of an underlying microscopic theory. These ideas are best understood in Anti-de Sitter space, where they rely on the area law for entanglement entropy. The extension to de Sitter space requires taking into account the entropy and temperature associated with the cosmological horizon. Using insights from string theory, black hole physics and quantum information theory we argue that the positive dark energy leads to a thermal volume law contribution to the entropy that overtakes the area law precisely at the cosmological horizon. Due to the competition between area and volume law entanglement the microscopic de Sitter states do not thermalise at sub-Hubble scales: they exhibit memory effects in the form of an entropy displacement caused by matter. The emergent laws of gravity contain an additional ‘dark’ gravitational force describing the ‘elastic’ response due to the entropy displacement. We derive an estimate of the strength of this extra force in terms of the baryonic mass, Newton’s constant and the Hubble acceleration scale a0 = cH0, and provide evidence for the fact that this additional ‘dark gravity force’ explains the observed phenomena in galaxies and clusters currently attributed to dark matter.
Post translation modification by Suyash Garg
overview of PTM helps to the students who wants to clear their basics about it.
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- 1. Organic Pedagogical Electronic Network Radical Reactions in Biological Systems Created by Rowan Arave and Alexandra Butler Edited by Margaret Hilton Honors Organic Chemistry CHEM 2321 (Sigman), 2013
- 2. Radical Organic Chemistry Wiki Page: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_(chemistry) Overview: Free Radicals are atoms without a full set of valence electrons. This causes the outer electron shell to be ‘open’, and thus, more reactive. Radical reactions take place in a series of three steps: initiation, propagation, and termination. Mechanism Initiation Propagation Termination
- 3. Radical Organic Chemistry Wiki Page: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_(chemistry) Overview: Free Radicals are atoms without a full set of valence electrons. This causes the outer electron shell to be ‘open’, and thus, more reactive. Radical reactions take place in a series of three steps: initiation, propagation, and termination. Early Examples Moses Gomberg discovered the first free radical, a Triphenyl Methyl Radical, in 1900. Friedrich Paneth pioneered free radical decomposition in organic compounds. In 1929 he discovered the free methyl radical.
- 4. Synthesis and Repair of DNA M. Kolbergr et al. / Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1699 (2004) 1–34 The reduction of ribonucleotides to deoxyribonucleotides (RNA DNA) is the result of a radical reaction. Ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) is an enzyme that helps to catalyze this transformation. The reduction of RNA to DNA is the rate limiting step in synthesis of DNA. Therefore, this reaction plays a large part in cell growth and maintenance.
- 5. Problems 1.The Journal of Organic Chemistry DOI: 10.1021/jo4001433 2. Modern physical organic chemistry 3. Smith pg. 557 1. Lipid peroxidation occurs due to oxidative stress. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and sterols undergo radical chain oxidation to complete this process. Draw an arrow-pushing mechanism for the following reaction of triphenylmethyl radical with molecular oxygen. 2. The trityl radical is in equilibrium with an unsymmetrical dimer (note: not Ph3C-CPh3). Propose a mechanism for the formation of this unsymmetrical dimer. 3. BHT (butylated hydroxy toluene) is a synthetic anti-oxidant that interrupts radical chain reactions. Propose a mechanism for how this could occur and predict the resulting products. (Hint: think resonance) BHT
- 6. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Contributed by: Created by Rowan Arave and Alexandra Butler (Undergraduates) Edited by Margaret Hilton Honors Organic Chemistry CHEM 2321 (Sigman), University of Utah 2013