This document discusses plant biochemistry and provides several key points:
1. Plant biochemistry is the study of the molecular basis of plant life, including the synthesis and utilization of compounds in growth and development.
2. The principal biomolecules studied in biochemistry are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Many of these molecules are polymers made of monomer subunits.
3. Important breakthroughs in biochemistry include the discoveries of the role of enzymes as catalysts and that nucleic acids carry genetic information from DNA to proteins.
Lysosomes are organelles that contain digestive enzymes and are capable of breaking down most biological molecules. They are spherical, bounded by a single membrane, and range in size from 0.2 to 0.8 microns. Lysosomes contain many enzymes that are produced by the rough endoplasmic reticulum and help the cell digest waste, remove old or damaged cell components through autolysis, and destroy any invading bacteria or viruses.
Basics only
Ultrastructure, Chemical composition and Functions
• Lysosome was discovered by a Belgian biologist, Christian de Duve, and was awarded a Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology in the year 1974.
• The word “lysosome” is made up of two words “lysis” meaning breakdown and “soma” meaning body.
• Lysosomes are membrane-bound specialized vesicles, dense granular structures containing hydrolytic enzymes responsible mainly for intracellular and extracellular digestion.
• Lysosomes are formed by budding off of the Golgi apparatus, and the hydrolytic enzymes within them are formed in the endoplasmic reticulum. Lysosomes have an acidic interior pH level of about 5 and carry a high content of digestive enzymes.
• All of the digestive enzymes found in the lysosome require an acidic environment to function properly and are called acid hydrolases.
• Lysosomes cannot digest themselves - Most of the proteins present in its membrane contain high amounts of carbohydrate-sugar groups. Because of the present of these groups, digestive enzymes are unable to digest the proteins present on the membrane.
• Lysosomal Storage Diseases: Some inherited metabolic disorders can cause defects in the proper functioning of lysosomes. These disorders are called lysosomal storage diseases, or LSDs. There are around 40 different LSDs.
1. Living organisms are composed of biomolecules like nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates and lipids made from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
2. Within cells, these biomolecules and inorganic elements confer the property of life and allow the cell to obtain materials, produce enzymes, and undergo chemical reactions to sustain itself.
3. Biochemistry studies the biomolecules, elements, and chemical reactions within living things to understand functions at the molecular level, from single-celled to multicellular organisms.
Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and algae that conduct photosynthesis. They have their own DNA and can synthesize some of their own proteins, making them semi-autonomous. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoids which capture light energy. Their internal structure includes an envelope, stroma, and thylakoids where the light reactions take place. It is believed that chloroplasts originated through endosymbiosis between cyanobacteria and eukaryotic cells. The two main stages of photosynthesis are the light reactions on the thylakoid membranes which produce ATP and NADPH, and the dark reactions in the stroma that use these products to fix carbon into sugars.
Biological membranes are thin, flexible surfaces that separate cells and organelles from their environments. They are made up of proteins, lipids like phospholipids and glycolipids, and carbohydrates. Phospholipids are the major lipid component, consisting of a hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic tails, allowing them to form the fluid lipid bilayer structure of the membrane. Membrane proteins can be integral and span the membrane or peripheral and attach to its surface. They perform many functions including transport, cell signaling, and anchoring the cytoskeleton. Together, the components of the membrane give it key properties such as selective permeability and fluidity to control what enters and exits the cell while protecting it.
Lysosomes are spherical organelles found in animal cells that contain acid hydrolases enzymes. They break down molecules and cellular debris through intracellular digestion. Lysosomes were discovered in 1955 and play roles in processes like extracellular digestion, hormone secretion, fertilization, autolysis, and causing chromosomal breaks by releasing deoxyribonuclease. They contain enzymes like nucleases, phosphatases, lipases, proteases, and glycosidases.
Lysosomes are organelles that contain digestive enzymes and are capable of breaking down most biological molecules. They are spherical, bounded by a single membrane, and range in size from 0.2 to 0.8 microns. Lysosomes contain many enzymes that are produced by the rough endoplasmic reticulum and help the cell digest waste, remove old or damaged cell components through autolysis, and destroy any invading bacteria or viruses.
Basics only
Ultrastructure, Chemical composition and Functions
• Lysosome was discovered by a Belgian biologist, Christian de Duve, and was awarded a Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology in the year 1974.
• The word “lysosome” is made up of two words “lysis” meaning breakdown and “soma” meaning body.
• Lysosomes are membrane-bound specialized vesicles, dense granular structures containing hydrolytic enzymes responsible mainly for intracellular and extracellular digestion.
• Lysosomes are formed by budding off of the Golgi apparatus, and the hydrolytic enzymes within them are formed in the endoplasmic reticulum. Lysosomes have an acidic interior pH level of about 5 and carry a high content of digestive enzymes.
• All of the digestive enzymes found in the lysosome require an acidic environment to function properly and are called acid hydrolases.
• Lysosomes cannot digest themselves - Most of the proteins present in its membrane contain high amounts of carbohydrate-sugar groups. Because of the present of these groups, digestive enzymes are unable to digest the proteins present on the membrane.
• Lysosomal Storage Diseases: Some inherited metabolic disorders can cause defects in the proper functioning of lysosomes. These disorders are called lysosomal storage diseases, or LSDs. There are around 40 different LSDs.
1. Living organisms are composed of biomolecules like nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates and lipids made from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
2. Within cells, these biomolecules and inorganic elements confer the property of life and allow the cell to obtain materials, produce enzymes, and undergo chemical reactions to sustain itself.
3. Biochemistry studies the biomolecules, elements, and chemical reactions within living things to understand functions at the molecular level, from single-celled to multicellular organisms.
Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and algae that conduct photosynthesis. They have their own DNA and can synthesize some of their own proteins, making them semi-autonomous. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoids which capture light energy. Their internal structure includes an envelope, stroma, and thylakoids where the light reactions take place. It is believed that chloroplasts originated through endosymbiosis between cyanobacteria and eukaryotic cells. The two main stages of photosynthesis are the light reactions on the thylakoid membranes which produce ATP and NADPH, and the dark reactions in the stroma that use these products to fix carbon into sugars.
Biological membranes are thin, flexible surfaces that separate cells and organelles from their environments. They are made up of proteins, lipids like phospholipids and glycolipids, and carbohydrates. Phospholipids are the major lipid component, consisting of a hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic tails, allowing them to form the fluid lipid bilayer structure of the membrane. Membrane proteins can be integral and span the membrane or peripheral and attach to its surface. They perform many functions including transport, cell signaling, and anchoring the cytoskeleton. Together, the components of the membrane give it key properties such as selective permeability and fluidity to control what enters and exits the cell while protecting it.
Lysosomes are spherical organelles found in animal cells that contain acid hydrolases enzymes. They break down molecules and cellular debris through intracellular digestion. Lysosomes were discovered in 1955 and play roles in processes like extracellular digestion, hormone secretion, fertilization, autolysis, and causing chromosomal breaks by releasing deoxyribonuclease. They contain enzymes like nucleases, phosphatases, lipases, proteases, and glycosidases.
The document discusses lipids, which are a diverse group of organic compounds that include fats, waxes, sterols, and phospholipids. Lipids serve important biological functions such as energy storage, structural components of cell membranes, and hormones. They are classified into simple lipids, compound/complex lipids, derived lipids, and miscellaneous lipids based on their chemical structure and composition. Key lipids discussed include fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, sterols like cholesterol, and lipoproteins. The document also describes the process of beta-oxidation, where fatty acids undergo stepwise degradation within mitochondria to generate acetyl-CoA molecules for energy production.
Peroxisomes are organelles found in the cytoplasm of plant and animal cells that contain enzymes for oxidizing fatty acids and other organic substances. They produce hydrogen peroxide as a byproduct which is immediately broken down by the enzyme catalase. Peroxisomes play important roles in processes like fatty acid breakdown, bile acid and cholesterol synthesis, and the breakdown of toxic peroxides. Defects in peroxisome function can lead to genetic disorders affecting the nervous system, liver, and other organs.
Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles that contain hydrolytic enzymes. They were discovered in 1955 and function to break down biomolecules through intracellular and extracellular digestion. Lysosomes occur in eukaryotic cells and vary in size, shape, and function. They are formed in the Golgi apparatus and contain around 50 enzymes including proteases, lipases, nucleases and more that function best in acidic environments. Lysosomes play several important roles including digesting cellular waste, breaking down pathogens during phagocytosis, and digesting old cell components through autophagy.
This document summarizes key chemistry concepts related to the building blocks of life. It covers the elements, atoms, and molecules that make up living organisms. It also describes the four main types of organic compounds - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids - and provides examples of each. Water is highlighted for its importance as a solvent and in biological processes and reactions.
content:-
1. Introduction
2. Fermentation pathway
3. Production of some other foods & industrial chemical by use of fermentation
4. Energetics of fermentation
5. Summary
- Definition of lysosome
- Structure of lysosome
- Discovery of lysosome
- Synthesis of primary and secondary lysosome
- Functions of lysosome
- 4 intracellular processes by lysosome – phagocytosis, exocytosis, endocytosis and autolysis
The document summarizes key components and structures of chloroplasts. It discusses the chloroplast envelope/peristomium, which is a double membrane that surrounds and protects the chloroplast. Inside are the stroma, which is a gel-like fluid containing enzymes, DNA, and starch grains; grana, which are stacks of thylakoid membranes where light reactions take place; and intergrana lamellae that connect grana and transport materials. Thylakoids contain pigment molecules and enzymes for photosynthesis. Quantasomes on thylakoid membranes each contain 230-250 pigment molecules. Prokaryotes lack chloroplasts and contain thylakoid membranes that form the photosynthetic apparatus called chromat
Diversity of the microbial world 2008 2009aiiinura
The document discusses the diversity of microbial life. It describes the differences between eukaryotes and prokaryotes, and how taxonomy is used to classify microorganisms based on similarities and relationships. Bacteria are classified into domains, with the major bacterial groups being heterotrophic eubacteria and photosynthetic cyanobacteria. The structures and characteristics of bacterial and eukaryotic cells are also compared.
Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary field that utilizes living organisms to develop products and processes. It has a long history dating back to ancient times when early humans selected plants for food and developed animal farming and food preservation techniques. Modern biotechnology applies techniques such as recombinant DNA, gene cloning, monoclonal antibodies, PCR, and genetic engineering to produce genetically modified organisms for applications in agriculture, health, industry, and environmental remediation. Biotechnology draws upon disciplines including biochemistry, bioinformatics, engineering, genetics, microbiology, molecular biology, mathematics, and statistics. It has various branches including agricultural, aquatic, energy, and health biotechnology.
Vacuoles are membrane-bound organelles found in plant and fungal cells that serve various functions. They were first observed in protozoa in 1776 and named "vacuoles" in 1841. Vacuoles have a membrane called the tonoplast that separates the vacuolar contents from the cytoplasm. There are different types of vacuoles including lytic vacuoles, protein storage vacuoles, contractile vacuoles, food vacuoles, and sap vacuoles. Vacuoles in plants and fungi maintain pH, store water and nutrients, control turgor pressure and cell growth. They also store pigments and break down materials. Animal vacuoles assist in exocytosis and
Diversity of cell size & shape By KK Sahu SirKAUSHAL SAHU
Cells show tremendous diversity in size, shape, structure and function. Robert Hooke first observed cells in 1665 when examining a thin slice of cork under a microscope. Cells can be prokaryotic or eukaryotic, and range enormously in size from 0.1um to over 2m in length. Cell shape also varies greatly between species, with spherical, flat, elongated and branched shapes that often correlate to a cell's specialized function. This diversity arises from cells differentiating and specializing during development to perform distinct roles in multicellular organisms.
The earliest life on Earth were simple prokaryotic cells that existed around 3.5-3.9 billion years ago. These included stromatolites, primitive photosynthetic bacteria that formed along coastlines. As these prokaryotes became more widespread, they changed the atmosphere to include more oxygen. The first eukaryotic cells evolved around 2.1 billion years ago and included protists like protozoa and algae. Eukaryotic cells developed in two stages: infolding of the cell membrane to form internal structures like the nucleus, and endosymbiosis where mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from engulfed prokaryotic cells and became cellular organelles.
Lipids are a diverse group of compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They include fats, oils, waxes, sterols, and phospholipids. The document discusses the structure, function, and classification of various lipids. It describes simple lipids like triglycerides and waxes, as well as complex lipids including phospholipids. Phospholipids are important structural components of cell membranes and contain a phosphate group, alcohol, and fatty acids. Glycerophospholipids are the major class of phospholipids, with phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and others playing important roles in cells and tissues.
The document summarizes the structure and functions of the Golgi apparatus. It notes that the Golgi apparatus was discovered in 1898 by Camillo Golgi and is present in all eukaryotic cells. It has a central stack of flattened, interconnecting sacs called cisternae. The Golgi apparatus modifies proteins and lipids from the ER, carrying out functions like secretion, synthesis, sulfation, phosphorylation, and apoptosis. It packages molecules into vesicles which are transported within the cell.
Microorganisms require specific physical and chemical conditions to grow, including appropriate temperature, pH, oxygen levels, and nutrient availability. Culture media aim to provide these requirements and allow isolation and differentiation of microbes. General purpose media support growth of many microbes while selective and differential media inhibit some microbes and reveal differences in microbial reactions. Strict anaerobes require specialized reducing media and techniques to cultivate them without oxygen exposure.
Basics only
A variety of small cellular components bounded by single membrane found in Plant and
animal cell. Microbodies are of two types; Peroxisomes and glyoxysomes
Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms that conduct photosynthesis. They have a double membrane envelope and contain a stroma, thylakoids, and chloroplast DNA. Thylakoids contain light-absorbing pigments and perform the light reactions of photosynthesis, while the stroma is the site of the dark reactions where CO2 is fixed into sugars. Chloroplasts are essential for photosynthesis as they trap solar energy to produce ATP and NADPH via light reactions, and use these products to fix CO2 into carbohydrates via dark reactions, providing energy for plant growth.
Oligomeric enzymes consist of two or more polypeptide chains linked together by non-covalent interactions. Examples of oligomeric enzymes include lactate dehydrogenase, which is a tetramer, and tryptophan synthase, which contains two different subunits that each have distinct catalytic functions. Oligomeric enzyme organization allows for complex regulation through allostery and feedback inhibition not possible with monomeric enzymes.
“Foundations of Biochemistry” is a process‐oriented guided inquiry learning (POGIL) style workbook for use in upper division Biochemistry courses. The book contains 36 exercises, which could be used for an almost‐exclusively POGIL one semester course or supplemented with lectures, case studies, or student presentations for a full year course. It is intended as a supplement to a textbook, and the very modest price makes it a very cost‐effective educational resource.
This document provides an introduction and overview of study material for the biochemistry course BICM-101. It lists the contributors who prepared lectures for the course and their topics. It then provides a high-level introduction to biochemistry, explaining that it studies life processes at the molecular level and that genetic code, metabolic pathways, and regulatory mechanisms are similar across living organisms. The document continues by outlining the history of biochemistry and contributions of key scientists. It concludes by describing the structure and functions of plant cells and various intracellular organelles like the cell wall, nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria and more.
The document discusses lipids, which are a diverse group of organic compounds that include fats, waxes, sterols, and phospholipids. Lipids serve important biological functions such as energy storage, structural components of cell membranes, and hormones. They are classified into simple lipids, compound/complex lipids, derived lipids, and miscellaneous lipids based on their chemical structure and composition. Key lipids discussed include fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, sterols like cholesterol, and lipoproteins. The document also describes the process of beta-oxidation, where fatty acids undergo stepwise degradation within mitochondria to generate acetyl-CoA molecules for energy production.
Peroxisomes are organelles found in the cytoplasm of plant and animal cells that contain enzymes for oxidizing fatty acids and other organic substances. They produce hydrogen peroxide as a byproduct which is immediately broken down by the enzyme catalase. Peroxisomes play important roles in processes like fatty acid breakdown, bile acid and cholesterol synthesis, and the breakdown of toxic peroxides. Defects in peroxisome function can lead to genetic disorders affecting the nervous system, liver, and other organs.
Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles that contain hydrolytic enzymes. They were discovered in 1955 and function to break down biomolecules through intracellular and extracellular digestion. Lysosomes occur in eukaryotic cells and vary in size, shape, and function. They are formed in the Golgi apparatus and contain around 50 enzymes including proteases, lipases, nucleases and more that function best in acidic environments. Lysosomes play several important roles including digesting cellular waste, breaking down pathogens during phagocytosis, and digesting old cell components through autophagy.
This document summarizes key chemistry concepts related to the building blocks of life. It covers the elements, atoms, and molecules that make up living organisms. It also describes the four main types of organic compounds - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids - and provides examples of each. Water is highlighted for its importance as a solvent and in biological processes and reactions.
content:-
1. Introduction
2. Fermentation pathway
3. Production of some other foods & industrial chemical by use of fermentation
4. Energetics of fermentation
5. Summary
- Definition of lysosome
- Structure of lysosome
- Discovery of lysosome
- Synthesis of primary and secondary lysosome
- Functions of lysosome
- 4 intracellular processes by lysosome – phagocytosis, exocytosis, endocytosis and autolysis
The document summarizes key components and structures of chloroplasts. It discusses the chloroplast envelope/peristomium, which is a double membrane that surrounds and protects the chloroplast. Inside are the stroma, which is a gel-like fluid containing enzymes, DNA, and starch grains; grana, which are stacks of thylakoid membranes where light reactions take place; and intergrana lamellae that connect grana and transport materials. Thylakoids contain pigment molecules and enzymes for photosynthesis. Quantasomes on thylakoid membranes each contain 230-250 pigment molecules. Prokaryotes lack chloroplasts and contain thylakoid membranes that form the photosynthetic apparatus called chromat
Diversity of the microbial world 2008 2009aiiinura
The document discusses the diversity of microbial life. It describes the differences between eukaryotes and prokaryotes, and how taxonomy is used to classify microorganisms based on similarities and relationships. Bacteria are classified into domains, with the major bacterial groups being heterotrophic eubacteria and photosynthetic cyanobacteria. The structures and characteristics of bacterial and eukaryotic cells are also compared.
Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary field that utilizes living organisms to develop products and processes. It has a long history dating back to ancient times when early humans selected plants for food and developed animal farming and food preservation techniques. Modern biotechnology applies techniques such as recombinant DNA, gene cloning, monoclonal antibodies, PCR, and genetic engineering to produce genetically modified organisms for applications in agriculture, health, industry, and environmental remediation. Biotechnology draws upon disciplines including biochemistry, bioinformatics, engineering, genetics, microbiology, molecular biology, mathematics, and statistics. It has various branches including agricultural, aquatic, energy, and health biotechnology.
Vacuoles are membrane-bound organelles found in plant and fungal cells that serve various functions. They were first observed in protozoa in 1776 and named "vacuoles" in 1841. Vacuoles have a membrane called the tonoplast that separates the vacuolar contents from the cytoplasm. There are different types of vacuoles including lytic vacuoles, protein storage vacuoles, contractile vacuoles, food vacuoles, and sap vacuoles. Vacuoles in plants and fungi maintain pH, store water and nutrients, control turgor pressure and cell growth. They also store pigments and break down materials. Animal vacuoles assist in exocytosis and
Diversity of cell size & shape By KK Sahu SirKAUSHAL SAHU
Cells show tremendous diversity in size, shape, structure and function. Robert Hooke first observed cells in 1665 when examining a thin slice of cork under a microscope. Cells can be prokaryotic or eukaryotic, and range enormously in size from 0.1um to over 2m in length. Cell shape also varies greatly between species, with spherical, flat, elongated and branched shapes that often correlate to a cell's specialized function. This diversity arises from cells differentiating and specializing during development to perform distinct roles in multicellular organisms.
The earliest life on Earth were simple prokaryotic cells that existed around 3.5-3.9 billion years ago. These included stromatolites, primitive photosynthetic bacteria that formed along coastlines. As these prokaryotes became more widespread, they changed the atmosphere to include more oxygen. The first eukaryotic cells evolved around 2.1 billion years ago and included protists like protozoa and algae. Eukaryotic cells developed in two stages: infolding of the cell membrane to form internal structures like the nucleus, and endosymbiosis where mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from engulfed prokaryotic cells and became cellular organelles.
Lipids are a diverse group of compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They include fats, oils, waxes, sterols, and phospholipids. The document discusses the structure, function, and classification of various lipids. It describes simple lipids like triglycerides and waxes, as well as complex lipids including phospholipids. Phospholipids are important structural components of cell membranes and contain a phosphate group, alcohol, and fatty acids. Glycerophospholipids are the major class of phospholipids, with phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and others playing important roles in cells and tissues.
The document summarizes the structure and functions of the Golgi apparatus. It notes that the Golgi apparatus was discovered in 1898 by Camillo Golgi and is present in all eukaryotic cells. It has a central stack of flattened, interconnecting sacs called cisternae. The Golgi apparatus modifies proteins and lipids from the ER, carrying out functions like secretion, synthesis, sulfation, phosphorylation, and apoptosis. It packages molecules into vesicles which are transported within the cell.
Microorganisms require specific physical and chemical conditions to grow, including appropriate temperature, pH, oxygen levels, and nutrient availability. Culture media aim to provide these requirements and allow isolation and differentiation of microbes. General purpose media support growth of many microbes while selective and differential media inhibit some microbes and reveal differences in microbial reactions. Strict anaerobes require specialized reducing media and techniques to cultivate them without oxygen exposure.
Basics only
A variety of small cellular components bounded by single membrane found in Plant and
animal cell. Microbodies are of two types; Peroxisomes and glyoxysomes
Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms that conduct photosynthesis. They have a double membrane envelope and contain a stroma, thylakoids, and chloroplast DNA. Thylakoids contain light-absorbing pigments and perform the light reactions of photosynthesis, while the stroma is the site of the dark reactions where CO2 is fixed into sugars. Chloroplasts are essential for photosynthesis as they trap solar energy to produce ATP and NADPH via light reactions, and use these products to fix CO2 into carbohydrates via dark reactions, providing energy for plant growth.
Oligomeric enzymes consist of two or more polypeptide chains linked together by non-covalent interactions. Examples of oligomeric enzymes include lactate dehydrogenase, which is a tetramer, and tryptophan synthase, which contains two different subunits that each have distinct catalytic functions. Oligomeric enzyme organization allows for complex regulation through allostery and feedback inhibition not possible with monomeric enzymes.
“Foundations of Biochemistry” is a process‐oriented guided inquiry learning (POGIL) style workbook for use in upper division Biochemistry courses. The book contains 36 exercises, which could be used for an almost‐exclusively POGIL one semester course or supplemented with lectures, case studies, or student presentations for a full year course. It is intended as a supplement to a textbook, and the very modest price makes it a very cost‐effective educational resource.
This document provides an introduction and overview of study material for the biochemistry course BICM-101. It lists the contributors who prepared lectures for the course and their topics. It then provides a high-level introduction to biochemistry, explaining that it studies life processes at the molecular level and that genetic code, metabolic pathways, and regulatory mechanisms are similar across living organisms. The document continues by outlining the history of biochemistry and contributions of key scientists. It concludes by describing the structure and functions of plant cells and various intracellular organelles like the cell wall, nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria and more.
The document provides an overview of cells and cell organelles. It discusses the key components of the cell theory and describes the main structures and functions of organelles including the nucleus, nucleolus, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, centrioles, cytoskeleton, mitochondria, vacuoles, and macromolecules like nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. It explains that cells are the basic unit of life and composed of organelles that carry out specific functions necessary for cellular processes.
Biomolecules are the building blocks of life, essential for the structure, function, and regulation of cells and organisms. Understanding biomolecules is crucial for both NEET and board examinations in biology.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
This document provides an introduction to the course "Introduction to Biochemistry". It discusses the following key points:
1) Biochemistry is the study of the chemical basis of life, examining the molecules that make up living cells and organisms.
2) The major biomolecules that will be covered are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
3) Students will learn about the structure and functions of these biomolecules as well as basic biochemical processes in cells like respiration and protein synthesis.
4) The course will involve lectures, group discussions, and studying from recommended textbooks to help students understand and apply the concepts of biochemistry.
B.Sc. Biotech Biochem II BM Unit-1.3 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cellsRai University
The document provides information on prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. It defines prokaryotes as single-celled organisms lacking membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotes are defined as having membrane-bound nuclei and organelles. The key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are summarized in a table, noting features such as nuclei, organelles, cell size, and genetic material organization. A timeline of major events in the origin and evolution of life on Earth is also presented.
Food chemistry - MeetOrganic Molecules in Organic Foodsrita martin
Organic food contains important organic molecules like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates include sugars like monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Proteins are made of amino acids linked through peptide bonds. Lipids encompass fats, phospholipids, waxes, and steroids. Nucleic acids are made of nucleotides containing nitrogenous bases, pentose sugars, and phosphate groups. Organic foods tend to have higher antioxidant levels than conventionally grown foods due to being grown without most synthetic pesticides and fertilizers.
The document is about biological macromolecules and their properties and functions. It discusses the four main types of biological macromolecules - carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. It describes what each macromolecule is made of, its structure, examples, and functions in living organisms. The document aims to explain how the structures of these biological macromolecules determine their various properties and roles in living things.
Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes in living organisms. It deals with structures and functions of biomolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids. These biomolecules are made of monomers like amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids, nucleotides. Monomers link together through dehydration synthesis to form polymers like proteins, glycogen, triglycerides, DNA. Biochemistry studies important biological molecules and enzyme-catalyzed reactions involved in metabolism and cell processes.
IB Biology 2.1 Slides: Molecules to MetabolismJacob Cedarbaum
The document discusses molecular biology and metabolism. It begins by explaining that molecular biology views living processes in terms of chemical substances. It then discusses DNA and genes, and the central idea that DNA makes RNA makes protein. The document outlines the reductionist approach of molecular biologists in breaking down metabolic pathways. It provides examples of anabolism through condensation reactions and catabolism through hydrolysis reactions. Throughout, it gives examples of key biomolecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. In summary, the document covers foundational concepts in molecular biology and metabolism, from genes and proteins to anabolic and catabolic pathways.
Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes within and related to living organisms. It emerged in the early 20th century by applying principles of chemistry to biological systems. The four main types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, which are made up of monomers linked together into polymers. The goal of biochemistry is to describe and explain all chemical processes that occur within living cells on a molecular level in order to understand functions of life. Knowledge of biochemistry is essential to fields like genetics, physiology, pharmacology and pathology.
The document summarizes the chemical and biological origin of life. It describes how early Earth had atoms that combined to form inorganic molecules like hydrogen, nitrogen, and water. These molecules then interacted to produce simple organic compounds. Experiments have shown that conditions on the early Earth could produce amino acids and nucleic acid bases. Over time, these compounds accumulated and polymerized to form complex macromolecules. Some of these macromolecules assembled into early protocells, which were the precursors to the first prokaryotic cells that developed around 3.5 billion years ago. Prokaryotes eventually evolved into eukaryotic cells through endosymbiotic relationships between bacteria and host cells. Multicellular life
This document provides an overview of Chapter 1 from a General Biology textbook. It defines biology and describes the scientific method. It also summarizes theories on the origin of life, including the theory of chemical evolution. Common characteristics of living things like metabolism, growth, and response to stimuli are outlined. The chapter objectives are listed to define biology, explain scientific methods, and describe the origin and nature of life.
This document contains the schedule and syllabus for a Bioscience open elective course from July to December 2020. The schedule shows the course, OE0202, will meet on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays from 8:30am to 9:30am. The document then covers topics related to evolution and biochemistry, including the origins of life, evidence for early Earth conditions allowing abiotic synthesis of organic molecules, RNA as a potential early genetic material, the development of the first cells, and Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.
This document provides an introduction to biochemistry. It defines biochemistry as the study of chemical reactions in living organisms and the structure and function of biomolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids. The overall goal of biochemistry is to describe life's processes using the language of molecules. The key biomolecules are made of monomers that polymerize to form larger structures. Carbohydrate monomers are monosaccharides, lipid monomers are fatty acids, protein monomers are amino acids, and nucleic acid monomers are nucleotides. The document discusses the basic components of cells, including organelles and biomolecules, and compares characteristics of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Proteins are essential biomolecules that serve structural and functional roles in living organisms. They are polymers of amino acids and participate in every process within cells. The four main characteristics of proteins are:
1) They are made up of amino acid building blocks and form complex structures.
2) Proteins provide structure to the body and enable processes like metabolism.
3) They are the most abundant macromolecules and are found everywhere in the cell.
4) Proteins exist in many forms to serve diverse functions such as structure, regulation, catalysis.
This document discusses the classification of living things. It begins by explaining the key characteristics that define life, including being made of cells, metabolism, homeostasis, and reproduction. It then covers the hierarchical organization of living things from cells to organelles. The rest of the document explains how living things are classified into domains, kingdoms, phyla, classes and other taxonomic ranks based on their similarities and differences. As an example, humans are classified as Animalia, Chordata, Mammalia, Primates, Hominidae, Homo, Homo sapiens. Scientific naming and the ongoing effort to catalog life on Earth are also summarized.
The document discusses the key components and functions of living cells. It covers topics such as vital functions, biomolecules, cellular structure, nutrition, respiration, photosynthesis, cell division, and genetic material. The history of cell discovery is reviewed from early microscope observations of cells in the 1600s to the formulation of the modern cell theory in the 1830s. Different types of cells and their structures are also defined.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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1. 2/12/2016
6
REFERENCES
1. Berg, J.M., Tymoczko, J.L. and Stryer, L., 2002. Biochemistry.
5th edition: W.H. Freeman and Co,. New York
2. Buchanan, B.B., Gruissem, W. and Jones, R.L., 2000.
Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Plants. American
Society of Plant Biologists
3. Conn, E.E. & Stumpf, P.K., 1976. Outlines of Biochemistry.
John Wiley & Sons, New York.
4. Goodwin, T.W. & Mercer, E.I., 1990. Introduction to Plant
Biochemistry. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
5. Stryer, L., 1975. Biochemistry. W.H. Freeman and Company,
San Francisco
6. Wood, W.B., Wilson, J.H., Benbow, R.M., & Hood, L. E., 1981.
Biochemistry A Problems Approach.
I. INTRODUCTION
1. Definition
What is Plant Biochemistry ?
1. Biochemistry is the study of molecular basis of
life (Stryer, 1975)
2. Biochemistry is the study of the way in which
chemical components are synthesized and
utilized by the organism in the life process
(Goodwin & Mercer, 1990).
Plant Biochemistry is the study of molecular basis of
plant life that includes the synthesis and utilization
of compounds in the life process of plants (growth &
development).
2. 2/12/2016
7
2. Basic Principle
• Living organisms, whether they are plants, animals
or microbes, are made up basically of the same
chemical components
• The formation of compounds (biomolecules)
required in the living process of plants, from the
chemical components, occurs through biochemical
reactions catalyzed in most cases by enzymes
under genetic control and environmental influence.
• Enzymes, therefore, are crucial in the biochemical process
of plant life. For example, the break down of urea to be
ammonium occurs through a hydrolysis reaction catalyzed
by enzyme urease.
• Urease from jack beans (Canavalia
ensiformis) was the first enzyme ever
purified and crystallised, an
achievement of James B. Sumner in
1926 who earned a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1946
C O + 3 H2O Urease
H2N
H2N
2NH4
++OH-+HCO3
-
Balasubramanian & Ponnuraj, 2010
Urease
3. 2/12/2016
8
II. BIOMOLECULES
What are Types of Molecules studied in Biochemistry?
The principal types of biological molecules, or
biomolecules are:
carbohydrates
lipids
proteins
nucleic acids
Many of these molecules are complex molecules
called polymers which are made up of monomer
subunits
Biochemical molecules are principally based on
carbon.
protein complex
protein subunit
amino acid
membrane
phospholipid
fatty acid
cell wall
cellulose
glucose
chromosome
DNA
nucleotide
monomer
polymer
supramolecular
structure
lipids proteins
carbo nucleic acids
4. 2/12/2016
9
cell wall
cellulose
glucose
monomer
polymer
supramolecular
structure
• Cellulose is the major
structural material of plants.
Wood is largely cellulose,
and cotton is almost pure
cellulose.
The “head” of the molecule is a carboxyl group
which is hydrophilic.
The “tail” of a fatty acid is a long hydrocarbon
chain, making it hydrophobic.
Fatty acids are the main component of soap, where
their tails are soluble in oily dirt and their heads are
soluble in water to emulsify and wash away the oily
dirt. However, when the head end is attached to
glycerol to form a fat, that whole molecule is
hydrophobic.
One Fatty Acid
5. 2/12/2016
10
membrane
phospholipid
fatty acid
monomer
polymer
supramolecular
structure
Description Saturated Fats Unsaturated Fats
Definition:
Saturated fats are fats with a
single bond between the
carbon atoms of the fatty acids
Unsaturated fats are fats with
one or more double bonds
between the fatty acids
Health:
Excessive consumption is not
good because of their
association with
atherosclerosis and heart
diseases.
Unsaturated fats are
considered good to eat if you
are watching your cholesterol
Cholesterol:
Saturated fats increase LDL
(bad cholesterol) and decrease
the HDL
Unsaturated fats increase HDL
(good cholesterol) and
decrease LDL
Form: Solid at room temperature Liquid at room temperature
Derived from: Mostly from animal products Plants
Hydrocarbon
chain:
contains only single bonds
between carbon atoms, no
double bonds (ex: stearic acis)
contains one or more double
bonds between carbon atoms
-monounsaturated -
polyunsaturated
Commonly
found in:
Butter, coconut oil, breast milk,
meat
Avocado, soybean oil, canola
oil, olive oil
Life:
These are long lasting and do
not get spoiled quickly
These get spoiled quickly
Recommended
consumption:
Not more than 10% of total
calories per day.
Not more than 30% of total
calories per day
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11
Saturated
Formula Common Name Melting Point
CH3(CH2)10CO2H lauric acid 45 ºC
CH3(CH2)12CO2H myristic acid 55 ºC
CH3(CH2)14CO2H palmitic acid 63 ºC
CH3(CH2)16CO2H stearic acid 69 ºC
CH3(CH2)18CO2H arachidic acid 76 ºC
Unsaturated
Formula Common Name Melting Point
CH3(CH2)5CH=CH(CH2)7CO2H palmitoleic acid 0 ºC
CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7CO2H oleic acid 13 ºC
CH3(CH2)4CH=CHCH2CH=CH
(CH2)7CO2H
linoleic acid -5 ºC
CH3CH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHC
H2CH=CH(CH2)7CO2H
linolenic acid -11 ºC
CH3(CH2)4(CH=CHCH2)4(CH2)
2CO2H
arachidonic acid -49 ºC
lipids
Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids
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12
Cis and Trans Bonds
monomer
polymer
supramolecular
structure Enzyme complex
protein subunit
amino acid
8. 2/12/2016
13
chromatin
DNA
nucleotide
monomer
polymer
supramolecular
structure
III. THE IMPORTANCE OF
BIOCHEMISTRY
1. Biochemistry Use
What Is Biochemistry Used For?
1. Biochemistry is used to learn about the biological
processes which take place in cells and organisms.
2. Biochemistry may be used to study the properties
of biological molecules, for a variety of purposes.
- For example, a biochemist may study the characteristics
of the keratin in hair so that a shampoo may be developed
that enhances curliness or softness.
3. Biochemists find uses for biomolecules.
- For example, a biochemist may use a certain lipid as a
food additive.
9. 2/12/2016
14
4. Alternatively, a biochemist might find a substitute
for a usual biomolecule. For example, biochemists
help to develop artificial sweeteners.
5. Biochemists can help cells to produce new
products. Gene therapy is within the realm of
biochemistry. The development of biological
machinery falls within the realm of biochemistry.
2. Molecular Characterization
The core of biochemistry is the characterization of
organismal life at molecular level including the
conversion mechanism of substrates to products
through biochemical reactions catalyzed by
enzymes under genetic control and environmental
influence.
1. Isolation and Identification
Biochemistry is firstly concerned with the isolation
and identification of all different substances which
make up plant and animal organisms
- A living organism is composed of more than just
fasts, carbohydrates and protein. Hundreds of
other substances are necessary to the proper
functioning of the organisms
2. Chemical Changes
Secondly, biochemistry is concerned with all chemical
changes which take place in the cells to provide for
energy, growth, reproduction, and aging.
- Protoplasm is an aqueous solution of certain
substances with other colloidally dispersed
substances
10. 2/12/2016
15
http://manet.illinois.edu/pathways.php
Chemical Changes:
Metabolism
(146 pathways)
1. Carbohydrate Metabolism (17)
2. Energy Metabolism (8)
3. Lipid Metabolism (14)
4. Nucleotide Metabolism (2)
5. Amino Acid Metabolism (16)
6. Metabolism of Other Amino
Acids (9)
7. Glycan Biosynthesis and Metabolism
(18)
8. Biosynthesis of Polyketides and
Nonribosomal Peptides (9)
9. Metabolism of Cofactors and Vitamins
(11)
10. Biosynthesis of Secondary
Metabolites (21)
11. Biodegradation of Xenobiotics (21)
1
10
2
3
8
6
9
7
4
5
11
PLANT
BIOCHEMISTRY
Assume 10 reactions/pathway (glycolysis has 11
reactions), then 146 x 10 = 1460 reactions/cell
11. 2/12/2016
16
IV. BREAKTHROUGHS IN
BIOCHEMISTRY
1. Enzyme and DNA
Two notable breakthroughs in the history of
biochemistry
1. Discovery of the role of enzymes as catalysts
2. Identification of nucleic acids as information
molecules
Flow of information: from nucleic acids to
proteins
At lunch Francis [Crick] winged into the Eagle to tell everyone within
hearing distance that we had found the secret of life. — James Watson
• Two polynucleotides
associate to form a
double helix
• Genetic information is
carried by the sequence
of base pairs
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17
Advances in the study of genetics (DNA) have led to
the development of genetic engineering and cloning
Genetic engineering is the manipulation of genes to
create purposefully versions of organisms
Cloning is to make a genetically identical organism
through non-sexual means.
2. Genetic Engineering and Cloning
Cloning of African violets:
1. Take a leaf from a plant
2. Immerse the stalk in
water
- Roots start to form
after a week
3. Pot the plant
- A new plant is
produced
The new plant is
genetically identical
to the parental plant
The color of the
flowers are the
same
13. 2/12/2016
18
Sel telur dengan inti dari induk yang berkembang
menjadi anak domba yang sama dengan induknya
Parent cell
Egg cell
How Dolly was cloned?
How Dolly was cloned?
15. 2/12/2016
20
EXAMPLES OF PLANT
BIOCHEMISTRY
1. Gugur Daun
Perusakan dinding sel
pada lapisan absisi
oleh aktivitas enzim
Cellulase dan
Polygalacturonase
Sintesis kedua enzim
tersebut terhambat
jika kadar hormon
tumbuh auxin cukup
tinggi
• Transpor auxin dari tempat ujung daun (tempat
sintesis) ke lapisan absisi dihambat ethylene
Auxin
Ethylene
Cellulase/Polygalacturonase
Lapisan absisi
16. 2/12/2016
21
2. The Narcotic Analgesics
Narcotics block the transmission of the
nerve signal across nerve gaps, [the minor
analgesics blocked prostaglandin
synthesis]
The more important ones:
Morphine, codeine,
oxycodone (PERCODAN), hydromorphone (DILAUDID),
methadone, + heroin [ = not legal]
meperidine (DEMEROL), pentazocine (TALWIN),
fentanyl (SUBLIMAZE), buprenorphine (BUPRENEX)
Morphine:
Opium [est. ~ 10,000 tons] extracted from the
poppy Papaver somniferum, Afghanistan spring 06
6100 tons alone.
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22
Morphine goes to receptors (opiate receptors) which
control passage of Ca2+ and K + through channels, which in
turn control acetylcholine (nerve transmitter) flow across
synapses.
DEPRESSES RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - usual overdose
effect; some euphoria - plus is addictive
Komunikasi saraf (neuron & nerve cells) antara satu dengan yang
lain, atau dengan yang lain (kelenjar, otot & organ tubuh lain) terjadi
melalui pelepasan zat, “neurotransmitters”, pada reseptor dari neuron
atau organ bersangkutan. Suatu zat yang secara mengyakinkan
berfungsi sebagai neurotransmitter adalah Acetylcholine.
c. Cyanide Poisoning
Disrupts metabolism by inhibiting metal
containing enzymes, most notably,
cytochrome oxidase.
Cytochrome A3 catalyzes O2 H2O
Blocks ability of mitochondria to use O2
O2 saturation may be normal
Poisoning can occur through
percutaneous absorption and inhalation.
Degree of symptoms depends on
severity of exposure.
18. 2/12/2016
23
Antidote
Specific antidotes available
1. Sodium nitrite reacts with hemoglobin to form
methemoglobin that removes cyanide ions from various
tissues to form cyanmethemoglobin (relatively low toxicity).
2. The function of Sodium thiosulfate is to convert cyanide to
thiocyanate, by an hepatic enzyme known as rhodanese
d. Methanol Poisoning
Methanol itself has a relatively low degree of toxicity,
but it is metabolized to formic acid which is responsible
for the acidosis and blindness that characterizes
methanol poisoning.
The initial step in the metabolism of methanol occurs by
the action of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH).
19. 2/12/2016
24
e. What is Biodiesel?
Alternative fuel for diesel engines
Made from vegetable oil or animal fat
Meets health effect testing (CAA)
Lower emissions, High flash point (>300F), Safer
Biodegradable, Essentially non-toxic.
Chemically, biodiesel molecules are mono-alkyl esters
produced usually from triglyceride esters
Biodiesel Samples
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25
Chemistry of Triglycerides
Biodiesel is made from the combination of a triglyceride
with a monohydroxy alcohol (i.e. methanol, ethanol…).
What is a triglyceride? Made from a combination of
glycerol and three fatty acids:
Transesterification
Triglyceride
3CH3OH 3CH3OORx
CH2OOR1
CHOOR2
CH2OOR3
CH2OH
CHOH
CH2OH
Methanol Biodiesel Glycerin
R1, R2, and R3 are fatty acid alkyl groups (could be
different, or the same), and depend on the type of oil.
The fatty acids involved determine the final properties of
the biodiesel (cetane number, cold flow properties, etc.)
While actually a multi-step process, the overall
reaction looks like this:
21. 2/12/2016
26
Individual step of Transesterification
First step, triglyceride turned into diglyceride, methoxide (minus Na) joins
freed FA to make biodiesel, Na joins OH from water (from methoxide
formation) to make NaOH. Other H joins the diglyceride.
Triglyceride Methoxide Biodiesel
Diglyceride
HCONa
H
H
H2O
NaOH
HCOR1
HCOOR2
HCOR3
H
H
O
O
HCO
CHOOR2
HCOR3
H
H O
HCOR1
H
O
H
f. Penyakit encok (gout) yang mengakibatkan
radang pada persendian adalah akibat akumulasi
asam urat
Radang sendi dipicu
oleh presipitasi kristal
urat natrium (sodium
urate crystals)
Penyakit Ginjal dapat
juga terjadi karena
deposisi kristal urat
dalam organ tersebu
23. 2/12/2016
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ADENIUM OBESUM ' CHERRY'
Grafted Desert Rose
Family : Apocynaceae
Origin : East Africa
Size : 5'
Light Requirements : Full Sun/Light
Shade
Water Requirements : Keep Dry
Min. Temp. : 35°
Flower : Year Round
c. PIGMENT
Pigment Class Compound Type Colors
Porphyrin chlorophyll green
Carotenoid carotene and
lycopene
xanthophyll
yellow, orange, red
yellow
Flavonoid flavone
flavonol
anthocyanin
yellow
yellow
red, blue, purple,
magenta