Pharmacognosy II as per PCI syllabus

General Introduction of secondary
metabolites
Prepared by:- Miss. Mugdha A Joshi
Asst. Professor,
IVM’s IIPER, Talegaon Dabhade

List of secondary metabolites with drugs
1. Alkaloids:-
 Vinca
 Rauwolfia
 Belladonna
 Opium
2. Phenylpropionoids and Flavonoids:-
 Lignans
 Tea
 Ruta
3. Steroids cardiac glycosides & triterpenoids:-
 Liquorice
 Dioscorea
 Digitalis

4. Volatile oils:-
 Mentha
 Clove
 Cinnamon
 Fennel
 Coriander
5. Tannins:-
 Catechu
 Pterocarpus
6. Resines:-
 Benzion
 Gugglul
 Ginger
 Asafoetida
 Myrrh
 Colophony

7. Glycosides:-
 Senna
 Aloes
 Bitter almond
8. Iridoids, other terpenoids & Napthaquinones:-
 Gentian
 Artemisia
 Taxus
 Carotenoids

Point to study for each Drug
Definition
Classification
Synonyms
Biological source
Geographical Distribution
Cultivation and collection
Chemistry
chemical classes
Characteristics
therapeutic uses
commercial applications

Alkaloids
Alkali like term was coined by the pharmacist W. Meissner, in 1819.
The are not universally distributed , limited to certain genera and families like
Solanaceae, Rubiaceae, Papaveraceae, Leguminosae, Rutaceae
Two specific characters 1. complex molecular structure with nitrogen
2. Prominent pharmacological activity.
Basic character of alkaloids due to presence of N atom in ring structure.
Basic nitrogenous compound of plant origin containing one or more nitrogen atoms
as a part of heterocyclic ring structure, and marked physiological activity in
comparatively lower doses.
Exceptions ephedrine , adrenaline contains N in side chain.
Caffeine , theobromine, thiamine are active heterocyclic N bases but not alkaloids.

Classification of alkaloids
True alkaloids
• Derived from amino
acid
• Show wide range of
physiological action
• Give positive test
with general
alkaloidal reagents
• Eg. vinca
Protoalkaloids
• Amino acid nitrogen
is not part of ring
• Simple amines
• show positive
reaction with
general alkaloidal
reagents.
• Eg . ephedrine
Pseudoalkaloids
• Not derived from
amino acids in most
of cases.
• Do not show
positive reaction
with general
alkaloidal reagents.
• Eg. caffeine

Synonyms:- Vinca rosea, Madagascarian Y, Sadaphuli, periwinkle
Biological source:- It consist of dried leaves and aerial part of Catharanthus roseus,
family Apocyanaceae.
Geographical source:- Indigenous to Madagascar, ornamental plant, found In India,
Africa, Thailand, Taiwan, European countries.
Cultivation collection and preparation:- Perennial herb
propagated from seed
can grow in any type of soil
1st leaf striping is done after 6 months
2nd leaf stripping is done after 9 months
Characteristics:- height 30 – 80 cm,
woody stem at base,
leaves are shining and brilliant dark green,
leaves are opposite,
oblong with acute base and rounded apex.

Microscopy of vinca:-
 Single layer of cuticularised upper and lower epidermis
 Unicellular covering trichomes
 Anisocytic stomata
 Single layered elongated palisade
 parenchyma only beneath upper epidermis.
 Vascular bundle with centrally arranged
lignified xylem vessels Non lignified
 Upper and lower midrib contains thick
walled cellulosic collenchymatous zone.

Chemical constituents:-
90 different types of alkaloids
Leaves 0.60-0.67 %
Stem 0.26-0.31 %
Roots 0.78-1.22 %
Root bark 4.5-9.0 %
 Ajamaline, serpentine, lochnerine and tetrahydro alstomine present in apocynaceous
plants.
 Vinca contains dimeric bisindole alkaloid; Indole (Catharanthine)and dihyddroindole
(vindoline)derivatives
 20 different types of dimeric alkaloids having anticancer activity.
 Most imp. Vincristine 0.0002 % &
Vinblastine it can convert into vincristine By N- dimethylation.

Chemical tests:-
1. Dragendorff’s test:- filtrate + dragendorff’s reagent Brown ppt.
2. Mayer’s test :- filtrate +Mayer’s reagent yellow ppt
3. Hager’s test:- filtrate + Hager’s reagent yellow ppt
4. Wagner’s test:- filtrate + Wagner’s reagent redishbrown ppt
Uses:-
1. Vinblastine sulphate in treatment of Hodgkin’s disease,
Lymphocytic lymphoma, histocytic lymphoma,
testicular carcinoma, Kaposi’s sarcoma and in case of
brast cancer which do not respond to other therapies.
Used in combination with other anticancer drug
Brand name:- Velban
2. Vincristin sulphate in treatment of acute
lymphatic leukemia, Hodgkin's disease, lymphosarcoma
Neuroblastoma, Wilm’s tumour.
MOA:- both alkaloids arrest cell division at metaphase by binding to tubulin and
interfering with functioning of microtubule systme at the mitotic spindle.
Storage:- store in refrigerator

Synonyms:- Chhota chand, Sarpgandha, Indian snake root, Rauwolfia serpentina
Biological source:- It consists of the dried rhizomes of roots of Rauwolfia serpentina family
Apocynaceae.
Geographical source:- Grows wild as well as cultivated in India.
also grows in Pakistan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Indonesia.
Geographical area affects quality of drug and alkaloidal content.
Indian rauwolfia is prefered in international market.
In India it cultivated in Uttaranchal, Assam, Bengal and in Western Ghats.
Cultivation, collection and preparation:-
Small shrub , grows in tropical and subtropical
region with rain between 250-500 cm.
Temperature range 10 – 38 ° C.
Sandy alluvial loam soil with large humus.
Maturity of plant attend after 4 yr.
Characteristics:- perennial undrshrub height half meter
Long elliptical lanceolate leaves
Corymbose type of inflorescence
with white and pink flowers.
tuberous soft tap roots upto 6 cm in dim.
flowering and fruiting in May to Octo.
roots are odourless and bitter in taste.

Chemical constituents:-
0.7- 2.4 % total indole alkaloids.
50 alkaloids
Divided into 3 major groups
1. Weakly basic indole alkaloids
2. Indoline alkaloids:- moderate basicity and strong unhydrous bases.
3. Principle alkaloids:- Reserpine and rescinnamine.
Minor alkaloids:- Yohimbine, ajamaline, tetrahydroreserpine, raubasine, reserpiline and rauwolfinine.
Uses:-
Management of essential hypertension
MOA :- depletion of catecholamine and serotonin in brain, adrenal medulla and in other organs.
Antipsychotic agent in certain neuropsychotic disorders.
Known as pagalo ka dava in Bihar.
Sedative and Tranquilizer.
Allied Drug:-
R.vomitoria:- found in Africa
R. serpentina
R. tetraphylla
R. canescens
R. hirsuta
R. nitida

Synonym:- Deadly nightshade leaf, Belladonna leaf, Folia Belladonnae
Biological source:- It consists of fresh or dried leaves and flowering and fruiting tops of
Atropa belladonna, belonging to family Solanaceae.
Geographical source:- Indigenous to Central and Southern Europe and to Asia minor.
Cultivated in European countries and in India.
Cultivation collection and preparation:- perennial plant grows up to height 2 meters. It is
propagated through seeds. Seed are sown in spring and seedlings are produced in
January or February. Seedlings are replanted in April at distance of 45 cm apart. First
trimming is in sept. 2nd after year, in next year in May next cutting is done. Plant is
ploughed after 3 years. Leaves are dried immediately after collection at temp. 60 °C.
Characteristics:-leaves dull yellowish green in colour, petiolate, broadly ovate,with
entire margine and acuminate apex.venation and rough surface are diagnostic characters
of leaves. Dried stem 5 mm diameter, Flowers are curved pedicels solanaceous
character, fruit 3-10 mm diameter which darkens on drying. Belladonna berries when
eaten causes poisoning.

Chemical constituents:- Tropane alkaloids
total 1% alkaloids present in leaf, from which 3/4th is (-) hyoscyamine and remaining
is atropine. Also contains hyoscine, apotropine, belladonine and cuscohygrine.
Atropine is absent in younger leaves. Roots 0.6 %, leaves 0.4 %, seeds 0.33%.
Uses:- internally tincture is used as sedative. Root preparation used externaly. It is
antimuscarinic agent used as spasmolytic drug. It possesess anticholinergic
property due to which it is used to control excess motor activity of the
gastrointestinal tract and spasm of urinary tract.
Substitutes and Adulterants:-A. acuminata Indian belladonna only flower shows
yellow fenel shape corolla.
Alianthus glandulosa , Simarubaceae Italian belladonna
Adulterant: phytolacca decandra
Scopolia carniolica

Opium
Synonym:- Opium, Opium poppy
Biological source:- It consists of dried milky exudation (Latex) obtained by making
incisions into the unripe capsules of the Papaver somniferum plant belonging to family
Papavaraceae.
Georaphical Source:- Indigenous to Middle East, but cultivated in temperate regions of
northen hemisphere, Mediterranean countries such as Turkey, Iran, Australia. Also
cultivated in Asia, Japan and China. It is consider that it was came in India with
Alexander In 327BC.In India it is cultivated in Rajasthan.
Cultivation, Collection and preparation :- It is annual herb with large solitary flowers of
varying colours ranging from white to pink or purple. Cultivation is internationally
controlled by International Narcotics Control Board of United Nations. In India it is
controled by Government of India.
Propagation from seeds. Seeds are very small in size hence mixed with 3-4 parts of sand
and then sown in small fields.

Sowing is done from september to April. The crop is generally alternated with
maize, tobacco and other crops.
Distance of 25 cm is maintained between two plants. It flowers during end of April,
May.
Each plat bears 5-8 unripe capsules. Incisions are done at the beginning of June and
July. For making incisions narrow iron spikes are used called as nastars. Each
capsule incise 4-5 times on alternate day.
Latexa after collection made into ball and these balls are wrapped in poppy leaves
and dried in shade. Further processing is carried out at Government collection
centers.
Characteristics/ Morpholocial characters /Organoleptic characters:- Manupulated
opium is externaly pale yellow brown/ olive green, elastic when fresh, on storage it
becomes hard and brittle. Intarnaly it is redish brown, it has characteristic odour
and bitter taste.

Chemical constituents:- 30 different alkaloids, generally salts with meconic acid, 3-
5 % of free meconic acid is also present.
Alkaloids can be divided in to two groups 1. containing phenanthrene nucleus:-
Morphine 4-21%, Codeine 0.8-2.5 %, thebaine 0.5-2 % , 2. Benzylisoquinoline
papaverine.4-8% of noscapine also called as narcotine.
Uses:- Acts on central nervous system first stimulates and then depresses nerve
responses.
Analgesic, hypnotic and narcotic activities. Codeine is narcotic analgesic and anti
tussive. Milder sedative than morphine.
Papaverine has smooth muscles relaxant activity.used to relief cerebral, peripheral
and myocardial ischemia.
Substitutes and adulterants:- Not much adulterate.

Phenylpropionoids and Flavonoids
As name indicates phenyl propionoids are six carbon aromatic ring and 3 carbon
propane chain attached with it.
Phenylpropanoids are found throughout the plant kingdom, where they serve as
essential components of a number of structural polymers, provide protection
from UV light, defend against herbivores and pathogens and mediate plant-
pollinators interactions as floral pigments and scent compounds.
The pigments that color most flowers, fruits, and seeds are flavonoids. These
secondary metabolites, widely distributed in plants, are classified in six major
subgroups: chalcones, flavones, flavonols, flavandiols, anthocyanins, and
proanthocyanidins or condensed tannins. seventh group is found in some species,
the aurones.

Flavonoids, a group of natural substances with variable phenolic structures, are
found in fruits, vegetables, grains, bark, roots, stems, flowers, tea and wine. These
natural products are well known for their beneficial effects on health and efforts are
being made to isolate the ingredients so called flavonoids.
The different flavonoids have diverse biological functions, including protection
against ultraviolet (UV) radiation and phytopathogens,
signaling during nodulation,
male fertility,
auxin transport,
coloration of flowers as a visual signal that attracts pollinators,
for the display of fall color in many plants, which may protect leaf cells from
photooxidative damage,
enhancing the efficiency of nutrient retrieval during senescence ,
Flavonols are probably the most important flavonoids participating in stress
responses; they are the most ancient and widespread flavonoids, having a wide
range of potent physiological activities

Synonym:-Tea, Thea, Folia Theae
Biological Source:- It consists of fresh, dried or prepared leaves of Thea sinensis,
Camellia sinensis belonging to family Theaceae (Ternstroemiaceae)
Geographical source:-China , Japan, India, Pakistan,Srilanka, Indonesia, East Africa,
Mauritius.
Cultivation, collection and Preparation:- Cultivation of tea requires humid climate and
rainfall of above 100cm per year. It is best cultivated on slopes of hill. It requires temp.
of 20-28 °C. For cultivation it requires slightly acidic and well drained soil. Generally it
is cultivated at altitude of about 2100 meters from the sea level. It is grown by seed
propagation method. Young shoots and leaves with buds selects for harvesting.
Cultivator can enjoy yield from single plant for 6 years, after that plant is uprooted.
Morphological Characters:-Tea is a evergreen shrub or small tree. The size of leaves are
4-15 cm long and 2-5 cm broad. The young , light green leaves have short and white
hairs on the underside. Older leaves are deep green in color. he color of flowers are
yellow – white. The size of flower is 2.5-4 cm in diameter.
Its flowers consist of 7 or 8 petals.

Chemical constituents:- Polyphenols - (30-40%).Thease, which is mixture of
enzymes containing oxidase,which partly converts the phlobatannin into
phlobaphene, as chemical constituent. 1-5% of tannin and 10-24% of caffeine.
Caffeine is about 3% of tea’s dry weight. small amount of theobromine,
theophylline and volatile oil. Alkaloid content also present in tea leaves but its
amount only depend on season and age of tea leaves.Seeds of C. sinensis contain
acylated oleane type triterpenes having antiallergic activities.
Chemical test:-Murexide test:- test for purine alkaloids.
Drug extract +potassium chlorate +Hydrochloric acid
heated to dryness
Resedue + dil. ammonia vapours
Purple colour disappear when
addition of fixed alkali.
Uses:- As source of caffeine:- stimulatory effects on heart and CNS & diuretic
activity. But theobromin shows more diuretic activity. It may effective against
suppresing growth of tumour by inhibiting angiognesis. Caffeine and pholyphenol
together shows strong antioxident activity. In treatment of dibetes-Induced
blindness. Lowers risk of ischemic heart disease in geriatrics.
Adulterants:- Foreign leaves and exhausted leaves.

Synonym:- Rue
Biological source:- Fresh and dried leaves of plant Ruta graveolens belonging to
family Rutaceae.
Geographical Source:-Native to Mediterranean region, it has 14 approved species
from which Ruta graveolens and R. chalepensis are cultivated in India as medicinal
and ornamental plant.
Cultivation, collection and preparation:- It is perennial herb. Grown by seed
propagation. It can be easily grown in any type of soil.
Morphological characters:- leaves are thin papery and have minute dots of dark
green colored glands everywhere. Color of leaves is green to mild green. They are
present in alternate pattern.
Petels are widely speading greenish yellow in colour. Plant shows aromatic
pleasant smell.
Fruits are dry hard and round.

Chemical contituents:- It contains acridone alkaloids, coumarins, volatile
substance, terpenoids and flavonoids and fluroquinolones. Rutin and quercetin
are two imp. Constituents. Rutin is obtained from leaves of ruta plant. It also
contains alophatic acids, alcoholss and ketones.
Uses:- It is emmenagogue (a substance that stimulates or increases menstrual flow.)
Haemostat ( reduces blood flow from injuries)
Intestinal antispasmodic
Sedative
Uterine stimulant
Used for treatment of cold and fever in chinese medicine.
It is used as aphordisiac (food or drug that arouses sexual instinct) and choleretic in
poland.
As bitter, aromatic stimulant.

Lignans
Lignans are low molecular weight polymers formed by coupling of two
phenylpropane units via their C3 side chains.
Reduction of carboxylic acid
oxidation of aromatic ring &
methylation at C3
+
CH2OH
CH2OH
OH
OH
H3CO
H3CO

Biosources:- lignans are widely occureing in plant compounds which are
obtained from roots, heartwood, foliage, fruits and resinous exudates of plants.
Natural occurrence of trimers and tetramers has not been reported.but it
occurres in man and animal.
In the roots of podophyllum hexandrum ( Berberidaceae) α-lignan has been
found.
Lignans are formed by ferulic acid to coniferyl alcohol. Oxidative dimerisation
of the coniferyl alcohol units via beta cabon atom and C3 side chain.
Lignans found in single enantiomeric forms, as d- or l- isomers. Sometimes
they also occurs in the form of racemic mixture.

Steroids
Steroids are biosynthetically derived from S-sualene-2,3-epoxide through
acetate mevalonate pathway.
Phytosterol are universal steroids from plant kindome and shows
hypocholesterolemic activity.
Chemical classes:-
1. Anabolic steroids:-Interact with androgen receptor, Increase muscle mass/
athlete’s performance and male sex hormones.
2. Glucocorticosteroids:- They regulate metabolism and immune function and
exhibit anti-inflammatory activity.
3. Mineralocorticoids:- They maintain blood volume and renal excretion.
4. Progestins:-They are involved in the development of female sex organs and
characteristics.
5. Phytosteroids:- They are plant steroids.
6. Ergosteroids:- They are the steroids of fungi and are vit. D related.

Biosources:- Steroidal alkaloids found in plants of Solanaceae and
Melanthiaceae family ( veratrum genus) , cardiac glycosides, Phytosterols and
brassinosteroids( it includes many plant hormones) are the sources of plant
steroids.
Therapeutic uses:-
1. Asthama and chronic Obstractive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
2. Hey fever
3. Hives and eczema
4. Painful joints or muscles such as arthritis, tennis elbow and frozen shoulder.
5. Pain caused by an irritated or trapped nerve, such as sciatica,
6. Inflammatory bowel disease, such as Crohn’s disease
7. Multiple sclerosis
Cummercial applications
1. Preparation of sex hormones, contraceptive pills, solasodine and hecogenin
2. Washing silk, wool Hair saponins of dioscorea is used.
3. Fish poison and for killing lice.

Cardiac glycosides is important class of naturally occurring drugs because it
shows both beneficial and toxic effects on the heart.
They are widely used in modern treatment of congestive heart failure and for the
treatment of atrial fibrillation and flutter.
Drugs act by affecting the availability of intracellular Ca+2 ions for myocardial
contractions or increasing the sensitivity of myocardial contractile proteins.
Cardiac glycosides are made up of two portions.
1. Sugar Moiety (Glycone) :- Monosachharides or Polysachharides with beta-
1,4-glycosidic linkages. Most common D- glucose, D-digitoxose, L-rhyamnose,
D-cymarose. This component is useful for increasing solubility and absorption
of drug.
2. Non sugar Moiety(Aglycone):- It is steroidal nucleus usually termed as genin.
This component is responsible for pharmacological activity of drug.
Aglycone part contains two types :
Cardenolides:- alpha beta unsaturated 5 member lactone ring at C17 position.
Bufadienolides:- two conjugated double bonds with 6 membered lactone ring at
C17 position .

Qualitative analysis of cardiac glycosides
1. Keller-killiani test:- 1gm drug in alcohol/ water mix well shake for 5 min filter
filtrate +add 0.5 ml lead acetate mix shake filter
filtrate + equal vol. of chloroform evaporate
resedue dissolve in acetic acid +few drops FeCl3sol.
transfer above solution in test tube containing 2 ml of conc.H2SO4
Redish brown color changes to bluish green on keeping
2. Legal test:- alcoholic extract + equal vol. of water+ 0.5 ml strong lead acetate sol. Shake filter
Filtrate with equal vol. of chloroform evaporate
Resedue +2 ml pyridine + 2 ml sodium nitroprusside + NaOH sol.
formation of pink colour confirms presence of glycosides / aglycone
3. Baljet test:-Thick section of leaf dipped in sodium picrate
Colour changes yellow to orange due to presence of aglycones

4. 3,5-dinitro benzoic acid test:- Alcoh. Sol. Drug +few drops NaOH + 2 %
sol. of 3,5-dinitro benzoic acid
Pink colour due to presence of cardiac glycosides
5. Raymond’s test:- drug sol. +few ml 50% ethanol +0.1 ml
1 % of m- dinitrobenzene sol. in ethanol
+ 2-3 drops of 20% sodium hydroxide solution
Violet color indicates presence of active methylene group
6. Xanthydrol tesr:- crude drug extract heated with 0.1-5 % of xanthydrol
solution in glacial acetic acid containing 1% of HCl
Red colour due to presence of 2- deoxysugar.

Synonyms:- Foxglove leaves, Digitalis leaves
Biological source :- Dried leaves of Digitalis purpurea, belonging to family
Scrophulariaceae.
Geographical Source:- It is cultivated in England, France, Germany, North America, and
India. In India it is cultivated in kashmir and Nilgiri hills.
Morphological characters:-
Colour: deep green leave at dorsal surface but pale green and gryish in ventral
surface.
Odour:- Slight and characteristic
Taste:- Bitter
Size:- length of leaves 10- 40 cm and width 4-20 cm.
Shape:- ovate, Apex is pointed, margin of leaf is crenate ( with broad rounded teeth) Tips
are obtuse ( rounded with narrow space)
Microscopic Characters:-
Anomocytic stomata on both surface
Trichomes are Uniseriate, multicellular (3-5cells) and bluntly pointed. Glandular
trichomes are also present.
collapsed celled covering trichomes is imp. Characteristic of digitalis.
Starch grains are present in endodermis
Collenchyma at 3 diff. places Upper epidermis, lower epidermis, pericyclic part.

Chemical constituents:- Total no of glycosides in digitalis is 30. 0.2-0.45 % of
both primary and secondary glycosides. Leaves also contains hydrolytic
enzymes.
Primary glycosides: Purpurea glycosides A and B and glucogitaloxin
Secondary glycosides: odoroside H , gitaloxin, verodoxin and glucoverodoxin,
2 saponin glycosides :-digitonin and gitonin.
Purpurea Glycoside
A
Purpurea Glycoside
B
Digitoxin +
Glucose
Gitoxin + Glucose
Digitoxigenin + 3-
Digitoxose
Gitoxigenin + 3-Digitoxose
Enzymatic
hydrolysis
Enzymatic
hydrolysis
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis

Chemical test:-
1. Keller Killiani test
2. Legal test
3. Baljet test
4. Keddes Reagent :- keddes reagent gives blue or violet color when reacts with
cardinolites.
5. Raymond’s test
6. Tollens Test:- drug dissolved in mix. Of pyridine and ammonical silver
nitrate solution precipitate of silver is obtained.
Uses:- Increases force and velocity of contraction of normal and failing heart.
Digitalis Increase the activity of cardiac muscles.
Substitutes:- Adonidin:-Adonis vernalis Ranunculaceae. Adonin acts more
quickly and powerfully than digitalis.
Foxglove:- as vegitable also used.

Adulterant:-
Common Mullein leaves:- Verbascum thapsus ( Scrophulariaceae) has large
wooly branched candilabra trichomes.
Primrose leaves:-Primula vulgaris ( primulaceae) has uniseriate covering
trichomes which are 8-9 celled long. lateral veins of leaves are straight.
Comfrey Leaves:- symphytum officinale( Boraginaceae) has presence
Multicellular trichomes forming hook at the top.

Synonyms:-Yam, Kins, singli-mingli
Biological source:- Dried rhyzomes of several species of Dioscorea like
Dioscorea deltoidea, D. composita, all belongs to family Dioscoreaceae.
Geographical source:- majority of species are tropical only few species
extend in temperate region. It is cultivated in North America, Japan, China,
Mexico, India, and Nepal. In India it grows widely in western himalayas,
karnataka, Jammu and Kashmir, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, west Bengal,
etc.
Morphological / Macroscopical / organoleptic characters:-
Colour: Lightly brown
Odour: odourless
Taste:Bitter
Size: varies depending upon age of rhizomes.

Microscopical Characters:-
Endodermis is normaly absent in the transverse section
Cork consist of only few layers, followed by thin cortical parenchymatous
tissues. Stele ( close collateral fibro-vascular bundles) present.

Chemical constituents:- It mainly contains diosgenin ( steroidal sapogenin) ,
epismilagenin (glycoside) and yamogenin ( β-isomer). It contains sapogenase
phenolic compounds and starch.
Chemical test:-
Diosgenin+ acetic anhydride+ sulphuric acid
Bluish green colour
Uses:- As a source of diosgenin which is
used for the manufacture of progesterone.
for manufacture of steroidal drug for treatment of asthma and arthirtis.
for manufacture of contraceptives.
Substitute and Adulterants:-
D. floribunda :- central america and Karnatka state. 3-5 % diosgenin.
D. villosa :- Virginia and Carolina in USA has yellow flower and tringular
capsules.
D.Sikkimensis:- Eastern Himalayas, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam, Bihar and
Bengal up to an altitude of 1600-2000 meter. 2-2.8 % diosgenin.
Castus speciosus alternative potntial source of diosgenin 1.5 %

Liquorice
Synonym:- Sweet liquorice, Radix glycerrhizae.
Biological Source:-Dried peeled or unpeeled roots and stolon of different
varieties of Glycerrhiza glabra, belonging to family Leguminosae.
Geographical source:- Cultivated in Spain, sicily and yorkshire ( England). G.
glabra var violaceae found in Iran, G. glabra var glandulifera is found in Russia
called as Russian Liquorice. In Asia it is cultivated in India (Sub Himalayan
tracts) and in Baluchistan.
Morphological characters:-
Size:- tall tickness is ¼ to 1 inch diam. And longitudinally wrinkled.
Shape:- long straight, nearly cylindrical and occures upeled pieces.
Colour:- Externally Greyish brown to dark brown
Taste:- Sweet and very slightly acrid.
Odour:- Weak and somewhat aromatic.

Chemical constituents:-Glycerrhyzin 6-8%, (50 times sweeter than sucrose)
Ca and K salt of glycerrhixic acid, on hydrolysis glycerrhetic acid and
rlycerrhetinic acid. Flavonoids liquiritin and Isoliquiritin also present – anti gastric
effect.
Chemical tests:- Ts of durg +80% H2SO4 Orange yellow colour
due to transformation of liquiritine (flavone glycoside) to Isoliquiritine (chalcone
glycoside)
drug Powder + water+ KOH Red colour
Uses:- As sweetening agent
In bronchial problems
As expectorant and demulcent
In the treatment of peptic ulcer
As an antispasmodic.
As flavoring agent for chewing tobacco and snuff tobacco.
prolonged use causes water retension and rises blood pressure.
Roots externally used in treatment of eczema and herpes
Substitutes and Adulterants:-
Manchurian liquorice:- Glycyrrhyza uralensis ;brown in colour, free from sugar but
contains glycyrrhizin.
Russian liquorice;- Glycyrrhyza glabra variety Glandulifera ;Purpulish in colour, long
roots but no stolons.

Cholesterol, Phytosterols, Phytoecdysteroids, etc. are some examples of Triterpenes.
Based on the structure, they are subdivided into 20 groups.
Only tritetpenoids are responsible for the adaptogenic effects in the plants like Panax
ginseng or Eleutherococcus senticosus.
In adaptogenic plants triterpenoids exists in the form of saponin glycosides.
Depending on no of sugar moieties attached triterpenoidal saponins are again classified
as-----
Monodesmoside:- single sugar
Bidesmoside:- containing two sugar
Tridesmoside:- containing three sugars
Ursane, Oleanane, Lupane are major triterpenoid skeleton that occurs in higher plnats .
They are generally found in tetracyclic triterpenoids and pentacyclic triterpenoids.
Tetra cyclic triterpenoids:- Cucurbitaceae, Ganodermataceae, Apocynaceae
Pentacyclic Triterpenoids :- Fabaceae , Ranunculaceae, Myrtyaceae, Solanaceae,
Lamiaceae, Burseraceae.
Therapeutic uses:-
 In the treatment of dementia.
 In the treatment of convulsions
 In treatment of depression
 In pain and Nociception
 In treating anxiety
 As sedative and hypnotics.

Volatile oils
They are basically mixtures of hydrocarbon terpenes, sesquiterpenes, and polyterpenes
and their oxygenated derivatives.
They are plants active constituents hence also called as essential oils.
Isolation of volatile oils:-
1. Expression method
2. Steam distillation
3. Extraction by means of volatile solvents
4. Enfleurage
5. Ecuelle
6. Supercritical Fluid extraction SFE

Types of volatile oil
1. Alcohol volatile oils:- Peppermint, Cardamom, coriander, orange flower oil,
rose oil, sandalwood oil.
2. Aldehyde volatile oil:- Cinnamon lemon peel, orange peel, citronella oil,
lomon-grass oil, bitter almond oil.
3. Ester volatile oil:- Gaultheria, lavender, mustard
4. Hydrocarbon volatile oil:- Turpentine, black pepper
5. Ketone volatile oil:- Caraway, Spearmint, buchu, camphor, musk, civet oil.
6. Oxide volatile oil:- chenopodium, eucalyptus
7. Phenolic ether volatile oil:- Anise, fennel, nutmeg
8. Phenol volatile oil:- Clove, thyme, creosote
Terpeneless volatile oil:- they are more specific and stable. Undesired
components and hydrocarbons are removed from volatile oil to obtain terpenelss
volatile oil.
Chemical tests:-
TS +alcoholic sudan red III solution RED colour of oil globules.
TS+ drop of tincture alkane RED colour indicates presence of volatile oil

Chemical classification of volatile oils
Class Structure Constituents Drugs
1. Hydrocarbon
volatile oil
Monocyclic
and Bicyclic
Limonene
α- Pinine
Cardamom
coriander
2. Ester volatile oil Methyl salicylate Wintergreen oil
3. Ether volatile
oil
Anethole Fennel
Anise
4. Alcoholic
volatile oils
a) Acyclic
Citronellol Lemongrass
b) Monocyclic Menthol Peppermint
5. Aldehydes and
volatile oils
citral Lemon
OH COOCH3
CH2=CH-CH3CH3O

Biosources :-
1. Glandular hair:- Mint stems and leaves ( Labiatae)
2. Mesophyll:- Eucalyptus leaves
3. Modified :- Piperaceae and Parenchyma
4. Vitale:- Anise (Umbelliferae)
5. Lysigenous:- Gossipium species
6. Schezogenous gland:- Pinaccae and Rutaceae.
7. All tissues:- Conifers
8. Petals:- Rose
9. Bark:- Cinnamon
10. Rind :- Orange
11. Heartwood:- Sandalwood.

Therapeutic uses:-
1. Carminative :- all fruits belonging to family umbelliferae
2. Anthelmentic :- Chenopodium oil
3. Diuretic :- Juniper
4. Antiseptic :-Eucalyptus
5. Counter irritant:-oil of wintergreen
6. Local Irritant:-turpentine
7. Insect repellent:-citronella
8. Source of vitamina A:-lemongrass
9. Sedative:- Jatamanasi
10. Source of vitamin A :- lemongrass

Synonym:- Oleum mentha piperita, Colpermin, and Mentha oil
Biologicla source:- Oil is obtained from steam distillation of fresh flowering tops
of plant Mentha piperita, belonging to family Labiatae.
Geographical source:- grows widely in Europe and cultivated in Japan, England,
France, Italy, USA, Bulgaria, and USSR. In India it is cultivated near Jammu and
in Tarai regin of UP.
Macroscopic features:- colour:- colourless or yellow
Odour:- characteristic
Taste:- Pungent followed by cooling sensation
Solubility:- soluble in 70 % alcohol, ether and chloroform
Insoluble in water
Chemical constituents:- Menthol is chief constituent about 70 %.
Menthone, Menthafuran, jasmone, Menthyl isovalerate, menthyl acetate .
Flavour of mentha is due to presence of Jasmone and esters
Smell is due to resinification caused by Menthofuran.

Chemical tests:-
Oil + nitric acid solution( 1 ml nitric acid in 300 ml glacial acetic acid)
Blue color appears after 5 min of heating
Copper color fluorescence
Golden yellow
Clear and transparent liquid.
Uses:-
Carminative , stimulant, flavouring agent
Mild antiseptic properties
Smooth muscles relaxant
Used during endoscopy of colon
Digestant activity
Azulene present in leaves shows antiinflammatory and antiulcer activity.
As nsal decongestant in USFDA
Substitutes and Adulterants:- adulterated with cornmint oil difficult to identify
even at 85 % of adulteration.

Synonym:- Caryophyllum, clove flower, clove buds.
Biological source:- Dried flower buds of plant Eugenia Caryophyllus ,
belonging to family Myrtaceae.
Geographical source:- It was initially grown at Ambonya and Molucca islands.
Now they are cultivated in Zanziber, Pemba,Penang, Madagaskar, Sri Lanka,
India, caribbean islands. In India it is cultivated in Nilgiri hills and Tenkasi
hills and in Kanyakumari district of TN.
Macroscopic Characters:- Crimson to dark brown colour; slightly aromatic
odour; pungent and aromatic taste followed by numbness; 10 – 17.5 mm in
length and 4 mm in width 2 mm thick.

Chemical constituents:- 15-20 % of volatile oil, 10-13 % of tannins in the
form of gallotannic acid and chromone and eugenin. 70-90 % of eugenol,
eugenol acetate and caryophyllenes. Some traces of esters, ketones and
alcohol are also present.
Chemical test:- TS + strong KOH solution
Needle shape crystals of potassium Eugenate
Uses:-
1. Dental analgesic
2. Carminative
3. Stimulant
4. Flavoring agent
5. Aromatic and antiseptic
6. In preparation of cigarettes and in perfumery in the production of vanillin.
Adulterants:-
1. Mother clove:- ripen fruits of clove ; less volatile oil is present
2. Blown cloves:- lengthen than clove has less volatile oil
3. Clove stalks:- adulterated in powder clove.
4. Exhausted clove:- darker in appearance, more shrunken.

Synonyms:- Cinnamon bark, Kalmi- Dalchini, ceylon cinnamon.
Biological source:- Dried inner bark of shoots of tree Cinnamomum
zeylanicum and Cinnamomum verum belonging to family Lauraceae.
Geographical source:- commonly found in Sri Lanka, Malbar coast of India.
Jamaica and Brazil. True cinnamon is reffered as Sri Lanka cinnamon.
Morphological characters:- yellowish brown in colour with fragrant odour. It
is found in compound quill form. 1meter in length and abour 1 cm in diameter
and 0.5 mm in thickness. It has aromatic sweet taste with warm sensation.
Microscopic features:-

Chemical constituents:- It contains volatitle oil 0.5- 1 % and phlobatannins about
1.2 %. It also contains mucilage, calcium oxalate crystals, starch grains, and
mannitol. It gives about 14-16 % of water soluble extractives. Oil is yellow in
colour it contains Cinnamaldehyde 60-70 %, eugenol 5-20%, benzaldehyde,
cuminaldehyde, and terpenes like phellandrene, pinene, cymene etc.
Chemical test:- volatile oil + ferric chloride ------- pale green colour because of
presence of cinnamaldehyde and eugenol.
Oil + cassia oil ------ brown colour due to presence of cinnamic aldehyde.
Uses:-
1. Carminative, stomachic, mild astringent
2. Anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic , antiulcer--- active against H. pylori
3. Antimicrobial
4. Reduces LDL level and increases HDL lavel, control cholesterol.
5. Antiseptic, flavoring agent , stimulant.
Adulterants:-
1. Jungle cinnamon
2. Cinnamon chips
3. Saigon cinnamon
4. Java cinnamon

Synonyms:- sweet fennel, large fennel, fennel fruit, saunf, fructus, and
foeniculi.
Biological source:- it consist of dried ripe fruits of plant foeniculum vulgare
belonging to family Umbelliferae.
Geographical source:- Native to Asia and Mediterranean countries. In India it
is cultivated through out country. Also cultivated in France, Japanm Russia,
Persia.
Morphological characters:- colour is greenish brown with aromatic odour. It
has distinct sweet aromatic taste. Size is 0.5-1 cm long and 2-4 mm broad. It
contains sylopod stand as character of umbelliferae family.
Chemical constituents :- 2-5 % of volatile oil; 12 % fixed oil; 50-60 %
phenolic ether; 18-20 % fenchone is major constituent of drug it imparts
odour and taste of fruit. It contains traces of methul chavicol, anisic
aldehyde, anisic acid, limonene etc.
Chemical test:- A thin section of drug + alcoholic sudan III Red
globule indicates presence of volatile oil; if globule remains unchanged it
means fixed oil.

Thin section of drug + Phluroglucinol:conc. HCl (1:1) lignified tissues
show pink colour
Thin section of drug + alcoholic picric acid aleurone grains shows
yellow colour.
Uses:-
1. Aromatic, stimulant, stomachic, carminative, emmenagogue and
expectorant.
2. Common Ingredient of cough and stomach mixtures
3. Used in chest, spleen and kidney diseases.
4. Anethole is added in mouth and dental preparations.
Substitutes:-
1. Saxony
2. Russia or Romanian
3. Rench sweet or Roman
4. Indian
5. Japanese
Adulterant:- exhausted fennel is generaly used to adulterate fennel.

Synonyms:- coriander fruits, chinese parsley and Indian Parsley, Dhaniya
Biological source:- dried ripe fruits of the plant coriandrum sativum belonging
to family Umbelliferae.
Geographical Distribution:- through out european countries mainly in Russia,
Hungary and Holland. In India it is cheifly cultivated in AP Guntur and
Anantapur, Maharashtra in Jalgaon and Satara WB Howrah an dprangana
distric, UP, Rajasthan, Jammu Kashmir.
Morphological Characters:- yellowish brown to brown; odour aromatic with
spicy and characteristic taste.

Chemical constituents:-volatile oil , fixed oil, proteins; Volatile oil contains
90 % of D- Linalool ( also known as coriandrol) ; coriandryl acetate and in
very small amout of L-borneaol , geraniol and pinene. Coriander leaves
contain rich content of vitamin A.
Uses:- volatile oil obtained form fruit is used as aromatic, stimulant and
flavouring agents.
Oil is used along with purgatives to prevent gripping effect.
It is ingredient of orange spirit and cascara elixer.
Substitutes:- coriander is substituted with ellipsoidal Bombay coriander
fruits having less content of volatile oil.

Tannins
The term tannins was dervied by Seguin 1976.
Tannins are the substance which present in the plant; when they combine with
animal protein tannins prevent putrification of proteins and convert them into
lather.
Definition :- Tannins are complex substances that occurs as mixtures of
polyphenols and very difficult to separate since they do not crystallize.
They are present in the aerial parts of plant; generally they occurs in the
immature fruits of the plant as fruit ripe concentration of tannins decreases.
Exact function of tannins in plant is not known by they may serve as a
protection for the plant during growth and they destroyed or deposited as end
product of metabolism in some dead tissue of mature plant.
Non- nitrogenous derivatives of polyhydroxy benzoic acid.
They precipitate when combine with proteins and this protein tannin complex
is resistant to proteolytic enzymes.
C6H11O5

100 gm of amla powder
and reflux with 70 % of
acetone.
Resedue on filter paper
washed with 70% of
acetone
Washed solution mixed
with filtaerate and this
mixtrure is extractded
by using diethyl ether
process is repeated
form 5times
Evaporate the tannins
layer till the resedue is
obtained.
Separate both the layers
by using separating
funnel.
Diethyl ether and
tannins will separate out
as distinct layer. ( upper
layer diethyl ether lower
layer is tannins.)
% of tannis = wt of
dried tannins / wt of
powdered sample *100

Pharmacognosy II as per PCI syllabus

Pharmacognosy II as per PCI syllabus

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Pharmacognosy II as per PCI syllabus