Nuclear Energy

Nuclear Energy: Feasibility and Challenges 1
Nuclear Energy:
Feasibility and Challenges
Riddhima Kartik
School of Petroleum Management, Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University, Gandhinagar,
Gujarat. India

Table of Contents
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 4
1. Nuclear Energy: Feasibility and Challenges .............................................................. 5
2. History......................................................................................................................... 6
3. Uses............................................................................................................................. 7
a. Agriculture:......................................................................................................... 8
b. Insect Control:..................................................................................................... 8
c. Food Preservation: .............................................................................................. 8
d. Water Resources:................................................................................................. 9
e. Medicine: ............................................................................................................ 9
f. Industry: .............................................................................................................. 9
4. Nuclear Technology Components............................................................................. 10
a. Fuel: .................................................................................................................. 10
b. Moderator:......................................................................................................... 10
c. Control rods: ..................................................................................................... 10
d. Coolant:..............................................................................................................11
e. Pressure vessel: ..................................................................................................11
f. Steam generator: ................................................................................................11
g. Containment:......................................................................................................11
5. Nuclear Power Generation Methods......................................................................... 12

6. Financial Implications............................................................................................... 15
7. Environmental Implication ....................................................................................... 17
a. Gas emissions and impact of accidents............................................................. 17
b. Life Cycle.......................................................................................................... 18
8. Nuclear along with Renewables................................................................................ 20
9. Current Scenario of Nuclear technology in India ..................................................... 21
10. Scope of Nuclear Power........................................................................................ 23
11. Suggestions and Conclusion ................................................................................. 24
References......................................................................................................................... 25
Journals ............................................................................................................................. 26
Web References................................................................................................................. 26

Abstract
The usage of nuclear technology for power generation has been in dilemma in current
scenario. Although nuclear technology helps to keep a check on the emission of greenhouse gases
but the safety issues associated with the extraction and usage of Uranium as a fuel, high cost
associated due to the complexity of disposal of radioactive waste and amount of radiations being
emitted during accidents are some of the critical issues which restrict the contribution of nuclear
power to a small percentage value of around 10 percent worldwide and less than 3 percent in India.
But with time the technological innovations are taking place in the development of components of
reactor along with the techniques to improve the electrical and chemical parameters by
implementing the latest operational techniques. Fast Breeder technology has been identified as one
of the latest nuclear technology which addresses the above mentioned issues to a great extent. The
tendency of different countries over the adoption of latest technology of nuclear power generation
considering the financial and environmental implications has been focused. Growth of nuclear
power along with the improvement in critical values has been shown with respect to India. The
compatibility of nuclear technology with respect to renewable sources of energy financially and
technologically has been shown. Details of technological development which are still under
research like the evolution of latest generation reactors along with the technology collaborating
Fusion and Fission has been shown and their potential to compete the usage of renewable source
of energy. Finally, the suggestions have been made for the collaboration of some existing sources
of energy like that of Nuclear and Solar energy which can be a model of increased acceptance of
nuclear energy power generation.
Keywords: Complexity of disposal of radioactive waste, electrical and chemical parameters, Fast
Breeder technology, latest generation reactors, Nuclear and Solar energy.

1. NuclearEnergy:
Feasibility and Challenges
Energy plays an essential part in any country's improvement and securing energy is one of
the most essential difficulty confronting any advancement plans, securing energy demands for next
generations is a standout amongst the most viewpoints confronting any sustained development
plans, because of the developing electric power request and demand.
World energy consumption rate has now been a matter of concern in this era as the
resources required for generation of power are depleting at a high unknown rate. As per the
prediction by United Nations Statistics Division on the growth of global population, it will be
approximately 9 billion people in 2050. With the increase in population demand for energy must
increase significantly over that period, as mentioned in the annual world energy outlook 2013 from
OECD’s International Energy Agency (IEA), the world primary energy demand grew by 26%
(about 19,004 TWh) from 2000 to 2011 and projected growth of 45%(about 34,453 TWh) till 2035
under the current policies with about double energy growth in both the cases. Also it has been
observed that coal and oil had been the major resources utilized to generate power followed by
Natural Gas and finally Nuclear and other renewable sources of energy. As the fossil fuels such as
coal, oil and so on are turning out to be rare the issue will soon turn out to be more serious after
some time, particularly for nations which are exceedingly subject to non-renewable vitality assets.
Additionally, it has been watched that around 34.6 billion tons CO2 emanation has occurred all-
inclusive in 2012. The CO2 discharge has been expanding throughout the years because of
unreasonable use of fossils and this over the top CO2 emanation has brought about making the
issue of an Earth-wide temperature boost leading to global warming.
Nuclear Energy has been distinguished as one of the major source of energy which can
possibly create adequate energy alongside generally low carbon emanations. Because of these
reasons headway and advancement in technological innovation of power generation through
nuclear reactors is being done at various research institutions.
Nuclear power generation utilize nuclear reactions, different mediator material, coolants
and different kind of reactor. The current innovations used for most part for power generation are
boiling water reactor, pressurized water reactors and pressurized heavy water reactor. Recent
innovation called Fast breeder technology has been created using naturally occurring uranium

isotopes that harness the greater part of the energy contained in uranium or thorium decreasing
fuel consumption by 99% as compared to earlier reactor technologies. Uranium which is a
noteworthy fuel for nuclear power generation is accessible only 1 percent furthermore includes
four complex procedures before being utilized for power generation. So to build the proficiency
and to make it economically practical for power generation, breeder technology is created. To
make nuclear energy production more aggressive and competitive in contrast with other customary
advances modification are made in breeder technology with some modern innovation such as
Generation IV and Generation V+ reactors which likewise considered to make the nuclear power
generation more protected and safe as for pre and post era risks like radiations being discharged.
In this paper we will discuss how fast breeder technology along with Generation IV and
Generation V+ reactors have provided scope for further advancement of nuclear technology in
terms of power generation efficiency along with optimum usage of nuclear fuel and in terms of
safety level of operation of nuclear power plants. Also we will try to discuss and suggest what
modifications in technology needs to be carried out to make nuclear technology more competitive
and acceptable by people of India. Finally, we will try to discuss how Fusion Reaction which is
still under research has the potential to give a new shape to nuclear power generation technology
economically and technologically.
2. History
Nuclear energy is recent than most different types of energies produces that we utilize. The
concept of neutron was started in 1932. Later with Hungarian scientist Leó Szilárd, in 1933 the
concept of nuclear chain reaction was founded. Not until the early 1930's scientists were not able
to find anything on the chain reaction theory, then the researchers found out that atom is made up
of proton and neutron particles. A long time later in 1938, two German researchers, Otto Hahn and
Fritz Strassman and physicist Lise Meitner of Austria, found that they could part the core of a
uranium molecule by bombarding it with neutrons, this process was named as fission. As the
uranium core split, some of its mass was changed over to heat energy.
In 1942, Enrico Fermi of Italy, and a gathering of different physicists then saw the fission
of one uranium atom emitted more neutrons which could thus split other uranium atoms, beginning
a chain response. They soon understood that through atomic splitting process of nuclear fission
tremendous amount of energy could be harnessed. Otto Hahn also won the Nobel Prize for his

discovery of atomic splitting and Enrico Fermi also get a Nobel Prize for making the world's first
nuclear chain reaction.
In the year 1940's the first nuclear fission was created prior to World War II which
encouraged more research on nuclear energy. In late 1942 the first artificial atomic reactor named
as Chicago pile-1 was constructed in the premises of the University of Chicago, by a group headed
by Enrico Fermi. In the later year’s numerous new reactors were worked by US yet they were
generally worked to get the large scale manufacturing of plutonium for atomic weapons. Later the
first nuclear power plant was authorized for regular citizens was worked by Soviet Union in 1954
which was named as AM-1 Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant and it delivered around 5MW electrical.
After this first commercial atomic power plant was sanctioned by Britain in 1956 and it was of
50MW at first and with time its energy rating was expanded to 200MW. Not until 1953 was the
primary usable power from nuclear fission delivered at the National Reactor Station now called
the Idaho National Building Lab. At that point in 1955, the principally first U.S. town to be
provided with nuclear energy was in Arco, Idaho. In today’s time nuclear energy only represents
just 20% of the power created in the United States.
According to 2013 report of IAEA, there are now 437 fully functioning civil fission-
electric reactors in 31 countries thought the globe and as per the latest 2015 report of IAEA,
worldwide there are 67 civil fission-electric power reactors being built in 15 different countries
including Gulf countries such as the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Around 15 percent of energy
throughout globe is generated by nuclear powered plants. The United States has more than 100
reactors, still through fossil fills and hydroelectric energy it generates its vast majority of its
electricity. More than 430 nuclear power plants (NPPs) are functioning and are present all over
the inhabited. Countries, for example Lithuania, France, and Slovakia generates almost all of
their power from nuclear power plants.
3. Uses
The first nuclear power plant for generating electricity from the heat of splitting of
uranium was constructed in 1950's. With further advancement in nuclear innovation the potential
for new and different usage was found in radioisotopes and radiation. Radioisotopes are
specifically unstable isotopes that change their core nucleus after some time from milliseconds to
centuries and thus they discharge charged particles or waves, making them radioactive. Because

of their radioactive nature. They have utilization in farming, pest control, Food conservation,
water assets, medication and industry. Considering each of the uses independently:
a. Agriculture:
In agriculture sector, usage of expensive fertilizers which sometimes cause damage to the
environment by leaving poisonous chemical residue behind. Hence it becomes important to find
fertilizer and different way that minimize the loss of plants and environment both. Nowadays
fertilizers which are 'labelled' with a particular isotope are in the market and are being used in
developing and developed countries, allowing better ways for usage and applications of
fertilizers. Thus due to usage of these isotopes we are able to estimate optimum amount of fertilizer
required for that particular soil and crop.
b. Insect Control:
The damage of food crops due to attack by insects has been more than 10% of the total
harvest worldwide and of the range 25-35% in developing countries. Chemical insecticides have
been used to hinder insect attack but over a period of time insects have been found to be resistant
to the chemicals used or the leave poisonous chemical residue on the crop.
The Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) was discovered in which involves destroying the eggs
of insects with the help of gamma radiation before hatching and thus sterilizing them also. This
technique helps to reduce the production of offspring of insects drastically and 95% success rate
has been achieved in two fruit-growing areas of Argentina.
c. Food Preservation:
Over the years it is measured that over 25-30%of the food crop harvested in many countries
is destroyed as a result of spoilage by microbes and pests. These microbes and insects are also
responsible for food related diseases like trichinosis and cholera. To get rid of this problem Food
irradiation method has been developed in which gamma radiation kills bacteria, insects and other
harmful organisms affecting the crops without causing loss or any side effect of nutritional value
of food products. The following table shows the amount of dosage of gamma rays generally given
according to possibility of attack of microorganisms on food products:

1. Low dose (up to 1 kG) Inhibition of sprouting Potatoes, onions, garlic,
ginger, yam
Insect and parasite
disinfestation
Cereals, fresh fruit, dried
foods
2. Medium dose (1-10 kG) Extend shelf life Fish, strawberries,
mushrooms
Halt spoilage, kill pathogens Seafood, poultry, meat
3. High dose (10-50 G) Industrial sterilization Meat, poultry, seafood,
prepared foods
Decontamination Spices, etc.
Table 1: Food irradiation applications
d. Water Resources:
With the help of Isotope hydrology techniques, we can estimate of amount of underground
water available, the age, distribution and origin can also be known. It has different purposes and
is vital for industry, agriculture and human settlements. To get these estimates isotope hydrology
techniques is used which enables the accurate tracing and amount of extent of underground water
resources. By the results obtained from these technique countries are able to do sustainable
planning and management of water resources.
e. Medicine:
Nuclear medicines allow doctors to diagnose the proper functioning of certain organs by
taking detailed and accurate pictures. Radiotherapy is one of those unique technique which let
detection of Cancer before 6 to 18 months ago and destroy particular targeted cells. The most
common radioisotope that is being used in diagnosis is radioactive technetium-99.
f. Industry:
Nuclear technology has been used for various important industrial purposes. Radioisotopes
have been used to detect pollutants present in air which are generally in very small quantity which

get dispose without any residue. As the radioactivity in any space can be measured in minute
amounts due to this radioisotope can also be used as very effective tracers.
The above usages are basically the derived usages of nuclear power but in current scenario
Nuclear power is also being used widely for electrical power generation widely along with
construction of nuclear weapons which is still a matter of concern.
4. NuclearTechnologyComponents
Nuclear technology is currently being used widely for electrical power generation and
electrical power extraction from nuclear energy through many components and some more are
added with time to increase efficiency of nuclear power plants. The components which are used in
nuclear power plants are:
a. Fuel:
Uranium is the basic fuel which is being used. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) are
accumulated in tubes to convert it into fuel rods. The rods are input into fuel assemblies at the
reactor core. Generally, to start a new reactor with new fuel a requirement of neutron source is
there to maintain the smooth flow of reaction. Usually the process followed in this case is the
mixing of beryllium with polonium, radium or other alpha-emitter. To start a reactor again with
some used fuel may not require this, as there can be enough neutrons available to obtain criticality
when control rods are removed.
b. Moderator:
Material in the core which decelerate the neutrons released from fission so as to cause more
fission. It is generally water, but may be heavy water or graphite.
c. Control rods:
These are formed by neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium, hafnium or boron,
which are inserted or withdrawn from the core to regulate the rate of reaction, or to halt it. In some
PWR reactors, special control rods make the core to maintain a low level of power efficiently.

d. Coolant:
A fluid circulating through the core so as to dissipate the heat from it. In light water reactor
the water serves the function of primary coolant. Except in BWRs, in the secondary coolant circuit
the water transforms into steam.
e. Pressure vessel:
Usually it’s a robust steel vessel which contains moderator/coolant and reactor core, but it
can also include series of fuel tubes and conveying the coolant through the surrounding moderator.
f. Steam generator:
It is a part of the cooling system of pressurized water reactors (PWR & PHWR) in which
high-pressure coolant gathers heat from the reactor to generate steam from turbine, in a secondary
circuit. Reactors have up to six 'loops', each with a steam generator.
g. Containment:
The structure surrounding the reactor and associated steam generators designed to protect
them from outside intrusion and to prevent the outside surroundings from radiation effects of
radiation in the case of any critical breakdown inside. It is basically a meter-thick concrete and
steel structure.
Fig 1: Uranium pellets Fig 2: Moderator

Fig 3: Control Rods Fig 4: Coolant
Fig 5: Pressure vessel
Fig 6: Steam Generator Fig 7: Containment
5. NuclearPowerGenerationMethods

Many conventional technologies are being used worldwide for electric power generation
from nuclear power. The details of conventional technologies are being shown in table below:
Reactor
Type
Main Countries Number GWe Fuel Coolant Moderator
Pressurized
water
Reactor
US, France, Japan,
Russia
277 257 Enriched
UO2
Water Water
Boiling
Water
Reactor
US, Japan,
Sweden
80 75 Enriched
UO2
Water Water
Pressurized
Heavy
Water
Reactor
Canada, India 49 25 Natural
UO2
Heavy
water
Heavy water
Gas
Cooled
Reactor
UK 15 8 natural U
(metal),
enriched
UO2
CO2 Graphite
Light
Water
Graphite
Reactor
Russia 15 10.2 enriched
UO2
Water Graphite
Table 2: Details of Conventional Nuclear Reactor
Fast Breeder technology is one of the latest technology that is much more useful in terms
of optimum utilization of resources. In Fast breeder technology we use liquid sodium as a coolant
that causes neutrons to remain of high energy and hence these fast neutrons are not able to cause
proper fission. Despite of improper fission neutrons are readily caught through an isotope of
uranium (U238), which changes into plutonium (Pu239), which with further transformations can

be utilized as reactor fuel. The design of reactors can be made accordingly to produce more
plutonium and in few cases reactors actually produce the fuel they consume. These reactors are
called breeder reactors. Adherents claim that by seawater uranium extraction, the amount of fuel
created for breeder’s reactor is enough for 5 billion years of energy satisfaction as per 1983’s
energy usage rate, consequently making nuclear energy effectively suitable as compared to
renewable energy.
Nuclear waste has also been a matter of concern since 1990 as this waste is radioactive and
transuranic which is threat for environment. Breeder reactions are effective in reducing actinide
waste, particularly plutonium and actinides. Nowadays commercial light water reactors also tend
to breed some new fissile material, mostly in the form of plutonium. Conversion ratio, breakeven,
breeding ratio, doubling time and burnup are some of the ratios that define the efficiency level of
nuclear reactor. Conversion ratio for consumption of fuel to the generation of fuel usable again
breeder reactor is more and the reactor produces as much fissile material as it uses. Burnup is that
value of energy harnessed form the given particular mass of heavy metal in fuel generally
expressed in gigawatt-days per ton. Burnup value is high for a breeder reactor as breeder reactors
produce much of their waste in the form of fission products, while most of the actinides used in
fission. There can also be thermal breeder reactor but are only commercially feasible with thorium
fuel. Lead Fast breeder reactors are found to be more advantageous than Sodium fast breeder
reactors because it makes the investigated accident indicators easy to cope with. This is possible
in Lead fast breeder reactor because of their natural circulation behavior and much higher boiling
temperature of lead. Economically, the LFR is advantageous since it needs an intermediate coolant
circuit. Integral fast reactor is one of the design of fast neutron reactor which addresses the waste
disposal and plutonium issues. Many other fast breeder reactors prototypes are being built
worldwide including India.

Fig 8: Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor
Fig 9: Reaction during Fast Breeder Reactor operation
6. FinancialImplications

The economics of Nuclear power plant mainly consist of three costs which are capital costs,
Plant operating costs and external costs.
The capital costs comprise of site restructuring, commissioning, construction, manufacture,
and financing a nuclear power plant. Capital costs are expressed in terms of generating capacity
of plant. Plant operating costs are mainly the costs of fuel, operation and maintenance. Operating
cost can be divided into two fixed cost and variable cost. To estimate the operating cost of a plant
over its whole life levelised cost at present value must be estimated. It provides with the cost at
which the electricity should be generated if the project is to break even (after considering the
opportunity cost of capital through by applying a discount rate). External costs are basically the
cost that has to be borne by the government during severe accidents if they occur. Cost overruns
which are most significant costs that occur during installation of nuclear power plants. It has been
observed that capital cost of nuclear power projects may be 60% or more of the levelised cost of
electricity. But fuel costs have been observed to be 15% of the levelised cost of electricity.
Generally, 10 to 20 years of operation is expected by nuclear power plants under reasonable
national circumstances to get back capital and interest.

Fig 10: Capital Risks associated since 2008 for financing nuclear power plants in
different countries
Uranium Conversion Costs under certain conditions have been observed and can be seen in the
table as follows:
Uranium 8.9 kg U3O8 x $97 US$ 862 46%
Conversion 7.5 kg U x $16 US$ 120 6%
Enrichment 7.3 SWU x $82 US$ 599 32%
Fuel Fabrication Per Kg (approx.) US$ 300 16%
Total (approx.) US$ 1880
Table 3: Uranium Conversion Costs
The above Uranium Conversion Costs come under operating cost but operating costs also include
waste disposal costs and decommissioning costs. Disposal of low level cost of nuclear power plant
was found to be £2,000/m³ in UK and 500 million $ was found to be decommissioning cost in US
in a particular year. Thus high costs associated with waste disposal and decommissioning still
possess a challenge with conventional reactors. Fast breeder reactors can play a major role in
reducing waste disposal cost by reducing waste generated during nuclear reactions. Also increase
in efficiency level due to Fast breeder reactors can reduce operating cost by getting more output
for the same input.
7. Environmental Implication
a. Gas emissions and impact of accidents
Greenhouse Gas emissions from nuclear power plant are much smaller as compared to
generation of power from coal, oil and gas. However, during accidents there is a risk of radioactive
emission due to presence of fissile materials. Fukushima 1 nuclear power plant accident lead to
hydrogen gas explosions and partial meltdowns and was classified as Level 7 event.

Disposal of spent nuclear fuel at the site is also a major challenge as in severe cases it can
affect environment greatly by increasing radiation level in the environment. According to
international survey it has been found that annual average dosage of the order of 0. 1μSv.y-1 were
noted at world level during power generation from nuclear power plant. This value is found to be
one thousandth the adopted limits for nuclear power generation. Thus under normal operation
nuclear power plant causes least pollution in the environment. Uranium Mining is also means of
pollution after a few months of mining the tailing material has been observed to contain 75% of
the radioactivity of the original ore. But generally these are not classified as radioactive waste.
Abandoned uranium mines remain a source of radioactive risks for as long as 250,000 years after
closure. Also usage of nuclear weapons can tremendously affect flora and fauna of that particular
region and can have its impact lasting for several years.
b. Life Cycle
Disposal of nuclear waste which also includes spent fuels may take several years.
Managing high level waste also requires a strategic method. It has been recorded that a common
reactor produces around 27 tons of utilized fuel which might be decrease to 3 m per year of vitrified
waste. Containment of utilized fuel is mostly in the ponds attached with a reactor, or a central pool
for multi-reactor location. Generally, these used fuels are reprocessed and then incorporated into
cement prior to disposal as ILW. After 40 -50 years of reprocessed fuel disposal the radioactivity
have fallen to one thousandth of the level at removal. Thus it follows the time cycle which can be
visualized by the graph given below:

Fig 11: Lifecycle of decay of radioactive products
Utilized fuel still contains parts U-235 as well as various plutonium isotopes which are
formed inside the reactor core, and the U-238c. The sum total of account for some 96% of the
original uranium and over half of the original energy content (disregarding U-238). Reprocessing
segregate Uranium and Plutonium. Plutonium emerging from reprocessing is reused through a
MOX fuel fabrication plant where it blends with drained uranium oxide to create fresh fuel. This
however can't be straightly added to MOX fuel and reused in conventional reactors. It needs a fast
neutron reactor which are few and yet far between. It also disposes the highly toxic waste easily.

Fig 12: Storage Pond for Used fuel in Nuclear Power Plant
During disposal to guarantee that no critical natural emissions happen over a millions of
year's immobilizations of waste. It is completed in an insoluble matrix, for example, borosilicate
glass or engineered rock. Sometimes tightly pressed inside an erosion safe compartment, for
example, stainless steel.
Some amount of waste heat i.e. generated during cooling process and some amount of
waste liquids from reprocessing plants are sent into large water heads like seas and rivers. Small
quantities of radioactive gases like krypton-85 and xenon-133 are released into atmosphere.
However, they have short half-lives, and the radiations in the emissions is reduced by delaying
their release.
8. Nuclearalong with Renewables
Nuclear technology when compared with renewable sources of energy seems less potential
to be adopted in future based on current trends of investment in both in different years. This can
be seen from the graph below:

Fig 13: Investment trends in nuclear vs. Renewable
China which leads in the world in terms of construction of new nuclear plants spent about 9 billion
$ in nuclear and collectively 83 billion $ in renewables like wind and solar. Rapid ageing of
reactors has been found which makes it inferior in the current scenario of technological
development of renewable source of energy. Nuclear energy cannot be used to supply more than
base load which renewable source of energy can easily provide based on availability of resources.
However technological advancements are being made in nuclear power plant like the evolution of
Nuclear Fusion –Fission hybrid power plant.
9. Current Scenario ofNuclear technologyin India
The Government of India wants to generate a one-fourth of its power from nuclear
generation by 2050. This scheme of government incorporates 20,000 MW of increased limit in
form of nuclear energy by 2020, and 63,000 MW by 2032.
There are as of now twenty-one operational nuclear energy reactors in India, in six different
states. They contribute approx. 3% the nation's total energy generation, yet radioactive pollution
at each phase of the nuclear fuel cycle: from extraction from earth crust and processing it into

usable state reprocessing or transfer. There is no long term radioactive waste transfer arrangement
in India. With new reactors under development, the fresh out of the box new 1,000-MW power
plant at Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu, began business operations on December 31, 2014, while
different undertakings are in the pipeline. Four reactors are under development, one in RAAP
(Rajasthan) and other at Kakrapar are indigenously planned 700 mw reactors. Chip away at another
pair is relied upon to begin in mid-2015 in Haryana, and six more are arranged at three locales (see
table underneath). These indigenously planned reactors seem set to be the workhorses of Indian
atomic project.
By the records measured in 2010 nuclear power generation in India is approximately 4780
Mw from the 20 fully functional nuclear plants which provide just 3 percent of the aggregate
electrical supply in the nation. APSARA and CIRIUS are the two introductory reactors that gave
way to advancement of nuclear power generation in India. India is by and large working PHWR
and BWR reactors as of now. New nuclear power plants are being sanctioned by the government
and the construction work already started in Chennai, Kakrapar and Kudankulam.
Fig : 14 Source: Lok Sabha
Additionally, in these new developing reactors some new technologically advanced
reactors are being utilized like Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor and Water-Water Energetic Reactor.
Right now 500 Mwe Model Fast breeder reactor is being dispatched in Chennai and it will be
called “Bhavini”. The large amount of plutonium of fast breeder reactor can lead to prompt
development of more such similar reactors. India has the capacity to utilize thorium cycle based

procedures to extricate nuclear fuel. This is one of the special advantage to the Indian nuclear
power generation methodology as India has one of the world's biggest reserves of thorium.
The Water-Water Energetic Reactors are the series of Pressurized water reactor which was
innovated in Russian and imported to India. These reactors are not the same as Pressurized water
reactor in outline and design as these reactors consist of horizontal steam generators, a Hexagonal
assembly for fuel, infiltrations without any base in the vessel and pressurizers with high capacity
providing a huge reactor coolant stock. In this way more up to date establishments are expanding
productivity of nuclear power plant alongside with more secure operations. The nuclear power
production Unit 5 in Rajasthan worked for constant 739 days which enhances the accessibility
factor of plant and this reactor was Pressurized heavy water reactor manufactured indigenously.
Prior in Tarapur nuclear power reactor had worked for constant 590 days. These information
demonstrates the measure of atomic force era capacity accessible with India. Indian nuclear power
development program is completely developed and has exiled in all aspects of nuclear power
innovation.
Fig 15: Water-Water Energetic Reactor
10. Scope ofNuclearPower
Nuclear energy still has a little percentage commitment altogether in total power generation
on the planet yet with the consistent advancement and innovation of reactors we can enhance
proficiency furthermore ready to diminish waste produced and hence making it focused with
different sources of energy. As of late hybrid nuclear power plant i.e. it is a blend of fission and

combination is giving scope to generate large amount of energy and lead to expansion in this
competitive market. The whole idea through the usage of this technology is to tap high-energy fast
neutrons in a reactor to start a fission reaction in non –Fissile components like U-238 and Thorium
-232. In this advancement and innovation every neutron can trigger several fission reactions,
increasing the energy discharged by every fission reaction to be hundred several times. China is
advancing and promoting this advanced innovation as it uses non fissionable fuel which generally
goes about as a waste. Additionally, there are numerous reactors like Generation IV and Generation
V+ reactors which are supercritical water reactors and have Gas core reactor which are under
examination and testing stage however when actualized will have the capacity to make nuclear
power generation to be improved with most with advanced security measures alongside right
around zero waste.
Fig 16 : Hybrid nuclear reactor description
11. Suggestions and Conclusion

In spite of the resistance it right now confronts, nuclear power has specific components
that support the dedication of some nations to consider it as a future alternative," World energy
Outlook 2014 said. "Nuclear power generation can increase the dependability of the power system
where they harness greater power through nuclear power plants and with advancements the
efficiency of process and amount of energy harness will increase. For nations that import energy,
it essentially lessens their reliance on outside supplies and control the exposure of fuel prices
changes in global markets."
Combination of Fusion and Fission reaction provides scope for Nuclear power generation
technology to become more efficient in future years. Waste Disposal remains a serious issue but
methods are developing to convert waste into the useful material and in future years’ techniques
can be developed to collaborate solar power technology with nuclear power technology by utilizing
the heat that is currently being considered as a waste in nuclear power generation. Fast breeder and
conventional technology in nuclear reactor is modifying at an unprecedented rate which is helping
to make nuclear power technology to be more technologically and economically viable. Increased
investments are expected in nuclear power research which will help Nuclear power can become
more efficient than solar and wind energy technology which still faces various constraints. As
Nuclear power generation causes no release of Greenhouse gases during its operation so nuclear
power holds a good potential to eliminate all the conventional modes of power generation in
current scenario i.e. through oil, coal etc. which have become pollution houses for the environment.
Finally increasing awareness among public is required regarding the compatibility of nuclear
power plants with latest technology in current scenario.
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[4] IAEA NUCLEAR ENERGY SERIES No. NP-T-3.2
Journals
[1] BARC Newsletter May, 2009
[2] Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 2009. 34:127–52
[3] Trends in Global CO2 Emissions, 2014 [ISBN: 978-94-91506-87-1]
Web References
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_energy_consumption
[2] http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-fast-breeder-react/
[3] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breeder_reactor
[4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor
[5] http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/non-power-nuclear-applications/overview/the-many-
uses-of-nuclear-technology/
[6] Table 1 : http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/non-power-
nuclearapplications/overview/the-many-uses-of-nuclear-technology/
[7] http://www.world-nuclear.org/Nuclear-Basics/What-other-things-can-nuclear-technology-
be-used-for-/
[8] https://geoinfo.nmt.edu/resources/uranium/images/IMG0550.jpg
[9] https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Thermal_reactor_diagram.png
[10] http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2011/ph241/grayson1/images/f2big.gif
[11] http://www.fluidcomponents.com/Industrial/Products/Nuclear/images/Illustrations
/reactor-core-coolant.jpg
[12] http://www.ihi.co.jp/nupd/nuclear%20technology/nuclear%20power%20plant/rpv
800.jpg

[13] http://en.citizendium.org/images/8/86/Nuclear_Power.png
[14] http://www.nuclear-power.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Containment-
Building-Mark-II.png?11abca
[15] http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-fast-breeder-react/
[16] http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029549306003347
[17] http://www.eolss.net/ebooks/Sample%20Chapters/C09/E4-23-03-03.pdf
[18] http://www.theenergycollective.com/katherinetweed/2250134/around-world-
nuclear-cant-compete-growing-renewables
[19] http://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/rajasthan-nuclear-plant-unit-
5-sets-world-record-114081200704_1.html
[20] http://www.scmp.com/tech/science-research/article/1840219/china-aims-get-
hybrid-fission-fusion-nuclear-reactor-and
[21] Fig 14 : (http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/why-india-s-
nuclear-power-output-is-surging-115020300354_1.html)
[22] http://www.resilience.org/stories/2009-04-20/peak-people-interrelationship-
between-population-growth-and-energy-resources
[23] http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Current-and-Future-Generation/world-Energy-
Needs-and-nuclear-power/
[24] http://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/The%20History%20of%20Nuclear%20En
ergy_0.pdf
[25] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant
[26] http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-
of-nuclear-energy/

[27] http://www.slideshare.net/nimaliarachchi/the-good-use-of-nuclear-energy
[28] http://nuclear-energy.net/applications
[29] http://www.world-nuclear.org/Nuclear-Basics/What-other-things-can-nuclear-
technology-be-used-for-/
[30] http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/non-power-nuclear-applications/overview/the-
many-uses-of-nuclear-technology/
[31] http://www.greenpeace.org/india/en/What-We-Do/Nuclear-Unsafe/Nuclear-
Power-in-India/
[32] http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/why-india-s-nuclear-
power-output-is-surging-115020300354_1.html
[33] http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/ieorefcase.html

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