Evaluation of drug means confirmation of its identity and determination of its quality and purity and detection of nature of adulteration.Evaluation of herbal drug is an important tool in the formulation of high quality herbal products. Quality of herb is
depends upon on many factors like cultivation, collection, drying, storage, processing for market etc. Now a day’s
substitution and adulteration of herb is very common due to scarcity of drug and its high price prevailing in the
market. Owing to medicinal properties attributed to an herb, it is necessary to maintain its quality and purity in the
commercial market. A present overview covering various tool like morphological, microscopical, physical, chemical
and biological employed for evaluation of herbal drugs.
Cultivation of medicinal plants requires intensive care and management.
The conditions and duration of cultivation required vary depending on the quality of medicinal plant materials required.
Evaluation of drug means confirmation of its identity and determination of its quality and purity and detection of nature of adulteration.Evaluation of herbal drug is an important tool in the formulation of high quality herbal products. Quality of herb is
depends upon on many factors like cultivation, collection, drying, storage, processing for market etc. Now a day’s
substitution and adulteration of herb is very common due to scarcity of drug and its high price prevailing in the
market. Owing to medicinal properties attributed to an herb, it is necessary to maintain its quality and purity in the
commercial market. A present overview covering various tool like morphological, microscopical, physical, chemical
and biological employed for evaluation of herbal drugs.
Cultivation of medicinal plants requires intensive care and management.
The conditions and duration of cultivation required vary depending on the quality of medicinal plant materials required.
Pharmacognosy is "the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs, drug substances or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources".
Cultivation,Collection, Processing and Storage of crude drugsJegan Nadar
Thus PPT covers Cultivation,Collection, Processing and Storage of crude drugs. This ppt includes different methods of propagation, pest and pest control management, growth regulators, polyploidy, hybridization, collection of crude drugs and storage of crude drugs.
Cloves are the aromatic flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae, Syzygium aromaticum. They are native to the Maluku Islands in Indonesia, and are commonly used as a spice. Cloves are commercially harvested primarily in Indonesia, India, Madagascar, Zanzibar, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Tanzania.
Crude drugs: A general view of their origin, distributions, cultivation, collection, drying and
storage, commerce and quality control.
a) Classification of drugs.
b) Preparation of drugs for commercial market
c) Evaluation of crude drugs.
d) Drug adulteration.
The Fabaceae or Leguminosae, commonly known as the legume, pea, or bean family, are a large and economically important family of flowering plants. It includes trees, shrubs, and perennial or annual herbaceous plants, which are easily recognized by their fruit and their compound, stipulate leaves.
In this ppt the viewer will able to know about Herbal Drug Preparation. An herb is a plant or plant part used for its scent, flavor, or therapeutic properties. Herbal medicines are one type of dietary supplement. They are sold as tablets, capsules, powders, teas, extracts, and fresh or dried plants. Dosage forms are the means by which drug molecules or plant parts are delivered to sites of action within the body. The routes for which herbal dosage forms may be administered include oral, rectal, topical, parenteral, respiratory, nasal, ophthalmic and otic. Categorization of finished herbal products into dosage forms will help to define specific protocols for quality control and stability testing. Herbal medicinal products may be defined as finished, labelled medicinal products that contain as active ingredients aerial or underground parts of plants, or other plant material, or combinations thereof, whether in the crude state or as plant preparations.
Portion explained:
1. Herbal Drug Preparation
2. Herbal Medicine
3. Dosage forms of Herbal Medicinal Products
4. Decoctions
5. Tinctures
6. Herbal Glycerites
7. Herbal alcoholic beverages (bitters/wines)
8. Oxymels
9. Herbal capsules
10. Herbal tablets
11. Herbal ointments
12. Herbal balms
13. Herbal creams
14. Herbal oils
15. Herbal soaps
16. Herbal pastes
17. Herbal teas
18. Herbal powders
19. Herbal suppositories
20. Herbal liniments
21. Herbal baths
22. Herbal lozenges
In this power point presentation Viewer will be able to know about the Plant Cell Constituents. How plants cells Composed with different organelles. What are the functions they have during the growth of particular plant. Plant cells are primary unit of the plant body and from here only we get medicinal value chemical constituents.
Portion Covered:
1. Plant Cells
2. Plant Cell Diagram
3. Plant cell Structure
4. Plant cell type
5. Plant cell Functions
Pharmacognosy is "the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs, drug substances or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources".
Cultivation,Collection, Processing and Storage of crude drugsJegan Nadar
Thus PPT covers Cultivation,Collection, Processing and Storage of crude drugs. This ppt includes different methods of propagation, pest and pest control management, growth regulators, polyploidy, hybridization, collection of crude drugs and storage of crude drugs.
Cloves are the aromatic flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae, Syzygium aromaticum. They are native to the Maluku Islands in Indonesia, and are commonly used as a spice. Cloves are commercially harvested primarily in Indonesia, India, Madagascar, Zanzibar, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Tanzania.
Crude drugs: A general view of their origin, distributions, cultivation, collection, drying and
storage, commerce and quality control.
a) Classification of drugs.
b) Preparation of drugs for commercial market
c) Evaluation of crude drugs.
d) Drug adulteration.
The Fabaceae or Leguminosae, commonly known as the legume, pea, or bean family, are a large and economically important family of flowering plants. It includes trees, shrubs, and perennial or annual herbaceous plants, which are easily recognized by their fruit and their compound, stipulate leaves.
In this ppt the viewer will able to know about Herbal Drug Preparation. An herb is a plant or plant part used for its scent, flavor, or therapeutic properties. Herbal medicines are one type of dietary supplement. They are sold as tablets, capsules, powders, teas, extracts, and fresh or dried plants. Dosage forms are the means by which drug molecules or plant parts are delivered to sites of action within the body. The routes for which herbal dosage forms may be administered include oral, rectal, topical, parenteral, respiratory, nasal, ophthalmic and otic. Categorization of finished herbal products into dosage forms will help to define specific protocols for quality control and stability testing. Herbal medicinal products may be defined as finished, labelled medicinal products that contain as active ingredients aerial or underground parts of plants, or other plant material, or combinations thereof, whether in the crude state or as plant preparations.
Portion explained:
1. Herbal Drug Preparation
2. Herbal Medicine
3. Dosage forms of Herbal Medicinal Products
4. Decoctions
5. Tinctures
6. Herbal Glycerites
7. Herbal alcoholic beverages (bitters/wines)
8. Oxymels
9. Herbal capsules
10. Herbal tablets
11. Herbal ointments
12. Herbal balms
13. Herbal creams
14. Herbal oils
15. Herbal soaps
16. Herbal pastes
17. Herbal teas
18. Herbal powders
19. Herbal suppositories
20. Herbal liniments
21. Herbal baths
22. Herbal lozenges
In this power point presentation Viewer will be able to know about the Plant Cell Constituents. How plants cells Composed with different organelles. What are the functions they have during the growth of particular plant. Plant cells are primary unit of the plant body and from here only we get medicinal value chemical constituents.
Portion Covered:
1. Plant Cells
2. Plant Cell Diagram
3. Plant cell Structure
4. Plant cell type
5. Plant cell Functions
Cellular Organizations | Class 8 | ScienceVijay Meena
Cellular Organizations
This presentation covers everything you want to know about Cellular Organizations, especially class 8 science book Cellular Organizations chapter.
Plant tissue system -Basis for plant anatomyPavan Rathod
i have explained about "plant tissue" in previous slideshare (hope you visited).in this presentation i have explained about "plant tissue system" ,it made easy to learn and classified to get better knowledge on concept.
it includes,epidermal tissue,trichomes ,stomata ,Development of stomata, Classification of stomata: based on development ,Classification of stomata: based on structure, shape and arrangements of subsidiary cell ,Agenous stomata, mesogenous stomata, Perigenous stomata ,Anomocytic stomata ,Anisocytic stomata,Diacytic stomata ,Paracytic stomata, Actinocytic stomata ,Gramineous stomata, root hairs, vasuclar tissue,xylem, Xylem vessel ,Tracheids, xylem Parenchyma,xylem fiber,phloem,Sieve tube, Companion cells ,phloem Parenchyma ,phloem Fibres,ground tissue, Cortex, Pericycle, Pericycle ,Pith..etc.
Biology Class 11 Chapter 8
FOR FURTHER DETAILS YOU CAN WATCH THE RELATED VIDEO AT THE GIVEN LINK
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCxo06Nj-QWo_7SNvMyDnJCQ?view_as=subscriber
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Parts of Plant, plant tissues, microscopy and morphology
1. 3. Introduction to parts of plants
A. Cell and its organelles
B. Cell inclusion
C. Plant tissues
D. Microscopy and morphology of plants
1. Leaves
2. Root
3. Stem
4. Flower
5. Fruits
6. Seed
7. Bark
8. Rhizome
2. A. Cell and its organelles
• Plant cells are the basic unit of life in organisms of the
Plant kingdom. They are eukaryotic cells, which have a
true nucleus along with specialized structures called
organelles that carry out different functions.
• Animals, fungi, and protists also have eukaryotic cells.
• Bacteria and archaea have simpler prokaryotic cells.
• Plant cells are differentiated from the other cells by
their cell walls, chloroplasts, and central vacuole.
3.
4. Cell organelles
The plant cell has many different parts. Each
part of the cell has a specialized function.
These structures are called organelles.
1. Cell wall 7. Golgi bodies
2. Vacuole 8. Ribosomes
3. Plastids 9. Endoplasmic Reticulum
4. Cytoplasm 10. Microtubules
5. Nucleus 11. Peroxisomes
6. Mitochondria
5. 1. Cell wall: Cell wall is the outermost layer of the plant cell that
protects the cell and gives shape to the cell. It is composed
of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin. It plays important role
in intercellular communication. Plants have two types of cell
walls, primary and secondary. Plasmodesmata are the pores
in the cell wall through which cell communicates.
2. Vacuole: Vacuole is a cell organelle that helps in storage and
maintaing turgor pressure of cell against cell wall. It occupies
more than 30% of volume in a plant cell which may increase
upto 90% in some cells. It is covered by a membrane called
tonoplast. It also helps in detoxification, protection, and
growth of cell. When a plant cell matures, it typically contains
one large liquid-filled vacuole.
6. 3. Plastids: Plant plastids are a group of membrane
bound organelles that functions in photosynthesis, storage of
starch, synthesis of cellular building block materials, etc .
Plastids in plants include chloroplasts, chromoplasts,
leucoplasts, amyloplast, elaioplast and
proteinoplast/aleuronoplast depending on the function they
play. The main types of plastids and their functions are:
• Chloroplasts are the organelle of photosynthesis. They capture
light energy from the sun and use it with water and carbon
dioxide to make food (sugar) for the plant.
• Chromoplasts are the organelle that provide color to the plant.
They make and store pigments that give petals and fruit their
orange and yellow colors.
• Leucoplasts are the organelles that are specialized for bulk
storage of starch, lipid, or protein. They do not contain pigments
and are located in roots and non-photosynthetic tissues of
plants.
7. 4. Cytoplasm is the gel-like matrix inside the cell
membrane which contains all other cell organelles.
It controls cell metabolism and cell signal.
5. Nucleus is the control center of the cell. It is a
membrane bound structure which contains the
hereditary material of the cell - the DNA.
6. Mitochondria carries out cellular respiration and
provides energy to the cells. They convert glucose to
energy molecules (ATP). They possess their own
hereditary material which help in self duplication
and multiplication.
8. 7. The Golgi bodies are known as the golgi apparatus or golgi
complex which are made of flattened sac-like organelle
(cisternae) located near the nucleus. The golgi body packages
proteins and carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for
"export" from the cell.
8. Ribosomes are smallest and the most abundant cell organelle.
It consists of RNA and protein. Ribosomes are sites for protein
synthesis. They are found in all cells because protein are
necessary for the survival of the cell. The ribososomes are known
as the protein factories of the cell.
9. Endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane bound compartment,
which look like flattened sacs lined side by side. It is a large
network of interconnecting membrane tunnels. It is composed of
both rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum. They are responsible for protein translation, and
protein transport to be used in the cell membrane.
9. 10. Microtubules: Microtubules are composed of polymers
of the globular protein ‘tubulin’ that maintains the
structure of the cell and chromosome movement
in mitosis and meiosis. Together with microfilaments
they form the cytoskeleton.
11. Peroxisomes: Peroxisomes are the organelles that
contain enzymes which produce hydrogen peroxide as a
by-product. These structures are involved processes such
as photorespiration.
10. B. Cell inclusions
• Cell Inclusions are non-living substances present in
the cells. They are also called ergastic substances or
ergastic bodies. They may be present in soluble or
insoluble state and can be organic or inorganic in
nature. These are present in components or sub
components of cell. They are raw materials or
products of metabolism.
• The cell inclusions belong to three categories:-
1. Reserve materials
2. Metabolic and secretory materials
3. Minerals
11. 1. Reserve food:
• Starch: Starch is the insoluble carbohydrate
containing amylose and amylopectin.
• Cellulose: Cellulose is a solid carbohydrate that occurs
in endoplasm of some seeds.
• Glycogen: Glycogen are the carbohydrate that are
stored as reserve foods.
• Fat droplets: Fat droplets are fatty acid and glycerol
present in cytoplasm as small globules. They posses
more caloric value than protein and sugars.
• Aleurone: Aleurone are insoluble storage proteins
present inside special leucoplasts called aleuroplasts.
They occur in the outer endosperm cells of cereals
such as wheat, rice & maize.
12. 2. Metabolites and secretory products:
• Essential oils: These are volatile oils produced by special glands and
cells. Aromatic flowers, leaves and bark are due to essential oils.
• Alkaloids: These are nitrogenous compounds, made up of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. They are found in storage organs
of plants such as seeds, bark and leaves. They are insoluble in
water but soluble in alcohol. They have sour taste and some are
poisonous. However, a large number of alkaloids, such as quinine,
reserpine, nicotine, caffeine, strychnine, morphine, atropine, are
used as medicines.
• Resins: These are produced by the oxidation of essential oils. These
are found in some special glands either alone or in combination
with essential oils. These are insoluble in water but soluble in ether
and alcohol. These are used in the manufacture of paints and
varnishes.
13. • Gums: Produced by the disintegration of cellulose cell wall.
They are soluble in water. Used for sticking purposes, and
also as medicine,
• Tannins: They are sour in taste and related to glycosides.
They occur in vacuolar sap, cell wall, bark and leaves of some
plants. They are found mostly in unripe fruits. They are used
on a large scale for hardening of leather, a process called
tanning of leather.
• Latex: It is a milky substance secreted by latex glands. Robber
secreted by the rubber tree Hevea brasiliensis is an important
example.
• Nectar: Nectar is secreted by nectaries in plants that attracts
insects for pollination because it is sweet and contains
sucrose, glucose and fructose.
14. 3. Minerals:
Minerals may occur in crystals as:
• Calcium oxalate
• Silicon salts
• Calcium carbonate
e.g: Leaves of Ficus species have cystoliths in
their epidermal cells.
16. Meristematic Tissues
• Tissues where cells are constantly dividing are called
meristems or meristematic tissues.
• They are the mass of young and undifferentiated cells having
the power to divide.
• These regions produce new cells. These new cells are
generally small, isodiametric structures with a number of tiny
vacuoles and a large nucleus, by comparison. As the cells
mature the vacuoles will grow to many different shapes and
sizes, depending on the needs of the cell.
• There are three types of meristems:
• Apical Meristems
• Lateral Meristems
• Intercalary Meristems
17. • Apical meristems are located at or near the tips of roots and shoots. As
new cells form in the meristems, the roots and shoots will increase in
length. This vertical growth is also known as primary growth. A good
example would be the growth of a tree in height. Each apical meristem
will produce embryo leaves and buds as well as three types of primary
meristems: protoderm, ground meristems, and procambium. These
primary meristems will produce the cells that will form the primary
tissues.
• Intercalary meristems are found in grasses and related plants that do not
have a vascular cambium or a cork cambium, as they do not increase in
girth. These plants do have apical meristems and in areas of leaf
attachment, called nodes, they have the third type of meristematic
tissue. This meristem will also actively produce new cells and is
responsibly for increases in length. The intercalary meristem is
responsible for the regrowth of cut grass.
• Lateral meristems account for secondary growth in plants. Secondary
growth is generally horizontal growth. A good example would be the
growth of a tree trunk in girth. There are two types of lateral meristems
in the plants; vascular cambium and the cork cambium.
18.
19. Permanent Tissue
Simple Permanent Tissue
• Parenchyma Tissue: Parenchyma cells form parenchyma tissue. Parenchyma cells are
the most abundant of cell types and are found in almost all major parts of higher
plants. These cells are basically sphere shaped when they are first made. However,
these cells have thin walls, which flatten at the points of contact when many cells are
packed together. These cells have large vacuoles and may contain various secretions
including starch, oils, tannins, and crystals. Parenchyma cells can divide if they are
mature, and this is vital in repairing damage to plant tissues. Parenchyma cells and
tissues comprise most of the edible portions of fruit.
• Some parenchyma cells have many chloroplasts and form the tissues found in leaves.
This type of tissue is called chlorenchyma. The chief function of this type of tissue is
photosynthesis, while parenchyma tissues without chloroplasts are generally used for
food or water storage.
• Additionally, some groups of cells are loosely packed together with connected air
spaces, such as in water lilies, this tissue is called aerenchyma tissue. These type of
cells can also develop irregular extensions of the inner wall which increases overall
surface area of the plasma membrane and facilitates transferring of dissolved
substances between adjacent cells.
• Functions: Synthesis, Storage, Conduction of water and food, photosynthesis
(chlorenchyma), buoyancy (aerenchyma)
20.
21. • Sclerenchyma Tissue: Sclerenchyma cells form sclerenchyma tissue. These cells have
thick, tough secondary walls that are imbedded with lignin. At maturity, most
sclerenchyma cells are dead and function in structure and support. Sclerenchyma cells
can occur in two forms:
• Sclereids are sclerenchyma cells that are randomly distributed throughout other
tissues. Sometimes they are grouped within other tissues in specific zones or regions.
They are generally as long as they are wide. An example, would be the gritty texture in
some types of pears. The grittiness is due to groups of sclereid cells. Sclereids are
sometimes called stone cells.
• Fibers are found in a wide variety of tissues in roots, stems, leaves and fruits. Usually
fiber cells are much longer than they are wide and have a very tiny cavity in the center
of the cell. Currently, fibers from over 40 different plant families are used in the
manufacture of textiles, ropes, string and canvas goods to name a few.
• Collenchyma Tissue: Collenchyma cells form collenchyma tissue. They are mechanical
tissue with cell wall thickened by cellulose and pectin. These cells have a living
protoplasm, like parenchyma cells, and may also stay alive for a long period of time.
Their main distinguishing difference from parenchyma cells is the increased thickness
of their walls.
• Collenchyma cells are found just beneath the epidermis and generally they are
elongated and their walls are pliable and strong. As a plant grows these cells and the
tissues they form, provide flexible support for organs such as leaves and flower parts.
Good examples of collenchyma plant cells are the ‘strings’ from celery that get stuck in
our teeth.
22. Complex Permanent Tissue
• Xylem: Xylem is permanent tissue that conducts water along with minerals
from root to leaf. They are composed of tracheids, vessels, xylem fibers
and xylem parenchyma.
• Tracheids are the elongated, spindle shaped, thick lignified walled cells
which are dead at maturity.
• Vessels are multicellular elongated tubes formed by chain of elongated
cells.
• Pits are the areas of primary wall of tracheids and vessels through which
diffusion of fluid takes place from cell to cell.
• Xylem fibres are the sclerenchyma fibres associated with xylem.
• Xylem parenchyma are the parenchymatous cell of xylem that are living
elements in xylem.
23. • Phloem: Phloem is permanent tissue that conducts dissolved food from
leaves to storage organs and to growing regions. It occurs along with
xylem. This conduction system is composed of sieve elements, companion
cells, phloem fibres and phloem parenchyma.
• Sieve elements are composed of sieve cells and sieve tubes. Sieve cells
are living, elongated and slender that help for conduction. Sieve tubes are
combined to form sieve plate that consists of numerous perforating.
• Sieve-tube members that are alive contain a polymer called callose.
Callose stays in solution as long at the cell contents are under pressure. As
a repair mechanism, if an insect injures a cell and the pressure drops, the
callose will precipitate. However, the callose and a phloem protein will be
moved through the nearest sieve plate where they will form a plug.
• This prevents further leakage of sieve tube contents and the injury is not
necessarily fatal to overall plant turgor pressure.
• Companion cells are living, have dense granular cytoplasm and a
prominent nucleus.
• Phloem fibres are the sclerenchyma associated with phloem that are
lignified and having small and rounded simple pits.
• Phloem Parenchyma are the parenchymatous cell of phloem present in
dicots.
24. D. Microscopy and morphology of a plant
1. Leaves
2. Flower
3. Fruit
4. Seed
5. Stem
6. Bark
7. Root
8. Rhizome
25. 1. Leaves
• Leaves are flat, thin, green appendages to the stem
that have important role in support and functions of
plant.
• Leaf includes leaf and leaflets.
• Medicinal leaves are collected during flowering season
of the plants, when plants reach maturity and they are
photosynthetically most active.
• Leaves containing volatile oils are collected when the
plant is rich in volatile oils.
• The weather and time of collection is important in
procurement of the leaves.
• Discolouration of leaves is considered as substandard.
26. Characterstics of leaf
1. Stomata: Stomata are minute epidermal openings in the
leaves of plant for gaseous exchange and transpiration.
Stomata consists of two kidney shaped cells and a minute
opening in between.
According to type and arrangement of cells the stomata are of 4
types:
a. Moss type
b. Gymnospermous type
c. Gramineous type
d. Dicotyledonous type
27. • Dicotyledonous stomata are further classified as:
• Paracytic or parallel celled stomata: It comprises of two guard
cells covered by two subsidiary cells, the long axes of which are
parallel to that of stoma.
• Diacytic or cross celled stomata: The guard cells are covered by
two subsidiary cells, the arrangement of subsidiary cells on guard
cells is at right angle to that of stoma.
• Anisocytic or unequal celled stomata: Two guard cells are
covered by three subsidiary cells of unequal size.
• Anomocytic or irregular celled stomata: Stomata is sorrounded
by varying number of subsidiary cells.
• Actinocytic or radiate celled stomata: Two guard cells are
sorrounded by a circle of radiating subsidiary cells.
28. Stomatal number: The average number of
stomata per square mm of the epidermis is
known as stomatal number.
Stomatal Index: The percentage proportion of
the number of stomata to the number of
epidermal cells of a leaf is known as stomatal
index.
Stomatal Index = S × 100
E+S
S= No. of stomata per unit area
E= No. of epidermal cells in the same area
29. 2. Leaf constants:
a. Vein-islet number is defined as the number of vein islets per
sq. mm of the leaf surface between midrib and the margin.
b. Vein termination number is defined as the number of veinlet
terminations per sq. mm of the leaf surface between midrib
and margin.
c. Palisade ratio is defined as the average number of palisade
cells beneath each epidermal cell.
3. Water pores: Water pores are present on the teeth of the
margin and are similar in structure and function with stomata.
30. 4. Trichomes: Trichomes are the tubular elongated or glandular
outgrowth of the epidermal cells. They are also called plant
hairs that have secretory functions. Trichomes are classified
as:
a. Glandular trichomes: Presence of glandular cells at top of
trichome. It may be unicellular or multicellular.
b. Covering or non-glandular trichomes: It may be unicellular or
multicellular.
c. Hydathodes: Trichomes for absorption or secretion of water
developed in certain plants.
31. 2.
Flowers
• The flower is the modified shoot meant for
the production of the seeds.
• A flower is built upon stem or pedicel with
the enlarged end known as thalamus or
receptacle.
• e.g: clove, saffron, etc
32. • A flower consists of four different circles (whorls) arranged in a
definite manner.
• Calyx: Outermost whorl of the flower usually green in color.
Individual calyx are called sepals.
• Corolla: Second whorl of the flower usually bright coloured.
Individual corolla are petals.
• Androcium: Male part of the flower which lies inside second
whorl. Individual component is called stamen which consists of
filament, anther and connective.
• Gynocium: Female part of the flower which lies in inner part of
the flower. Individual component is called carpel or pistil which
consists of stigma, style and ovary.
33. 3. Fruits
• The ovules of the flower convert into seeds after fertilization
and the ovary wall develops into protective covering of seeds
known as fruit.
• Fruits may or may not have seeds. If the ovules do not
fertilize, the seedless fruits are formed.
• Fruit layer or pericarp is composed of 3 layers:
a. Epicarp: Outermost coating of pericarp that may be thin, thick
or woody.
b. Mesocarp: Middle layer between epicarp and endocarp that
may be pulpy or made up of spongy parenchymatous tissue.
c. Endocarp: Innermost layer of the pericarp that may be thin,
thick or woody.
34. Depending upon the number of carpels present in the
flower, fruits are classified as:
a. Simple fruits: Simple fruits are formed from single carpel or
from syncarpous gynaecium. It may be dry or fleshy fruit.
e.g: dry fruits: pea, gram, rice, nut, etc
fleshy fruits: apple, mango, pear, orange, grape, etc
b. Aggregate fruits: Aggregate fruits are formed from many
carpels or apocarpous gynaecium.
e.g: rasp-berry, star-anise, etc
c. Compound fruits: Compound fruits are formed from many
flowers that come together and become fruits.
e.g: long pepper, pineapple, mulberry
• Pseudocarp or false fruits: Fruits that grows from parts
other than the ovary like thalamus, receptacle or calyx are
known as pseudocarp. E.g: strawberry, cashewnut, etc
35. 4. Seeds
• The seed is a fertilized ovule that represents a condensed form
of life.
• It is a characteristic of phanerogams which contains embryo,
endosperm and seed coat.
• Seeds are classified as:
• Endospermic or albuminous seeds: Seeds containing
endosperm and part of the endosperm remains until
germination. e.g: colchicum, linseed, nux-vomica, etc
• Non-endospermic or exalbuminous seeds: Endosperm is
absorbed during development and not present in seeds. e.g:
sunflower, cotton, etc
• Perispermic seeds: Seeds in which nucleus develops to form
storage tissue and seeds contain embryo, endosperm,
perisperm and seed coat. e.g: pepper, cardamom, nutmeg, etc
36. Characteristics of seeds
• Hilum: It is the point of attachment of seed to stalk.
• Micropyle: It is the minute opening of the tubular structure,
whereform water is provided for the germination of the
seeds.
• Raphe: It is the longitudional marking of adherent stalk of
anatropous ovule.
37. Special features of seed:
a. Aril: Aril is the succulent growth from hilum covering the entire
seed. e.g: nutmeg
b. Arillode: It is the outgrowth originating from micropyle and
covering the seed. e.g: cardamom
c. Arista: It is the stiff bristle like appendage with many flowering
glumes of grasses. e.g: strophanthus
d. Cranucle: It is the warthy outgrowth from micropyle. e.g: castor
e. Strophiole: It is an enlarged funicle. e.g: Datura fastuosa
f. Hairs: It is hairy outgrowth. e.g: Gossypium
38. 5. Stems
• Stem is the ascending axis of the plant developed from the
plumule.
• It consists of nodes, internodes and buds and it gives rises to
branches, leaves and flowers.
• The stem may be aerial, sub aerial and underground. Depending
upon the presence of mechanical tissues the stem may be weak
herbaceous or woody.
• Weak stems: These are thin, long and unable to stand erect.
a. Creepers or prostate stems
b. Climbers
c. Twinners
• Herbaceous or woody stems: These are soft, hard or woody
stems.
• e.g: sugarcane, sunflower, ephedra, etc.
39. 6. Barks
• Barks are the secondary external tissues lying
outside the cambium in stem or root of
dicotyledonous plants. e.g: Cinchona bark
• Botanically, bark is known as periderm.
• Periderm consists of three layers:
a.Cork (phellem)
b.Cork cambium (phellogen)
c. Secondary cortex (phelloderm)
40. • Shapes in barks : flat, curved, channeled, quill
• Fractures in bark: short fracture, splintery fracture, fibrous
fracture & laminated fracture
• Methods of collecting barks
a. Felling method: The tree is cut at base and bark is peeled out.
b. Uprooting method: Roots of plants are dug out of soil and
bark is stripped off from roots and branches.
c. Coppicing method: Plant is cut off at specific distance from
soil and the stumps are allowed to send shoots that develop
into aerial parts. These parts are cut and bark is collected
from shoots.
41. 7. Roots
• Roots are the underground parts of the plant
for anchorage and water/nutrient absorption.
• On the basis of origin roots may be primary,
secondary or adventitious types.
• e.g: radish, carrot, turnip, sweet potato, etc
42. 8. Rhizomes
• Rhizomes are the underground modification
of stem with nodes and internodes that are
thick & fleshy. They may also possess bud and
adventitious roots.
• Rhizomes may be branched and serve as
storage organ.
• e.g: ginger, turmeric, rhubarb, etc