The document provides a comprehensive overview of operational amplifiers (op-amps), detailing their history, characteristics, applications, advantages, and disadvantages. It traces the development of op-amps from their inception in 1941 to their current advanced forms and discusses ideal versus real op-amp parameters, highlighting their universal application in analog tasks. Additionally, it outlines specific uses such as A/D converters and zero crossing detectors, along with the challenges faced by conventional op-amps.

1. OP-AMP

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3. PRESENTATION OUTLINE
• Introduction ( History + What is an Op-Amp?)
• Characteristics of Ideal and Real Op-Amps
• Applications
• Advantages/disadvantages

4. • An Operational Amplifier (known as an “Op-Amp”) is an integrated circuit that sets
an output voltage based on the input voltages provided.
• The term “operational amplifier” denotes a special type of amplifier that, by
proper selection of its external components, could be configured for a variety of
operations.
• In a circuit, it is used to perform an operation and an amplification where the
operation may be add, subtract, filter, integrate, differentiate, etc.
• Op-Amps are composed of transistors, resistors, capacitors, and diodes.

5. BRIEF HISTORY
• 1941: Karl Swartzel of Bell Labs developed the first Op-Amp.
• Used 3 vacuum tubes, only one input (inverting), and operated on + 350 V to achieve 90 dB
gain.
• 1947: Loebe Julie developed the Op-Amp as it is known today, with two inputs – inverting and non-
inverting.
• The differential input made a whole range of new functionality possible.
• 1953: First commercially available Op-Amp.
• George A. Philbrick Researches (GAP-R). GAP-R pioneered the first reasonable-cost, mass-
produced operational amplifier
• 1961: Advent of solid-state, discrete Op-Amps.
• Made possible by the invention of the silicon transistor, which led to the concept of Integrated
Circuits (IC)
• Reduced power input to ±15V to ±10V
• 1962: Op-Amp in a potted module.
• Packaging in small black boxes allowed for integration with a circuit

6. BRIEF HISTORY
• 1963: First monolithic IC Op-Amp, the μA702, designed by Bob Widlar at
Fairchild Semiconductor.
• Monolithic ICs consist of a single chip
• 1968: Release of the μA741
• The μA741 became the canonical Op-Amp, from which many modern op-amps base
their pinout from, and is still in production today.
Note : The latest generation op amps cover the frequency spectrum from 5-
kHz GBW to beyond 1-GHz GBW. The supply voltage ranges from guaranteed
operation at 0.9 V to absolute maximum voltage ratings of 1000 V. The input
current and input offset voltage has fallen so low that customers have
problems verifying the specifications during incoming inspection. The op
amp has truly become the universal analog IC because it performs all analog
tasks.
Parameter Range
Frequency
Spectrum
5-kHz to beyond 1-GHz
GBW
Supply Voltage 0.9 V to a maximum 1000 V
Input Offsets Approximately Zero

7. Fig.. Ckt symbol for general purpose op-
amp
Figure shows the symbol of op-amp &
the power supply connections to make it
work. The input terminal identified by the
‘-’ and “+” symbols are designated inverting
& non- inverting. Their voltage w.r.t
ground are denoted as VN & VP and
output voltage as VO. Op- amp do not
have a zero volt ground terminal Ground
reference is established externally by the
power supply common.

8. Op-amp pin diagram
There are 8 pins in a common Op-Amp, like the 741 which is used in
many instructional courses.
Pin 1: Offset null
Pin 2: Inverting input terminal Pin
3: Non-inverting input
terminal
Pin 4: –VCC (negative voltage
supply)
Pin 5: Offset null
Pin 6: Output voltage
Pin 7: +VCC (positive voltage supply)
Pin 8: No Connection Figure : Pin connection,
LM741.

9. V
d
V
N
V
p
V
0
a = gain of amplifiers.
Vd= difference between the voltage.
V0= gain of voltage.
The equation :
V0 = a (VP -VN)
Electrical parameter :
1.Input bias current(Ib): average of current that flows into the
inverting and non-inverting input terminal of op-amp.
2.I/p and o/p impedance: It is the resistance offered by the inputs and the
output terminals to varying voltages. The quantity is expressed in Ohms.
3. Open Loop Gain: It is the overall voltage gain or the amplification.
4. Input offset voltage : It is a voltage that must be applied between the two
terminal of an
op-amp to null the o/p.
5.Input offset current (Ii): The algebraic different between the current in to the
inverting and Non-inverting terminal.
IMPORTANT TERMS AND EQUATION

10. PRESENTATION OUTLINE
• Introduction (Op-Amp + History)
• Characteristics of Ideal and Real Op-Amps
• Applications
• Advantages/disadvantages

11. BASIC OP-AMP (OPEN-LOOP)
• 𝑉𝑆+ : positive power supply
• 𝑉𝑆− : negative power supply
• 𝑉+: non-inverting input terminal
• 𝑉
−: inverting input terminal
• 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 : output terminal
• 𝑉+, 𝑉
− , 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 are all referenced to ground

12. IDEAL OP-AMP
Parameter Name Symbol Value
Input impedance 𝑅𝑖𝑛 ∞
Output impedance 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 0
Open-loop gain 𝐺 ∞
Bandwidth 𝐵 ∞
• Temperature-independent.
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐺 𝑉+ − 𝑉
− = 𝐺 ∙ 𝑉𝑖𝑛
• The maximum output voltage value is the supply voltage
(saturation):
• 𝑉𝑆− ≤ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ≤ 𝑉𝑆+
• What this means:
• Current flow into the op-amp from either input terminal
is zero.
• 𝐼− = 𝐼+ = 0
• Differential voltage between the two input terminals is
zero.
• 𝑉+ − 𝑉
− = 0

13. REAL OP-AMP
• Operating temperature range:
• Commercial: 0℃~70℃
• Industrial: −25℃~85℃
• Military: −55℃~125℃
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐺 𝑉+ − 𝑉
− = 𝐺 ∙ 𝑉𝑖𝑛
Parameter Name Symbol Value
Input impedance 𝑅𝑖𝑛 106
Ω
Output impedance 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 102Ω
Open-loop gain 𝐺 104
~107
Bandwidth 𝐵 103
~109
Hz

14. CHARACTERISTICS OF IDEAL OP-AMP
• Infinite input impedance(about 2Mohm)
• Low output impedance(about 200 ohm)
• Very large voltage gain at low frequency
• Thus, small changes in voltages can be amplified byusing an op-amp
• Infinite bandwidth(all frequencies are amplified by same factor
• Infinite Common-mode rejection ratio
• Infinite Power supply rejection ratio.
• Finite open-loop gain that causes gain error
• Finite input impedance
• Non zero output impedance
• Finite CMRR
• Common-mode input resistance
• Finite bandwidth
• Finite power supply rejection ratio.

15. PRESENTATION OUTLINE
• Introduction (Op-Amp + History)
• Characteristics of Ideal and Real Op-Amps
• Applications
• Advantages/disadvantages

16. APPLICATIONS
 A to D Converters
 Power source
 Zero Crossing Detector (ZCD)

17. 1. A TO D CONVERTERS
Figure 1 – Digital processing system with an ADC
at the input and a DAC at the output

18. 2.OP-AMP AS A CURRENT SOURCE
A current source can be made from an inverting amplifier as shown in figure. The
current in the load resistor, R0 must be equal to the current in R1.The current is
then obtained by dividing the input voltage by R1.

19. 3. Zero crossing detector applications
ZCD circuit can be used to check whether the op-amp is in good
condition. Zero crossing detectors can be used as frequency counters
and for switching purposes in power electronics circuits. ZCD is a
basic op amp circuit.

20. ADVANTAGES OF AN OP-
AM:-
• OPAM IS AN UNIVERSAL AMPLIFIER.
• VOLTAGE COMPARATORS.
• PRECISION RECTIFIERS.
• ANOLOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERTERS.
• DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE CONVERTERS.
• FILTERS
• DIFFRENTIATORS AND INTEGRATORS.
• VOLTAGE AND CURRENT REGULATOR.
• ANALOGUE TO COMPUTERS.

21. DISADVANTAGES OF AN OPAM:-
• 1. MOST OPAM ARE DESIGNED TO FOR
LOWER POWER OPERATION.
• 2.FOR HIGH OUTPUT IS DESIRED THEN THE
OPAM SPECIFICALLY DESIGNED FOR THAT
PURPOSE MUST BE SEEN.
• 3.MOST COMMERCIAL OPAM SHUTS OFF WHEN
THE LOAD RESISTANCE IS BELOW A SPECIFIC
LEVEL.