This document provides an overview of key concepts in reservoir engineering related to waterflooding, including:
1) Fractional flow curves and how injection parameters like viscosity, formation dip, and rate affect the water cut. Higher oil viscosity or water viscosity results in a higher/lower water cut respectively. Uphill injection improves displacement efficiency.
2) The frontal advance equation describes how water saturation progresses through a reservoir based on the slope of the fractional flow curve and injection rate.
3) Equations show the relationships between reservoir water cut, surface water cut, and water-oil ratios both at reservoir and surface conditions.
The problem of water and gas coning has plagued the petroleum industry for decades. Water or gas encroachment in oil zone and thus simultaneous production of oil & water or oil & gas is a major technical, environmental and economic problems associated with oil and gas production. This can limit the productive life of the oil and gas wells and can cause severe problems including corrosion of tubulars, fine migration, hydrostatic loading etc. The environmental impact of handling, treating and disposing of the produced water can seriously affect the economics of the production. Commonly, the reservoirs have an aquifer beneath the zone of hydrocarbon. While producing from oil zone, there develops a low pressure zone as a result of which the water zone starts coning upwards and gas zone cones down towards the production perforation in oil zone and thus reducing the oil production. Pressure enhanced capillary transition zone enlargement around the wellbore is responsible for the concurrent production. This also results in the loss of water drive and gas drive to a certain extent.
Numerous technologies have been developed to control unwanted water and gas coning. In order to design an effective strategy to control the coning of oil or gas, it is important to understand the mechanism of coning of oil and gas in reservoirs by developing a model of it. Non-Darcy flow effect (NDFE), vertical permeability, aquifer size, density of well perforation, and flow behind casing increase water coning/inflow to wells in homogeneous gas reservoirs with bottom water are important factors to consider. There are several methods to slow down coning of water and/or gas such as producing at a certain critical rate, polymer injection, Downhole Water Sink (DWS) technology etc.
Shubham Saxena
B.Tech. petroleum Engineering
IIT (ISM) Dhanbad
prediction of original oil in place using material balance simulation. It's also useful for future reservoir performance and predict ultimate hydrocarbon recovery under various types of primary driving mechanisms.
All hydrocarbon reservoirs are surrounded by water-bearing rocks called aquifers which they effect on reservoir performance. it's a key role for production evaluation and therefore it should be managed.
my presentation about kick tolerance and contain 3 videos
the reference (well drilling & construction) Hussain Rabia
and weatherford essay & videos from youtube
The problem of water and gas coning has plagued the petroleum industry for decades. Water or gas encroachment in oil zone and thus simultaneous production of oil & water or oil & gas is a major technical, environmental and economic problems associated with oil and gas production. This can limit the productive life of the oil and gas wells and can cause severe problems including corrosion of tubulars, fine migration, hydrostatic loading etc. The environmental impact of handling, treating and disposing of the produced water can seriously affect the economics of the production. Commonly, the reservoirs have an aquifer beneath the zone of hydrocarbon. While producing from oil zone, there develops a low pressure zone as a result of which the water zone starts coning upwards and gas zone cones down towards the production perforation in oil zone and thus reducing the oil production. Pressure enhanced capillary transition zone enlargement around the wellbore is responsible for the concurrent production. This also results in the loss of water drive and gas drive to a certain extent.
Numerous technologies have been developed to control unwanted water and gas coning. In order to design an effective strategy to control the coning of oil or gas, it is important to understand the mechanism of coning of oil and gas in reservoirs by developing a model of it. Non-Darcy flow effect (NDFE), vertical permeability, aquifer size, density of well perforation, and flow behind casing increase water coning/inflow to wells in homogeneous gas reservoirs with bottom water are important factors to consider. There are several methods to slow down coning of water and/or gas such as producing at a certain critical rate, polymer injection, Downhole Water Sink (DWS) technology etc.
Shubham Saxena
B.Tech. petroleum Engineering
IIT (ISM) Dhanbad
prediction of original oil in place using material balance simulation. It's also useful for future reservoir performance and predict ultimate hydrocarbon recovery under various types of primary driving mechanisms.
All hydrocarbon reservoirs are surrounded by water-bearing rocks called aquifers which they effect on reservoir performance. it's a key role for production evaluation and therefore it should be managed.
my presentation about kick tolerance and contain 3 videos
the reference (well drilling & construction) Hussain Rabia
and weatherford essay & videos from youtube
Energy losses in Bends, loss coefficient related to velocity head.Pelton Whee...Salman Jailani
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Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
3. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Water Fractional Flow Curve
Effect of Dip Angle and Injection Rate on Fw
Reservoir Water Cut and the Water–Oil Ratio
Frontal Advance Equation
Capillary Effect
Water Saturation Profile
4.
5. Parameters Affecting
on the Water Fractional Flow Curve
Therefore, the objective is to select the proper
injection scheme that could possibly reduce the
water fractional flow.
This can be achieved by investigating the effect of
The injected water viscosity,
Formation dip angle, and
Water-injection rate on the water cut.
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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6. Fw: Viscosity Effect
Next slide shows the general effect of oil viscosity
on the fractional flow curve for both water-wet and
oil-wet rock systems.
This illustration reveals that regardless of the system
wettability, a higher oil viscosity results in an upward
shift (an increase) in the fractional flow curve.
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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7. Effect of Oil Viscosity on Fw
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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8. Fw: Water Viscosity Effect
Water viscosity:
The apparent effect of the water viscosity on the water
fractional flow is clearly indicated by following Equation.
(Higher injected water viscosities = reduction in fw (i.e.,
a downward shift)).
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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9.
10. Fw: Dip Angle Effect
To study the effect of the formation dip angle α and the
injection rate on the displacement efficiency, consider
the water fractional flow equation as represented by
the Equation.
Assuming a constant injection rate and realizing that
(ρw – ρo) is always positive and in order to isolate the
effect of the dip angle and injection rate on fw, the
Equation is expressed in the following simplified form:
(where the variables X and Y are a collection of different
terms that are all considered positives.)
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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11. Effect of Dip Angle on Fw
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Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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12. Updip Flow, i.e., sin(α) is Positive
When the water displaces oil updip (i.e., injection
well is located downdip), a more efficient
performance is obtained.
This improvement is due to the fact that the term X
sin(α)/iw will always remain positive, which leads to a
decrease (downward shift) in the fw curve.
A lower water-injection rate iw is desirable since the nominator
1 – [X sin(α)/iw] of the Equation will decrease with a lower
injection rate iw, resulting in an overall downward shift in the
fw curve.
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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13. Downdip Flow, i.e., sin(α) is Negative
When the oil is displaced downdip (i.e., injection
well is located updip), the term X sin(α)/iw will
always remain negative and, therefore, the
numerator of the Equation will be 1+[X sin(α)/iw].
Which causes an increase (upward shift) in the fw curve.
It is beneficial, therefore, when injection wells are
located at the top of the structure to inject the water at
a higher injection rate to improve the displacement
efficiency.
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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14. Downdip Flow, Counterflow
It is interesting to reexamine the Equation when
displacing the oil downdip. Combining the product
X sin(α) as C, it can be written:
The above expression shows that the possibility
exists that the water cut fw could reach a value
greater than unity (fw > 1) if:
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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15. Downdip Flow, Counterflow (Cont.)
This could only occur when displacing the oil
downdip at a low water injection rate iw.
The resulting effect of this possibility is called a
counterflow,
Where the oil phase is moving in a direction opposite to that of
the water (i.e., oil is moving upward and the water downward).
When the water injection wells are located at the top of a tilted
formation, the injection rate must be high to avoid oil migration
to the top of the formation.
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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16. Effect of Injection Rate
for a Horizontal Reservoir
Note that for a horizontal reservoir, i.e., sin(α) = 0,
the injection rate has no effect on the fractional
flow curve.
When the dip angle α is zero, the Equation is
reduced to the following simplified form:
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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17.
18. Water Cut Fw vs. Water–Oil Ratio Wor
In waterflooding calculations, the reservoir water cut fw and the
water–oil ratio WOR are both traditionally expressed in two
different units: bb/bbl and STB/STB.
The interrelationships that exist between these two parameters
are conveniently presented below, where
Qo = oil flow rate, STB/day
qo = oil flow rate, bbl/day
Qw = water flow rate, STB/day
qw = water flow rate, bbl/day
WORs = surface water–oil ratio, STB/STB
WORr = reservoir water–oil ratio, bbl/bbl
fws = surface water cut, STB/STB
fw = reservoir water cut, bbl/bbl
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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25. Frontal Advance Equation Concept
The fractional flow equation is used to determine
the water cut fw at any point in the reservoir,
assuming that the water saturation at the point is
known.
The question, however, is how to determine the water
saturation at this particular point.
The answer is to use the frontal advance equation.
The frontal advance equation is designed to determine the
water saturation profile in the reservoir at any give time during
water injection.
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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26. Frontal Advance Equation
Buckley and Leverett (1942) presented what is
recognized as the basic equation for describing twophase, immiscible displacement in a linear system.
The equation is derived based on developing a material
balance for the displacing fluid as it flows through any
given element in the porous media:
Volume entering the element – Volume leaving the
element
= change in fluid volume
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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27. Water Flow through
a Linear Differential Element
Consider a differential element of porous media,
having a differential length dx, an area A, and a
porosity φ.
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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28. Frontal Advance Equation
Demonstration
During a differential time period dt, the total
volume of water entering the element is given by:
Volume of water entering the element = qt fw dt
The volume of water leaving the element has a
differentially smaller water cut (fw – dfw) and is
given by:
Volume of water leaving the element = qt (fw – dfw) dt
Subtracting the above two expressions gives the
accumulation of the water volume within the
element in terms of the differential changes of the
saturation dfw:
qt fw dt – qt (fw – dfw) dt = Aϕ (dx) (dSw)/5.615
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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29. Velocity of Any Specified Value of Sw
Simplifying:
qt dfw dt = A (dx) (dSw)/5.615
Separating the variables gives:
Where
(υ) Sw = velocity of any specified value of Sw, ft/day
A = cross-sectional area, ft2
qt = total flow rate (oil + water), bbl/day
(dfw/dSw)Sw = slope of the fw vs. Sw curve at Sw
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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30. Velocity of Any Specified Value of Sw
(Cont.)
The above relationship suggests that the velocity of
any specific water saturation Sw is directly
proportional to the value of the slope of the fw vs.
Sw curve, evaluated at Sw.
Note that for two-phase flow, the total flow rate qt
is essentially equal to the injection rate iw, or:
Where
iw = water injection rate, bbl/day.
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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31. Total Distance Any Specified Sw
Travels during t
To calculate the total distance any specified water saturation will
travel during a total time t, the Equation must be integrated:
Above Equation can also be expressed in terms of total volume of
water injected by recognizing that under a constant waterinjection rate, the cumulative water injected is given by:
Where
iw = water injection rate, bbl/day
Winj = cumulative water injected, bbl
t = time, day
(x)Sw = distance from the injection for any given saturation Sw, ft
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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32. Total Distance Any Specified Sw
Travels during t (Cont.)
Above Equation also suggests that the position of
any value of water saturation Sw at given
cumulative water injected Winj is proportional to
the slope (dfw/dSw) for this particular Sw.
At any given time t, the water saturation profile can
be plotted by simply determining the slope of the
fw curve at each selected saturation and calculating
the position of Sw from above Equation.
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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33.
34. Mathematical Difficulty
in the Equation
Next slide shows the typical S shape of the fw curve
and its derivative curve.
However, a mathematical difficulty arises when
using the derivative curve to construct the water
saturation profile at any given time.
Suppose we want to calculate the positions of two
different saturations (shown in the Figure as
saturations A and B) after Winj barrels of water
have been injected in the reservoir. Applying the
Equation gives:
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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35. Fw Curve with Its Saturation Derivative
Curve
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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36. Capillary Pressure Gradient Term
Figure indicates that both derivatives are identical,
i.e., (dfw/dSw) A = (dfw/dSw) B, which implies that
multiple water saturations can coexist at the same
position—but this is physically impossible.
Buckley and Leverett (1942) recognized the physical
impossibility of such a condition.
They pointed out that this apparent problem is due to
the neglect of the capillary pressure gradient term in the
fractional flow equation. This capillary term is given by:
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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37. Effect of the
Capillary Term on the Fw Curve
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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38. Graphical Relationship Correction
Including the above capillary term when
constructing the fractional flow curve would
produce a graphical relationship that is
characterized by the following two segments of
lines, as shown in previous slide:
A straight line segment with a constant slope of
(dfw/dSw)Swf from Swc to Swf
A concaving curve with decreasing slopes from Swf to (1
– Sor)
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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39. Velocity at Lower Values of Sw
Terwilliger et al. (1951) found that at the lower
range of water saturations between Swc and Swf, all
saturations move at the same velocity as a function
of time and distance.
We can also conclude that all saturations in this
particular range will travel the same distance x at
any particular time, as given below:
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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40.
41. Stabilized Vs. Nonstabilized Zone
The result is that the water saturation profile will
maintain a constant shape over the range of
saturations between Swc and Swf with time.
Terwilliger and his coauthors termed the reservoirflooded zone with this range of saturations the
stabilized zone.
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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42. Stabilized vs. Nonstabilized Zone
(Cont.)
They define the stabilized zone as that particular
saturation interval (i.e., Swc to Swf) where all points
of saturation travel at the same velocity.
The authors also identified another saturation zone
between Swf and (1 – Sor), where the velocity of
any water saturation is variable.
They termed this zone the nonstabilized zone.
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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43. Water Saturation Profile
as a Function of Distance and Time
Figure
illustrates the
concept of the
stabilized
zone.
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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44. Water Saturation at the Front
Experimental core flood data show that the actual
water saturation profile during water flooding is
similar to that of previous Figure.
There is a distinct front, or shock front, at which the
water saturation abruptly increases from Swc to Swf.
Behind the flood front there is a gradual increase in
saturations from Swf up to the maximum value of 1 –
Sor.
Therefore, the saturation Swf is called the water
saturation at the front or, alternatively, the water
saturation of the stabilized zone.
2013 H. AlamiNia
Reservoir Engineering 1 Course: W5L19 Fractional Flow / Frontal Advance
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45. 1. Ahmed, T. (2006). Reservoir engineering
handbook (Gulf Professional Publishing). Ch14