The document discusses a project report on nuclear energy created by a team of 5 engineering students. It includes an introduction to the team members and contents which cover topics like what is nuclear energy, nuclear reactors and power plants, safety standards, types of nuclear fuel and disaster management, and the nuclear fuel cycle and waste management. It then provides summaries on each of these topics written by different team members. Key points covered include how nuclear fission works to generate energy, the components and workings of pressurized water reactors and boiling water reactors, nuclear safety protocols in India, examples of past nuclear accidents, and the nuclear fuel cycle from mining to waste disposal and storage.

2. Team Members:
-Department Of ENTC Engineering
Block-1
1)Abhishek Sainkar SETB104
2)Akash Nimbalkar SETB106
3)Omkar Rane SETB118
4)Chaitanya Deshpande SETB119
5)Kaustubh Wankhede SETB131

3. Contents
1)What is Nuclear Energy?
2)Nuclear Reactor and Power Plant.
3)Safety Standards In Nuclear Energy and How India is safe in Nuclear Energy.
4)Types Of Nuclear Fuel and Disaster Management
5)Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Nuclear fuel waste Management.

4. -Akash Nimbalkar
SETB106

5.  Nuclear energy is the energy released by a chain reaction, specifically by the process of nuclear fission or fusion in the reactor. The
source of fuel used to generate nuclear energy is mined and processed uranium (enriched uranium), which is utilized to generate
steam and produce electricity
 The main difference lies in how the heat is created. Power plants powered by fossil fuels burn oil, coal or natural gas to produce heat.
In a nuclear power plant, heat generation stems from splitting of atoms, a process known as nuclear fission. The process of splitting a
nucleus into two is called nuclear fission. Millions of uranium nuclei occur inside every uranium fuel pellet. When splitting of these
nuclei takes place, a vast quantity of energy is released. A small percentage of this energy emanates from radiation, but the biggest
percentage comes from kinetic energy. This kind of energy is the one utilized to generate heat inside the reactor.
Nuclear Power Grid In India.

6.  a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei come close enough to form one or more
different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles (neutrons or protons).
 produces a nucleus lighter than iron or nickel will generally yield a net energy release.
 These elements have the smallest mass per nucleon and the largest binding energy
per nucleon.
 Fusion of light elements toward these releases energy.

7.  A nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts (lighter nuclei).
 Produces free neutrons and gamma photons, and releases a very large amount of energy.
 Nuclear power plants obtain the heat needed to produce steam through fission reaction.
 The reaction entails the splitting of atoms of uranium in a nuclear reactor.

8. Advantages:
 Clean Energy
 High Quantities
 High Reserves
 Reliability
 Low Operation Cost
 Concentration
 Low Waste
 Cheap
 Location
Disadvantages:
 radiation accidents.
 Radioactive waste.
 Requires high initial capital
costs.
 Eutrophication leading to
death of aquatic life.
 Impact on humans health.
 It’s not a renewable energy
source
 National Risk due to
terrorism.
 Fuel Availability.

9. -Omkar Rane
SETB118

11. Fuel rod/pellets: Uranium is the basic fuel. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) are arranged
in tubes to form fuel rods. The rods are arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactor core.* In a
1000 MWe class PWR there might be 51,000 fuel rods with over 18 million pellets.
Moderator: a substance that slows the neutrons and helps control the fission process. Most
reactors use ordinary water, but reactors in other countries sometimes use graphite, or heavy
water, in which the hydrogen has been replaced with deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen with
one proton and one neutron.
containment :a reactor is encased in a containment, a big, heavy structure, typically several feet
thick and made of steel and concrete, that keeps radioactive gases and liquids inside, where
they can't hurt anyone.
coolant: Another important part of the system is a coolant -- again, usually ordinary water--
which absorbs and transmits heat from the reactor to create steam for turning the turbines and
cools the reactor core so that it doesn't reach the temperature at which uranium melts (about
6,900 degrees Fahrenheit, or 3,815 degrees Celsius).
Control rods: These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium, hafnium or
boron, and are inserted or withdrawn from the core to control the rate of reaction, or to halt it.
In some PWR reactors, special control rods are used to enable the core to sustain a low level of
power efficiently. (Secondary control systems involve other neutron absorbers, usually boron in
the coolant – its concentration can be adjusted over time as the fuel burns up.) PWR control
rods are inserted from the top, BWR cruciform blades from the bottom of the core.

13. • Pressurized water reactors heat the water surrounding the nuclear fuel, but keep
the water under pressure to prevent it from boiling .the hot water is then pumped
from the reactor vessel to a steam generator, where the heat from the water is used
to boil a second, separate supply of water and make steam. The steam spins turbine
which drives generators to produce electricity. Unused steam is passed through
condenser to get back water again for heating.
• A PWR has fuel assemblies of 200-300 rods each, arranged vertically in the core, and
a large reactor would have about 150-250 fuel assemblies with 80-100 tones of
uranium.
• Water in the reactor core reaches about 325°C, hence it must be kept under about
150 times atmospheric pressure to prevent it boiling. Pressure is maintained by
steam in a pressurizer .
• The secondary circuit is under less pressure and the water here boils in the heat
exchangers which are thus steam generators. The steam drives the turbine to
produce electricity, and is then condensed and returned to the heat exchangers in
contact with the primary circuit.

14. • The boiling reactors actually boil the water surrounding the nuclear fuel, heating it
directly into steam inside the reactor vessel. Pipes carry the steam directly to turbine
,which drives generator and produces electricity. Water is recycled back into condenser
for heat process.
• his design has many similarities to the PWR, except that there is only a single circuit in
which the water is at lower pressure (about 75 times atmospheric pressure) so that it
boils in the core at about 285°C. The reactor is designed to operate with 12-15% of the
water in the top part of the core as steam, and hence with less moderating effect and
thus efficiency there. BWR units can operate in load-following mode more readily then
PWRs.
• The steam passes through drier plates (steam separators) above the core and then
directly to the turbines, which are thus part of the reactor circuit. Since the water
around the core of a reactor is always contaminated with traces of radionuclides, it
means that the turbine must be shielded and radiological protection provided during
maintenance.

15. Pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR)
• The PHWR reactor design has been developed since the 1950s in Canada as
the CANDU, and from 1980s also in India. PHWRs generally use natural
uranium (0.7% U-235) oxide as fuel, hence needs a more efficient
moderator, in this case heavy water (D2O).** The PHWR produces more
energy per kilogram of mined uranium than other designs, but also
produces a much larger amount of used fuel per unit output.
• The moderator is in a large tank called a calandria, penetrated by several
hundred horizontal pressure tubes which form channels for the fuel, cooled
by a flow of heavy water under high pressure in the primary cooling circuit,
reaching 290°C.
• As in the PWR, the primary coolant generates steam in a secondary circuit
to drive the turbines. The pressure tube design means that the reactor can
be refueled progressively without shutting down, by isolating individual
pressure tubes from the cooling circuit. It is also less costly to build than
designs with a large pressure vessel, but the tubes have not proved as
durable.
• A CANDU fuel assembly consists of a bundle of 37 half meter long fuel rods
(ceramic fuel pellets in zircaloy tubes) plus a support structure, with 12
bundles lying end to end in a fuel channel. Control rods penetrate the
calandria vertically, and a secondary shutdown system involves adding
gadolinium to the moderator. The heavy water moderator circulating
through the body of the calandria vessel also yields some heat.
• CANDU reactors can accept a variety of fuels. They may be run on recycled
uranium from reprocessing LWR used fuel, or a blend of this and depleted
uranium left over from enrichment plants. About 4000 MWe of PWR might
then fuel 1000 MWe of CANDU capacity, with addition of depleted
uranium. Thorium may also be used in fuel.

16. Structure Of Nuclear Power Plant. Working Of Nuclear Power Plants.

18. Geiger Count Radiation Measuring Instrument

19. -Abhishek Sainkar
SETB104

20. • Nuclear power plants are designed to prevent abnormal incidents
from occurring. Even if abnormal incidents occur, nuclear plants are
also designed to prevent the potential spreading of abnormal
incidents and leakage of radioactive materials around plants, which
may cause adverse impacts on the surrounding environment.
• Japanese power plants utilize redundant safety measures to keep
residential communities around them safe at all times. Measures to
be put into action in order to ensure safety during unusual events
can be summarized in the following three points
• 1. To shut down operating reactors
• 2. To cool down reactors so as to remove heat from nuclear fuel
• 3. To contain radioactive materials

21. Accidents: Three mile island, Chernobyl, Fukushima Daichi.
• Radioactive material in the air or water constitutes a potential health hazard, special precautions should be taken.
• Nuclear energy can turn into a devastating enemy if handled without care and precautions.
• The engineered safety features are designed to prevent or minimize the escape of radioactive fission products present in the fuel.
1. First level: It addresses the prevention of accidents by virtue of design, construction and surveillance of the
plant.
2. Second level: It provides safety systems to protect operators and general public and to minimize or prevent
damage.
3. Third level: It supplements the first two by adding margin of safety in the event of extremely unlikely or
unforeseen events.

24. 1. Building
2. Core
3. Control Rods
4. Monitoring
 Effective dose (whole body)
• 1.1 20 Milli- Sievert (mSv)/year averaged over five consecutive years (The cumulative effective dose in the same 5-year period shall not
exceed 100 mSv.)
• 1.2 A maximum of 30 mSv in any year.
 Equivalent dose (individual organs)
• 2.1 Eye lens 150 mSv/year.
• 2.2 Skin 500 mSv/year.
• 2.3 Extremities 500 mSv/year (hands and feet).
 Apprentices and students (above the age of 16 years)
• Effective dose (whole body): 6 mSv/year.
• Equivalent dose (individual organs)
• Eye lens 15 mSv/year.
•Skin 50 mSv/year.
•Extremities 50 mSv/year (hands and feet)
6. Proper Emergency Response Plans: Nobody wants an accident to happen but things do go out of control sometimes either due to human
error, nature’s fury or machinery failure. The best thing is to be prepared for such a situation and have properly trained personnel as well as the
requisite equipment in order to deal effectively with such situations. PREPAREDNESS!!

25. Nuclear Policy of India:
Some of the major components of NP of India since 2003 are as follows.
a) No first use to Nuclear weapons.
b) If any country uses Nuclear arsenal towards India , India will revert back
disproportionately or with punitive retaliation
c) No use of nuclear weapons to non nuclear state
d) Credible minimum deterrence
e) India might come up with the option of retaliating with nuclear weapons if any
major attack against India would be conducted by biological or chemical
weaponry.
f) The retaliation of the attacks can only be conducted by the political leadership
through the Nuclear Command Authority.
g)Following National and International standards in managing nuclear material
and waste disposal with safety.

26. The three stages are as follows
1. Pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR)
2. Fast breeder reactor (FBR)
3. Advanced Heavy Water Reactor(AHWR)

28. -Chaitanya Deshpande
SETB119

29. Uranium in ceramic pellet form for fuel bundles filling Uranium actual in elemental form

30.  Uranium-233
 Uranium-235
 Plutonium-238
 Plutonium-239
 Plutonium-241
 Neptunium-237
 Curium-244
Plutonium

31.  Chernobyl disaster
 Fukushima accident
 Three mile island accident
 Atomic bombing at Hiroshima and Nagasaki
 Philippine sea accident

32. • Stabilize the electric power supply
• Store fuel in dry casks
• Install filtered vent system
• Change wires in every 2 years
• Be safe while using radioactive materials

33. -Kaustubh Wankhede
SETB131

34. • A nuclear fuel cycle is the path that we put heavy atoms through in order
to extract energy from them, starting at the day we find them and ending
when their wastes have decayed to stability and are no longer
dangerous.
• The front end of the nuclear fuel cycle which includes :
• mining,
• milling,
• conversion,
• enrichment.
• Uranium recovery to extractt uranium ore, and concentrate the ore to
produce a uranium ore concentrate, sometimes called U3O8 or
"yellowcake"
• Conversion of uranium ore concentrate into uranium hexafluoride (UF6)
• Enrichment to increase the concentration of uranium-235 (U235) in UF6
• Deconversion to reduce the hazards associated with the depleted
uranium hexafluoride (DUF6), or "tailings," produced in earlier stages of
the fuel cycle
• Fuel fabrication to convert natural and enriched UF6 into UO2 or uranium
metal alloys for use as fuel for nuclear reactors. This step also
includes mixed oxide fuel fabrication.
• Use of the fuel in reactors (nuclear power, research, or naval propulsion)
• Interim storage of spent nuclear fuel
• Reprocessing (or recycling) of high-level waste.
• Final disposition (disposal)of used fuel or high-level waste

36. • Nuclear waste is the material that nuclear fuel becomes after it is used in a reactor.
• From the outside, it looks exactly like the fuel that was loaded into the reactor — assemblies of metal rods enclosing fuel pellets.
But since nuclear reactions have occurred, the contents aren’t quite the same.
• Nuclear energy is released when a nuclear fuel atom snaps into two.
• The key component of nuclear waste is the leftover smaller atoms, known as fission products.
• The waste, sometimes called used fuel, is dangerouslyy radioactive, and remains so for thousands of years.
• When it first comes out of the reactor, it is so toxic that if you stood close to it while it was unshielded, you would receive a lethal radioactive dose within a
few seconds and would die of acute radiation sickness within a few days. Hence all the worry about it.

37. • A typical nuclear power plant in a year generates 20 metric tons of used nuclear fuel.
• The nuclear industry generates a total of about 2,000 - 2,300 metric tons of used fuel
per year.
• Over the past four decades, the entire industry has produced 76,430 metric tons of
used nuclear fuel.
• If used fuel assemblies were stacked end-to-end and side-by-side, this would cover a
football field about eight yards deep.

38. Classification on the basis of radioactivity
1. High level wastes
2. Medium level wastes
3. Low level wastes

39. Liquid Waste-The disposal of liquid wastes is done in two ways:
• Dilution-The liquid wastes are diluted with large quantities of water and then released
into the ground. This method suffers from the drawback that there is a chance of
contamination of underground water if the dilution factor is not adequate.
• Concentration to small volumes and storage-When the dilution of radioactive liquid
wastes is not desirable due to amount or nature of isotopes, the liquid wastes are
concentrated to small volumes and stored in underground tanks.
• The tanks should be of assured tong term strength and leakage of liquid from the
tanks should not take place otherwise leakage of contents. From the tanks may lead
to significant underground water contamination.

40. • Gaseous Waste-Gaseous wastes can most easily results in
atmospheric pollution. Gaseous wastes are generally
diluted with air, passed through filters and then released
to atmosphere through large chimneys.
• Solid Wastes-Solid wastes consists of sera De material or
discarded objects contaminated with radioactive matter.
These wastes if combustible are burnt and the radioactive
matter is mixed with concrete. Drummed and shipped for
burial. Non-combustible solid wastes are always buried
deep in the ground

41. Low Level waste consists of:
• Contaminated liquids
• Animal Carcasses
• Liquids
• Small Sealed sources
• Animal carcasses are either incinerated or buried on site.
• the nuclear waste is cast in cement in steel drum and are buried either or kept at the
bed of oceans.
Medium Level Waste Consists Of:
• Medium level waste require shielding when being handled
• This type of waste includes refurbishment waste, ion-exchange resins and some radioactive sources
used in radiation therapy.
• 7% volume of waste
• Depending on the amount of activity it can be burride in shallow repositoriess.
• Thiss wastes are mainly contaminated with neutron activatedion production isotopes.
Disposal Of High Level Wastes:
• high level of waste has a large amount of radioactivity and or thermally hot
• 3% volume of waste
• 95% of radioactivity
• current levels of high level waste are increasing as 12000 metric tons per year
• Most high level waste consists of Pu-238,239,240,241,242 Np-237 U-236

42. • As mentioned previously, nuclear waste is over 90% uranium. Thus, the
spent fuel (waste) still contains 90% usable fuel!
• It can be chemically processed and placed in advanced fast reactors
to close the fuel cycle.
• A closed fuel cycle means much less nuclear waste and much more energy
extracted from the raw ore.
• France and Japan currently recycle spent fuel, although they only recycle
one time before disposal.
• The US had a recycling program that was shut down because it created
Plutonium, which is arguably the easiest material with which to make a
nuclear weapon.