Ozone layer
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The document discusses the formation and properties of the ozone layer. It is found 20-30km above the Earth in the stratosphere. Ozone is a triatomic molecule that absorbs 97.99% of medium-wavelength UV radiation between 200-310nm. It prevents most harmful UVC and partially absorbs UVB radiation from reaching the Earth's surface, while allowing safer UVA radiation to pass through. The existence of the ozone layer was first deduced after scientists noticed "missing" UV radiation below 310nm between the Sun's emissions and levels detected at Earth.
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Raman Spectroscopy
This document provides an overview of Raman spectroscopy. It begins by defining spectroscopy as the study of how atoms and molecules interact with light. It then describes Raman scattering, which was discovered by C.V. Raman in 1928 and involves a change in frequency of scattered light that depends on the chemical structure of molecules. The rest of the document discusses key aspects of Raman spectroscopy such as Stokes and anti-Stokes scattering, the relationship between Raman and infrared spectroscopy, and applications of Raman spectroscopy such as molecular identification and quantification.
Intro to Raman Scattering
Raman spectroscopy analyzes the frequency shift of light scattered by matter due to molecular vibrations. Sir C.V. Raman discovered Raman scattering in 1928. Raman scattering occurs when photons interact with polarizable molecules, causing inelastic scattering where the photon's energy changes by the amount of a molecular vibration. This produces Stokes and anti-Stokes shifts from the incident light frequency. Resonance Raman spectroscopy enhances the Raman signal by matching the incident light frequency to an electronic transition.
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X-rays have wavelengths on the order of angstroms, which is comparable to the spacing between atoms in crystalline solids. This makes x-rays useful for diffraction from crystal lattices. In 1912, Max Von Laue discovered that crystals could act as diffraction gratings for x-rays due to their regular atomic spacing. Bragg and Bragg later developed Bragg's law in 1914 to explain the diffraction of x-rays by crystal planes, showing that constructive interference occurs when the path difference of scattered rays equals an integer multiple of the wavelength.
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XRF & XRD analysis techniques are used to analyze materials. X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen. Over time, scientists developed an understanding of X-ray diffraction and how to use it for crystallography. By the mid-20th century, powder diffractometry techniques and databases had been established. X-rays are electromagnetic waves or photon beams with wavelengths between 0.01 to 10 nm, corresponding to energies from 0.125 to 125 keV. They can be hazardous due to their ionizing properties, requiring safety precautions as they are invisible, travel in straight lines at the speed of light, and can cause serious injury.
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This document discusses x-ray diffraction (XRD), including how x-rays are produced, x-ray spectroscopy, diffraction, Bragg's law, and various XRD methods. It then discusses an application of XRD - analyzing the crystalline morphology of clays, oxidized wax, LLDPE polymer, and their composites using XRD. Key results include observing how the organic modifier of different clays affects d-spacing values, and how the presence of oxidized wax leads to stronger intercalation of materials into clay layers.
xray diffraction instrumentation
This document describes the key components and functioning of instrumentation used in x-ray diffraction. The main components are a radiation source like an x-ray tube, a collimator to narrow the beam, a monochromator to remove unwanted radiation, detectors like photographic film or counters, and associated electronics. X-ray tubes generate x-rays via the impact of electrons on a metal target. Collimators and monochromators shape and refine the x-ray beam before it interacts with the sample. Detectors then measure the diffraction pattern, with options including film, Geiger-Muller tubes, proportional counters, scintillators, and semiconductors.
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This document provides an overview of Raman spectroscopy. It begins by defining spectroscopy as the study of how atoms and molecules interact with light. It then describes Raman scattering, which was discovered by C.V. Raman in 1928 and involves a change in frequency of scattered light that depends on the chemical structure of molecules. The rest of the document discusses key aspects of Raman spectroscopy such as Stokes and anti-Stokes scattering, the relationship between Raman and infrared spectroscopy, and applications of Raman spectroscopy such as molecular identification and quantification.
Intro to Raman Scattering
Raman spectroscopy analyzes the frequency shift of light scattered by matter due to molecular vibrations. Sir C.V. Raman discovered Raman scattering in 1928. Raman scattering occurs when photons interact with polarizable molecules, causing inelastic scattering where the photon's energy changes by the amount of a molecular vibration. This produces Stokes and anti-Stokes shifts from the incident light frequency. Resonance Raman spectroscopy enhances the Raman signal by matching the incident light frequency to an electronic transition.
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X-rays have wavelengths on the order of angstroms, which is comparable to the spacing between atoms in crystalline solids. This makes x-rays useful for diffraction from crystal lattices. In 1912, Max Von Laue discovered that crystals could act as diffraction gratings for x-rays due to their regular atomic spacing. Bragg and Bragg later developed Bragg's law in 1914 to explain the diffraction of x-rays by crystal planes, showing that constructive interference occurs when the path difference of scattered rays equals an integer multiple of the wavelength.
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XRF & XRD Analysis Principle
XRF & XRD analysis techniques are used to analyze materials. X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen. Over time, scientists developed an understanding of X-ray diffraction and how to use it for crystallography. By the mid-20th century, powder diffractometry techniques and databases had been established. X-rays are electromagnetic waves or photon beams with wavelengths between 0.01 to 10 nm, corresponding to energies from 0.125 to 125 keV. They can be hazardous due to their ionizing properties, requiring safety precautions as they are invisible, travel in straight lines at the speed of light, and can cause serious injury.
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This document discusses x-ray diffraction (XRD), including how x-rays are produced, x-ray spectroscopy, diffraction, Bragg's law, and various XRD methods. It then discusses an application of XRD - analyzing the crystalline morphology of clays, oxidized wax, LLDPE polymer, and their composites using XRD. Key results include observing how the organic modifier of different clays affects d-spacing values, and how the presence of oxidized wax leads to stronger intercalation of materials into clay layers.
xray diffraction instrumentation
This document describes the key components and functioning of instrumentation used in x-ray diffraction. The main components are a radiation source like an x-ray tube, a collimator to narrow the beam, a monochromator to remove unwanted radiation, detectors like photographic film or counters, and associated electronics. X-ray tubes generate x-rays via the impact of electrons on a metal target. Collimators and monochromators shape and refine the x-ray beam before it interacts with the sample. Detectors then measure the diffraction pattern, with options including film, Geiger-Muller tubes, proportional counters, scintillators, and semiconductors.
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Introduction
Definition
History
Principle
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Methods
Applications
Advantages
Limitation
Conclusion
References
X-ray diffraction (XRD) is one of the most important non-destructive tools to analyze all kinds of matter—ranging from fluids, to powders and crystals. From research to production and engineering, XRD is an indispensable method for materials characterization and quality control.
X-ray diffraction techniques are used for the identification of crystalline phases of various materials and the quantitative phase analysis subsequent to the identification.
X-ray diffraction techniques are superior in elucidating the three-dimensional atomic structure of crystalline solids.
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Raman spectroscopy
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The ozone layer protects life on Earth by absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. It was discovered in 1913 and is located in the lower stratosphere. Ozone depletion is caused by chemicals like CFCs and nitrous oxide released by human activities that break down ozone molecules. In the 1970s, scientists noticed the ozone layer over Antarctica thinning each spring. International agreements banned CFCs in 1979 but it will take decades for their amounts in the atmosphere to reduce as they rise slowly to the stratosphere. Individual actions like encouraging car air conditioner maintenance and sun protection can help address the problem along with policy changes.
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Resonance Raman spectroscopy is a technique that enhances Raman scattering intensity when the laser excitation frequency matches an electronic transition of the compound being examined. This resonance effect can greatly increase the intensity of Raman bands, facilitating the study of compounds present at low concentrations. The intensity is directly proportional to the energy difference between the laser and electronic transition. The theory of resonance Raman is complex as the normal polarizability theory fails under resonance conditions. It allows selective study of specific parts of molecules and is useful for problems in biology and complexes materials.
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This document contains 8 questions related to concepts in physics including:
1) Plank's quantum hypothesis and calculating frequency and wavelength from photon energy.
2) Calculating photon emission rate from a 100W lamp.
3) Calculating photon rate entering the eye at minimum intensity perception.
4) Experimental laws of blackbody radiation and proving Planck's formula satisfies them.
5) Calculating emissive power and wavelength of maximum emissive power for blackbodies at different temperatures.
6) Calculating temperature, emissive power, and total emissive power of the sun's surface using blackbody radiation.
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This document discusses X-ray diffraction and Bragg's law. It describes the instrumentation used in X-ray diffraction including production of X-rays, collimators, monochromators, and detectors such as photographic film, Geiger-Muller tubes, proportional counters, scintillation detectors, solid-state semiconductors, and semiconductor detectors. It also explains Bragg's law of diffraction which describes the diffraction of X-rays by crystals and relates the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation to the diffraction angle and lattice spacing in atomic planes of the crystals.
Raman spectroscopy for nanomaterials
1. Raman spectroscopy can be used to analyze nanomaterials but has low sensitivity for nanoparticles due to inefficient scattering. Surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) overcomes this by using rough metal surfaces or nanoparticles to greatly enhance the Raman signal.
2. There are two main enhancement mechanisms in SERS - electromagnetic enhancement from localized surface plasmons and chemical enhancement from charge transfer. Optimizing substrates, laser wavelength, and adsorbate molecules is important for strong SERS signals.
3. Tip enhanced Raman spectroscopy (TERS) uses a metal tip to confine light and further increase the electric field, allowing nanoscale spatial resolution beyond the diffraction limit.
Fluorimetry
This document discusses the principles and instrumentation of fluorescence and phosphorescence. It explains that fluorescence involves excitation of a molecule from its ground state to a higher energy excited state followed by emission of light as it relaxes to the ground state. Phosphorescence also involves excitation to an excited state but relaxation occurs more slowly through intersystem crossing to an excited triplet state. The key components of a fluorimeter are described including excitation sources, filters to select excitation and emission wavelengths, sample holders, photomultiplier tubes to detect emitted light, and monochromators to isolate wavelengths. Applications of fluorimetry in various fields are also mentioned.
Monochromators
Monochromators are used to isolate narrow bands of radiant energy from broader spectral sources. There are two main types: prism monochromators and diffraction grating monochromators. Prism monochromators use the refractive index of materials like quartz to disperse radiation into wavelengths, while diffraction grating monochromators use the constructive and destructive interference of light reflecting from periodic grooves to achieve dispersion. Grating monochromators generally have better dispersion properties but higher stray light, while prism monochromators have less stray light but are limited to longer wavelengths by material absorption.
Raman spectroscopy of carbon-nanotubes
This document presents information about Raman scattering in carbon nanotubes. It discusses the structure of graphene and different types of carbon nanotubes. It then explains the Raman scattering process and different types of Raman scattering like first order, second order, resonance Raman scattering, and surface enhanced Raman scattering. Specific examples of Raman spectra of multi-walled carbon nanotubes and single layer graphene are shown. Finally, the document references phonon dispersion in graphene and carbon nanotubes and provides links for further reading.
Spectroscopy principles and applications
This document provides an overview of spectrophotometry and related analytical techniques. It defines colorimetry and spectrophotometry, describing spectrophotometry as a colorimetric method that uses an instrument to determine analyte concentration based on light absorption. Components of a spectrophotometer are described, including the light source, monochromator, cuvettes, detector, and components. Various types of spectrophotometers are discussed, as well as applications such as enzyme kinetics, organic stereochemistry studies, and more. Related techniques like fluorimetry, phosphorimetry, and circular dichroism are also summarized.
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This document provides an overview of infrared spectroscopy. It begins with an introduction to the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum and the principle of IR spectroscopy, which is that IR radiation causes excitation of molecules between vibrational energy states. It then discusses molecular vibrations including stretching and bending vibrations. The document also covers instrumentation components like radiation sources, sample cells, and detectors. It concludes with applications of IR spectroscopy such as identification of substances, determination of molecular structure, and analysis of reaction progress.
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The Raman effect occurs when monochromatic light is passed through certain liquids and molecules, resulting in scattered light of different frequencies. Specifically, the light scattered from benzene showed spectral lines at wavelengths longer and shorter than the original mercury blue line, known as Stokes lines and anti-Stokes lines respectively. Raman conducted experiments illuminating benzene in a round-bottom flask with mercury light and analyzing the scattered light spectrum, demonstrating the Raman effect and different spectral lines that could be obtained.
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X ray diffraction by kk sahu
Introduction
Definition
History
Principle
Instrumentation
Methods
Applications
Advantages
Limitation
Conclusion
References
X-ray diffraction (XRD) is one of the most important non-destructive tools to analyze all kinds of matter—ranging from fluids, to powders and crystals. From research to production and engineering, XRD is an indispensable method for materials characterization and quality control.
X-ray diffraction techniques are used for the identification of crystalline phases of various materials and the quantitative phase analysis subsequent to the identification.
X-ray diffraction techniques are superior in elucidating the three-dimensional atomic structure of crystalline solids.
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This document discusses X-ray fluorescence (XRF), a technique used for elemental analysis. XRF works by bombarding a sample with X-rays, causing the emission of secondary X-rays characteristic of the sample's elemental composition. The document covers the basic principles of XRF, how XRF spectrometers work, applications such as materials analysis, and strengths/limitations. Detection methods include wavelength dispersive and energy dispersive systems. XRF provides a fast, non-destructive way to determine a sample's elemental makeup.
Infrared spectroscopy
This document provides an overview of infrared spectroscopy. It discusses the electromagnetic spectrum and how infrared spectroscopy uses infrared light to analyze chemical bonds in molecules based on their vibrational and rotational frequencies. Different sampling techniques are described for analyzing powders, liquids, and gases. Key points covered include the principles of infrared absorption, molecular vibrations, Hooke's law application to frequency determination, and methods for preparing samples like KBr pellets and diffuse reflectance.
Applications of raman spectroscopy
Raman spectroscopy and its applications are summarized. Key techniques discussed include resonance Raman spectroscopy, Raman microscopy, and surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy. Applications covered include medical use for tissue analysis, forensics for explosive or ink detection, inspection of packaged products, analysis of artworks, and testing of silicon wafers. The document outlines the principles, instrumentation, and mechanisms of various Raman techniques.
UV visible spectroscopy
UV/visible spectroscopy involves the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter. Absorption spectroscopy measures the absorption of UV or visible light, while emission spectroscopy measures light emitted from a sample. The wavelength and frequency of electromagnetic radiation are inversely related by the equation c=λν. Electronic transitions in molecules, such as σ→σ*, π→π*, n→σ*, and n→π* can be detected using UV/visible spectroscopy. Beer's law states that absorbance is directly proportional to concentration and path length. Chromophores are functional groups in molecules that absorb UV or visible light.
Raman Spectroscopy and Its Applications
Raman spectroscopy is a technique that uses laser light to identify the chemical structure of materials. It has various applications in areas like pharmaceuticals, materials science, gemology, and forensics. The document outlines the principle of Raman spectroscopy, describes Raman instrumentation, discusses its strengths and limitations, and provides examples of its applications. It also discusses challenges like weak signals and spatial resolution that new techniques like surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy and tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy are helping to address, broadening Raman spectroscopy's potential.
Raman spectroscopy
Raman spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique that uses laser light to study vibrational, rotational, and other low-frequency modes in a system. It relies on inelastic scattering, or Raman scattering, of monochromatic light, usually from a laser in the visible, near infrared, or near ultraviolet range. The laser light interacts with molecular vibrations, phonons or other excitations in the system, resulting in the energy of the laser photons being shifted up or down. The shift in energy gives information about the vibrational modes in the system. Raman spectroscopy is commonly used in chemistry to provide a fingerprint by which molecules can be identified. It has applications in fields such as physics, materials science, biology, medicine and
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The ozone layer is a layer in the Earth's atmosphere that contains high concentrations of ozone and absorbs ultraviolet light from the sun. It was discovered in 1913 and its properties were further explored in the 1920s-1930s. The ozone layer can be depleted by CFCs and other man-made chemicals which rise to the stratosphere where they break down ozone. Many countries banned CFCs in 1979 but it will take decades for the amounts already in the atmosphere to reduce, so damage to the ozone layer
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The ozone layer protects life on Earth by absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. It was discovered in 1913 and is located in the lower stratosphere. Ozone depletion is caused by chemicals like CFCs and nitrous oxide released by human activities that break down ozone molecules. In the 1970s, scientists noticed the ozone layer over Antarctica thinning each spring. International agreements banned CFCs in 1979 but it will take decades for their amounts in the atmosphere to reduce as they rise slowly to the stratosphere. Individual actions like encouraging car air conditioner maintenance and sun protection can help address the problem along with policy changes.
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The ozone layer is a layer in the lower stratosphere that absorbs 97-99% of the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation. It was discovered in 1913 and its properties were further explored in the 1920s-1950s, leading to the establishment of a worldwide ozone monitoring network. The ozone layer is important because it protects life on Earth from UV radiation, but it can be depleted by certain man-made chemicals like CFCs that are released into the atmosphere.
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4. Blogger: https://chemistry-academy.blogspot.com/
• Introduction
Ozone
Ozone layer
• Ozone–oxygen cycle
Chapman cycle
• Ozone Depletion
• Ozone Hole
• Effect Of Ozone Depletion
• Solution
• World Ozone Day
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- Ozone is created through interactions between oxygen molecules and UV light in the stratosphere. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) released chemicals like chlorine that deplete the ozone layer by catalyzing the breakdown of ozone molecules.
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Ozone Layer.pptx
Ozone (O3) is a molecule made up of three atoms of oxygen (O), and very reactive gas.
Bluish gas that harmful to breathe.
Is mostly found in the stratosphere, where it protects us from the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
Although it represents only a tiny fraction of the atmosphere, ozone is essential for life on Earth.
Ozone in the stratosphere— a layer of the atmosphere between 15 and 50 kilometers (10 and 31 miles) above us—acts as a shield to protect Earth’s surface from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation.
The ozone layer mohd
The ozone layer is a layer in the stratosphere that contains high concentrations of ozone gas, which absorbs 97-99% of the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation. It was discovered in 1984 by British scientists who found a recurring springtime ozone hole over Antarctica. The ozone layer is composed of ozone gas, which is formed when ultraviolet radiation from the sun breaks oxygen molecules into atoms, allowing them to recombine into ozone molecules. Ultraviolet radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation that is present in sunlight and has wavelengths shorter than visible light but longer than x-rays.
14.ozone.09.final copy
The document summarizes information about the ozone layer, including its formation, depletion, and importance. It discusses how ozone forms naturally in the stratosphere through the Chapman mechanism to absorb harmful UV radiation. It then explains how human emissions of chlorofluorocarbons have damaged the ozone layer by releasing chlorine that destroys ozone. Specifically, CFCs released into the atmosphere from products like aerosols and refrigerants break down ozone. This has led to thinning of the ozone layer, most notably over Antarctica where an "ozone hole" forms each year during spring. Without the protective ozone layer, life on Earth would be threatened by increased UV exposure.
A_seminar_on_the_depletion_of_the_Ozone.pptx
This seminar presentation summarizes Ozone layer depletion. It introduces ozone and the ozone layer, how ozone depleting substances like CFCs react with ozone leading to its destruction. The consequences of ozone layer depletion include increased skin cancer and other health issues. International agreements like the Montreal Protocol were enacted to regulate ozone depleting substances and protect the ozone layer.
Ozone depletion
Ozone in the stratosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) released from industrial applications are the primary cause of ozone depletion as they release chlorine atoms that break down ozone molecules. In 1985, scientists discovered an ozone hole over Antarctica, showing a severe depletion. The 1987 Montreal Protocol aimed to phase out ozone-depleting substances to allow the ozone layer to recover over time, though full recovery is not expected until around 2068. Increased UV radiation can damage DNA and immune systems in humans and phytoplankton productivity.
bio ozone
The document summarizes information about the ozone layer. It discusses that the ozone layer is located in the lower stratosphere and absorbs 97-99% of the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. It also describes how ozone is created and maintained through an oxygen cycle but can be depleted by chlorine and bromine compounds from CFCs. The depletion of ozone has consequences like increased skin cancer risk for humans and impacts on agriculture and plankton.
Ozone
Ozone (O3) is a bluish gas composed of three oxygen atoms that forms a protective layer in the stratosphere. It is produced through chemical reactions involving oxygen and ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Nearly 90% of Earth's ozone is found in the ozone layer between 15-30 km above the surface. The ozone layer protects life on Earth by absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Depletion of the ozone layer is caused primarily by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) released into the atmosphere from industry. CFCs rise into the stratosphere where UV light breaks them down, releasing chlorine atoms that catalyze the destruction of ozone molecules. Ozone depletion increases risks
Ozone.pptx psg
Ozone is a naturally occurring gas composed of three oxygen atoms that exists in two forms: good ozone in the stratosphere protects life from UV rays, while bad ground-level ozone is a air pollutant. The ozone layer is being depleted by CFCs from industry which release chlorine that destroys ozone. This increases harmful UV rays and affects ecosystems, climate, and humans through higher skin cancer risk. Large seasonal ozone depletions over the poles are called ozone holes. The only solution is to eliminate CFCs and other ozone-depleting chemicals by following the Montreal Protocol.
ozone depletion
Ozone layer depletion is one of the major environmental issues which is getting thinner day by day as a result of increasing pollution.
Chem
The ozone layer protects the Earth from harmful UV rays, but it has been depleted due to man-made chemicals like CFCs. CFCs remain stable in the atmosphere until reaching the stratosphere, where high-energy photons break them down and release chlorine radicals. These radicals catalytically destroy ozone through reactions that convert it into oxygen. One chlorine radical can destroy thousands of ozone molecules through this cyclic process. The natural Chapman cycle continually creates and destroys ozone, but human activities have increased ozone depletion beyond natural levels.
Ozone depletion by Dr Madhan S Bharadwaj.ppt
Ozone is the one and only layer to protect our earth from harmful UV radiation. There are a lot of initiatives taken by many countries to save the ozone layer. Ozone depletion is nowadays one of the hot topics in conferences and seminars. In this presentation, I have briefed on the cause and side effects of ozone depletion. The students from school to master's may take advantage of this presentation
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- 1. FORMATION OF OZONE LAYER BOT406 (Environmental Biology) MSc IV(Section A)
- 3. Allotrope of Oxygen Pale blue gas Pungent smell 20km- 30km above earth Also known ozone shield Triatomic oxygen molecule
- 4. LAYERS OF EARTHATMOSPHERE Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere
- 6. TYPES OF UV RADIATIONS UVA ( 315 - 480nm ) UVB ( 280 - 315nm ) UVC ( 100 - 280nm) Ozone layer absorb 97.99% of medium frequency UV- radiations (200- 310nm)
- 7. UVC are harmful radiations will not allowed to pass through UVB has advantages as well as disadvantages, so it is partially absorbed by ozone UVA are least harmful and freely passed through ozone layer
- 8. HISTORY OF OZONE Charles and Henri Sun emitting radiations or receiving radiations at both ends spectrum of UV radiations will be same At receiving end there is no radiation below 310nm
- 9. Conti…. There is something between sun and earth which is essentially absorbing UV radiations below 310nm The missing radiation was pointing one chemical that is ozone Dobson studied ozone further using Dobson- meter
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