This document discusses potentiometry and ion selective electrodes. It begins by explaining that potentiometry measures the potential of an electrochemical cell under static conditions without drawing current. An ion selective electrode uses a selective membrane to measure the concentration of specific ions based on the potential difference between an indicator and reference electrode. The document then describes different types of reference electrodes, indicator electrodes, and ion selective electrodes like glass membrane, solid state, liquid membrane and gas sensing electrodes. It concludes by discussing applications in clinical chemistry, environmental analysis and food processing and advantages like speed and low cost and limitations like precision and interference issues.
PRINCIPLES of FT-NMR & 13C NMR
Fourier Transform
FOURIER TRANSFORM NMR SPECTROSCOPY
THEORY OF FT-NMR
13C NMR SPECTROSCOPY
Principle
Why C13-NMR is required though we have H1-NMR?
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF 13 C NMR
Chemical Shifts
NUCLEAR OVERHAUSER ENHANCEMENT
Short-Comings of 13C-NMR Spectra
PRINCIPLES of FT-NMR & 13C NMR
Fourier Transform
FOURIER TRANSFORM NMR SPECTROSCOPY
THEORY OF FT-NMR
13C NMR SPECTROSCOPY
Principle
Why C13-NMR is required though we have H1-NMR?
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF 13 C NMR
Chemical Shifts
NUCLEAR OVERHAUSER ENHANCEMENT
Short-Comings of 13C-NMR Spectra
Potentiometry is an electrochemical method of Analysis deals with the measurement of electric potential or emf of an electrolyte solution under the condition of constant current.
Potentiometry is the measurement of electrical potential of an electrolyte solution to determine its concentration.
The principle is based on the fact that the potential of the given sample is directly proportional to the concentration of its electro active ions or its activity (pH)
When the pair of electrodes is placed in the sample solution it shows the potential difference by the addition of the titrant or by the change in the concentration of the ions.
The theory of potentiometry is based on the nernst equation.It gives the basic relationship between the potential generated by an electrochemical cell and the concentration of the ions.
The potential E ( Half cell potential) of any electrode is given by nernst equation
ESTIMATION OF THE RATE OF REACTION WILL BE DONE BASED ON THE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REFERENCE AND INDICATOR ELECTRODE. THE POTENTIAL OF THE REFERENCE ELECTRODE IS STABLE WHERE AS THE POTENTIAL OF THE INDICATOR ELECTRODE VARIES WITH THE POTENTIAL OF THE SOLUTION IN WHICH IT IS PLACED
Potentiometry is an electrochemical method of Analysis deals with the measurement of electric potential or emf of an electrolyte solution under the condition of constant current.
Potentiometry is the measurement of electrical potential of an electrolyte solution to determine its concentration.
The principle is based on the fact that the potential of the given sample is directly proportional to the concentration of its electro active ions or its activity (pH)
When the pair of electrodes is placed in the sample solution it shows the potential difference by the addition of the titrant or by the change in the concentration of the ions.
The theory of potentiometry is based on the nernst equation.It gives the basic relationship between the potential generated by an electrochemical cell and the concentration of the ions.
The potential E ( Half cell potential) of any electrode is given by nernst equation
ESTIMATION OF THE RATE OF REACTION WILL BE DONE BASED ON THE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REFERENCE AND INDICATOR ELECTRODE. THE POTENTIAL OF THE REFERENCE ELECTRODE IS STABLE WHERE AS THE POTENTIAL OF THE INDICATOR ELECTRODE VARIES WITH THE POTENTIAL OF THE SOLUTION IN WHICH IT IS PLACED
For my senior CEU pharmacy students in QC 2 with Instrumentation.
The different types and examples of indicator electrodes used in potentiometric titration method of drug analysis.
It is a well known fact that metal ions have a profound effect on cellular processes
The importance or the role that ions play in cellular activity can be gauged by the fact that most cells maintain a very critical Na+ & k+ balance between the extracellular and the intracellular spaces.
Any distribution in this critical balance is to the cellular metabolism through a drastic change in the osmotic pressure resulting in cellular swelling.
Slides giving an overview on pH and its measurement.
Contains information about pH meters, its calibration, maintenance , types of ph electrode and modern definition of pH
you will find a brief explanation about electrochemical cells, refrence electrode, standard state, activity, etc..you will also find the potentiometry topics like ion selective electrodes, molecular selective electrodes, gas electrodes, etc..you will also find the potentiometer- instrumentation part..please leave a comment once you go through it..thank you!
Potentiometry: Electrical potential, electrochemical cell, reference electrodes, indicator
electrodes, measurement of potential and Ph, construction and working of electrodes,
Potentiometric titrations, methods of detecting end point, Karl Fischer titration.
Potentiometry is the field of electro-analytical chemistry in which potential is measured without current flow.
It is a method of analysis in which we determine the concentration of solute in solution and the potential difference between two electrodes.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
2. Potentiometry
In potentiometry, the potential of an electrochemical cell is
measured under static conditions because no current flows
while measuring a solution’s potential.
Use of electrodes to measure voltage that provide chemical
information.
Concentration of ions in solution is calculated from the
measured potential difference between the two electrodes
immersed in solution under condition of zero current.
This type of system includes at least two electrodes,
identified as an indicator electrode (right half-cell) and a
reference electrode (left half-cell ) which act as the cathode
and anode respectively.
3. Each electrode is in contact with either the
sample (in the case of the “indicator
electrode”) or a reference solution ( in the case
of the “reference electrode”).
Electrodes + solution = electrochemical cell
Each electrode represent half cell reaction with
correspondance half cell potential.
4.
5. Potentiometer
• A device for measuring the potential of an
electrochemical cell without drawing a current or
altering the cell’s composition.
• The potential is measured under static conditions.
• Because no current, or only a negligible current flows
while measuring a solution’s potential, its composition
remains unchanged.
• For this reason, potentiometry is a useful quantitative
method.
6. • Two electrodes connected to Potentiometer to measure
potential difference
• Indicator electrode (Eind) – potential respond to change
according to conc. of ions
• Reference electrode (Eref) – half cell potential does not
change.
Ecell = Eind ─ Eref + Elj
7. Schematic diagram of an electrochemical cell of potentiometric measurement
Example 1
8. System Components
Liquid Junction
Reference electrode
Indicator or measuring electrode
Readout device (Potentiometer)
9. Liquid junction – also known as a salt bridge are
required to complete the circuit between the
electrodes.
Functions:
It allows electrical contact between the two solutions.
It prevents the mixing of the electrode solutions.
It maintains the electrical neutrality in each half cell as
ions flow into and out of the salt bridge.
10. Reference Electrode- is an electrochemical half-cell
that is used as a fixed reference for the measurement
of cell potentials.
A half-cell with an accurately known electrode
potential, Eref, that is independent of the
concentration of the analyte or any other ions in the
solution
Always treated as the left-hand electrode
Examples:
Normal hydrogen electrode
Saturated calomel electrode
Ag-AgCl electrode
11. Reference Electrodes
Calomel electrode- composed of
mercury/mercurous chloride; It is dependable but
large, bulky, and affected by temperature.
Silver/silver chloride- Widely used because simple,
inexpensive, very stable and non-toxic.
o reference electrodes are more compact -- overall
better & faster
Normal Hydrogen Electrode- consists of a
platinized platinum electrode in HCl solution with
hydrogen at atmospheric pressure bubbled over the
platinum surface.
-determination of pH of the solution.
14. Indicator or measuring electrode
• The potential of this electrode is proportional to the
concentration of analyte.
• Two classes of indicator electrodes are used in
potentiometry:
o metallic electrodes
• Electrodes of the first kind
• Electrode of the second kind
• Redox electrode
o membrane electrodes (ion-selective electrodes)
• glass pH electrode
15. Metallic electrodes
Electrodes of the first kind
• A metal in contact with a solution containing its cation.
• The potential is a function of concentration of Mn+ in a
Mn+ / M. The most common ones:
o Silver electrode (dipping in a solution of AgNO3)
• Ag+ + e ↔ Ag
o Copper electrode
• Cu+2 + 2e ↔ Cu
o Zn electrode
• Zn+2 + 2e ↔ Zn
16. Electrode of the second kind
• A metal wire that coated with one of its salts
precipitate.
• Respond to changes in ion activity through
formation of complex.
• A common example is silver electrode and
AgCl as its salt precipitate.
• This kind of electrode can be used to measure
the activity of chloride ion in a solution.
17. Redox electrode
• An inert metal is in contact with a solution
containing the soluble oxidized and reduced
forms of the redox half-reaction.
• The inert metal is usually is platinum (Pt).
• The potential of such an inert electrode is
determined by the ratio of the reduced and
oxidized species in the half-reaction.
• A very important example of this type is the
hydrogen electrode.
18. Indicator Electrode- also called the measuring
electrode
It is immersed in a solution of the analyte,
develops a potential, Eind that depends on the
activity of the analyte.
Is selective in its response
It is the other electrochemical half-cell that
responds to changes in the activity of a
particular analyte species in a solution.
Example:
Ion-Selective Electrodes
19. Ion selective electrode
An ion-selective electrode (ISE), also known as a
specific ion electrode (SIE), is a transducer (or sensor)
that converts the activity of a specific ion dissolved in a
solution into an electrical potential, which can be
measured by a voltmeter or pH meter.
indicator electrode based on determination of cations
or anions by the selective absorption of these ions to a
membrane surface.
20. TYPES OF ION SELECTIVE
ELECTRODE
•Glass Membrane Electrode
•Solid State Electrode
•Liquid Membrane Electrode
•Gas Sensing Electrode
21. GLASS MEMBRANE ELECTRODE
• Responsive to univalent cations ( H+ , Na+)
• Glass electrodes available for Na+, K+, NH4+, Li+,
Ag+(cations only) by varying glass composition
• The selectivity for this cation by varying the
composition of a thin ion sensitive glass membrane.
• Glass membrane manufactured from SiO2 with
negatively charged oxygen atom.
• Inside the glass bulb, a dilute HCl solution and silver
wire coated with a layer of silver chloride.
• The electrode is immersed in the solution and pH is
measured
• Example: pH electrode
22. Glass pH electrode
• Advantages over other electrodes for pH
measurements:
o Its potential is essentially not affected by the
presence of oxidizing or reducing agents.
o It operates over a wide pH range.
o It responds fast and functions well in physiological
systems.
o Selective for monovalent cations only because
polyvalent ions can not penetrate the surface of
membrane.
23. pH electrode
Selective for the
detection of hydrogen
ions.
The measuring or
indicator electrode has
a “glass membrane”
pH is then determined
from potential between
the pH electrode and a
standard reference
electrode.
24. SOLID STATE ELECTRODE
• Solid state electrode are selective primarily to anions.
• It may be a
- homogenous membrane electrode
- heterogeneous membrane electrode.
• Homogenous membrane electrode: ion-selective
electrodes in which the membrane is a crystalline
material (AgI/Ag2S).
25. • Heterogeneous membrane electrode: ion-selective
electrodes prepared of an active substance, or mixture
of active substances (silicone rubber or PVC)
• Example: Fluoride ion selective electrode
26. LIQUID MEMBRANE ELECTRODE
• Liquid membrane is a type of ISE based on water-
immiscible liquid substances produced in a polymeric
membrane used for direct potentiometric
measurement.
• Used for direct measurement of several polyvalent
cations (Ca ion) as well as a certain anions.
• Inner compartment of electrode contains reference
electrode & aqueous reference solution.
• Outer compartment – organic liquid ion exchanger
27. •The polymeric membrane made of PVC to separate the
test solution from its inner compartment which contains
standard solution of the target ion.
•The filling solution contains a chloride salt for
establishing the potential of the internal Ag/AgCl wire
electrode.
28. GAS SENSING ELECTRODE
• Available for the measurement of ammonia, carbon
dioxide and nitrogen oxide.
• This type of electrode consist of permeable membrane
and an internal buffer solution.
• The pH of the buffer changes as the gas react with it.
• The change is detected by a combination pH sensor.
• This type of electrode does not require an external
reference electrode.
29. Measurement of PCO2 in
routine blood gases
A modified pH electrode
with a CO2 permeable
membrane covering the
glass membrane surface
A bicarbonate buffer
separates the
membranes
Change in pH is
proportional to the
concentration of
dissolved CO2 in the
blood
pco2 electrode
30. Application of Potentiometric
Measurement
• Clinical Chemistry
o Ion-selective electrodes are important sensors
for clinical samples because of their selectivity
for analytes.
o The most common analytes are electrolytes,
such as Na+, K+, Ca2+,H+, and Cl-, and dissolved
gases such as CO2.
• Environmental Chemistry
o For the analysis of of CN-, F-, NH3, and NO3
- in
water and wastewater.
31. • Potentiometric Titrations
o pH electrode used to monitor the change in pH
during the titration.
o For determining the equivalence point of an
acid–base titration.
o Possible for acid–base, redox, and precipitation
titrations, as well as for titrations in aqueous
and nonaqueous solvents.
• Agriculture
o NO3, NH4, Cl, K, Ca, I, CN in soils, plant
material, fertilizers.
• Detergent Manufacture
o Ca, Ba, F for studying effects on water quality
32. • Food Processing
o NO3, NO2 in meat preservatives
o Salt content of meat, fish, dairy products, fruit
juices, brewing solutions.
o F in drinking water and other drinks.
o Ca in dairy products and beer.
o K in fruit juices and wine making.
o Corrosive effect of NO3 in canned foods.
33. advantages
• Relatively inexpensive and simple to use and have an
extremely wide range of applications and wide
concentration range.
• Under the most favourable conditions, when measuring
ions in relatively dilute aqueous solutions and where
interfering ions are not a problem, they can be used
very rapidly and easily.
• ISEs can measure both positive and negative ions.
• They are unaffected by sample colour or turbidity.
34. • Non-destructive: no consumption of analyte.
• Non-contaminating.
• Short response time: in sec. or min. useful in industrial
applications.
35. LIMITATION
• Precision is rarely better than 1%.
• Electrodes can be affected by proteins or other organic
solutes.
• Interference by other ions.
• Electrodes are fragile and have limited shelf life.