Nuclear engineering harnesses the power of the atom to do work. It involves understanding nuclear physics principles like fission and fusion, designing and operating nuclear reactors, developing nuclear medicine applications, ensuring nuclear non-proliferation, and managing radioactive waste. Some key areas of nuclear engineering include power generation, weapons development, space applications, medical imaging and treatment, food irradiation, and more. Nuclear engineers work in government, national labs, power companies, the military, medicine, and academia developing and overseeing applications of nuclear technology.
The document discusses a project report on nuclear energy created by a team of 5 engineering students. It includes an introduction to the team members and contents which cover topics like what is nuclear energy, nuclear reactors and power plants, safety standards, types of nuclear fuel and disaster management, and the nuclear fuel cycle and waste management. It then provides summaries on each of these topics written by different team members. Key points covered include how nuclear fission works to generate energy, the components and workings of pressurized water reactors and boiling water reactors, nuclear safety protocols in India, examples of past nuclear accidents, and the nuclear fuel cycle from mining to waste disposal and storage.
Physics and Technology of Nuclear ReactorsPaul Callaghan
The following presentation was created by me (Paul Callaghan) in order to demonstrate learning on the Physics and Technology of Nuclear Reactors Course I attended from Autumn 2007 to Spring 2008 at The University of Birmingham.
Nuclear energy works through nuclear fission, where uranium-235 is split in a nuclear reactor, generating heat. This heat is used to boil water and create steam that powers generators to produce electricity. Key advantages are that it is an energy-dense source that produces reliable base-load power with low greenhouse gas emissions. Disadvantages include nuclear waste, decommissioning costs, and safety risks from meltdowns. Overall, nuclear energy provides society with cheap, efficient electricity while creating jobs through global interest in the technology.
Chapter 22.4 : Nuclear Fission and Nuclear FusionChris Foltz
Nuclear fission involves splitting heavy nuclei into lighter nuclei and releasing energy. A chain reaction occurs when fission products cause additional reactions. Nuclear power plants use controlled fission chain reactions to generate electricity, employing shielding, fuel, control rods, moderators, and coolants. Nuclear fusion combines low-mass nuclei and releases more energy per gram than fission but controlling fusion reactions remains difficult.
Nuclear fusion is a promising source of clean, limitless energy that works by fusing together light atomic nuclei like deuterium and tritium. Fusion reactions occur naturally in stars and produce massive amounts of energy. Researchers are working to develop fusion power by using magnetic and laser confinement to generate extremely hot plasma and sustain fusion reactions. Fusion power plants would use deuterium from seawater and generate helium as a byproduct while producing far less radioactive waste than fission. Significant technological progress has been made but fully developing fusion energy remains challenging and is targeted for around 2050.
Nuclear power plants produce electricity through nuclear fission, which is the splitting of uranium atom nuclei. This releases a large amount of energy that is used to heat water and produce steam that spins turbines to generate electricity. While nuclear energy produces few greenhouse gas emissions, it generates radioactive nuclear waste that is difficult to store and remains dangerous for thousands of years. The economics of nuclear power are impacted by its high capital costs to build plants, but also low fuel costs over the plant's lifetime.
The document discusses a project report on nuclear energy created by a team of 5 engineering students. It includes an introduction to the team members and contents which cover topics like what is nuclear energy, nuclear reactors and power plants, safety standards, types of nuclear fuel and disaster management, and the nuclear fuel cycle and waste management. It then provides summaries on each of these topics written by different team members. Key points covered include how nuclear fission works to generate energy, the components and workings of pressurized water reactors and boiling water reactors, nuclear safety protocols in India, examples of past nuclear accidents, and the nuclear fuel cycle from mining to waste disposal and storage.
Physics and Technology of Nuclear ReactorsPaul Callaghan
The following presentation was created by me (Paul Callaghan) in order to demonstrate learning on the Physics and Technology of Nuclear Reactors Course I attended from Autumn 2007 to Spring 2008 at The University of Birmingham.
Nuclear energy works through nuclear fission, where uranium-235 is split in a nuclear reactor, generating heat. This heat is used to boil water and create steam that powers generators to produce electricity. Key advantages are that it is an energy-dense source that produces reliable base-load power with low greenhouse gas emissions. Disadvantages include nuclear waste, decommissioning costs, and safety risks from meltdowns. Overall, nuclear energy provides society with cheap, efficient electricity while creating jobs through global interest in the technology.
Chapter 22.4 : Nuclear Fission and Nuclear FusionChris Foltz
Nuclear fission involves splitting heavy nuclei into lighter nuclei and releasing energy. A chain reaction occurs when fission products cause additional reactions. Nuclear power plants use controlled fission chain reactions to generate electricity, employing shielding, fuel, control rods, moderators, and coolants. Nuclear fusion combines low-mass nuclei and releases more energy per gram than fission but controlling fusion reactions remains difficult.
Nuclear fusion is a promising source of clean, limitless energy that works by fusing together light atomic nuclei like deuterium and tritium. Fusion reactions occur naturally in stars and produce massive amounts of energy. Researchers are working to develop fusion power by using magnetic and laser confinement to generate extremely hot plasma and sustain fusion reactions. Fusion power plants would use deuterium from seawater and generate helium as a byproduct while producing far less radioactive waste than fission. Significant technological progress has been made but fully developing fusion energy remains challenging and is targeted for around 2050.
Nuclear power plants produce electricity through nuclear fission, which is the splitting of uranium atom nuclei. This releases a large amount of energy that is used to heat water and produce steam that spins turbines to generate electricity. While nuclear energy produces few greenhouse gas emissions, it generates radioactive nuclear waste that is difficult to store and remains dangerous for thousands of years. The economics of nuclear power are impacted by its high capital costs to build plants, but also low fuel costs over the plant's lifetime.
Nuclear power plants generate electricity through nuclear fission reactions that are controlled by control rods. The key components of a nuclear power plant are the nuclear reactor, where fission takes place inside fuel rods; the steam generator, which uses the reactor's heat to create steam; and a turbine, which is spun by steam to generate electricity. Nuclear power produces low carbon emissions but radioactive waste is a disadvantage. India's nuclear power capacity is expanding rapidly with plans to increase output five-fold by 2032.
1) Boosted fission weapons use small amounts of deuterium and tritium gas in the core of a fission bomb, producing a faster fission reaction that increases energy yield over 200% compared to regular fission.
2) Staged radiation implosion, or Teller-Ulam, weapons are two-stage processes using lighter fusion elements after a fission trigger, releasing more energy from the separate fusion reaction and subsequent fast fissioning of materials.
3) The "alarm clock" or "sloika" design uses concentric uranium or plutonium shells, but fusion is only 15-20% of yield, making it inefficient compared to staged designs. The
Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to produce heat and generate electricity. Fission occurs when certain atomic nuclei are split into smaller nuclei. This releases energy. In a nuclear reactor, a self-sustaining chain reaction is controlled to generate heat, which is then used to power turbines and produce electricity. The document discusses different types of nuclear reactions like fusion and fission. It also provides details about how nuclear power plants and reactors work, the status of nuclear energy programs in India, safety considerations, and consequences of the Fukushima nuclear accident.
A nuclear reactor is a device that maintains a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction to produce controlled nuclear fission. Nuclear reactors were first conceptualized in the 1930s and the first artificial reactor was built in 1942. There are two main types of reactors - research reactors designed to produce radiation beams and power reactors that produce heat primarily to drive power generators. A reactor contains nuclear fuel, a neutron moderator, and a coolant and uses control rods to regulate the fission rate.
A nuclear reactor contains and controls sustained nuclear chain reactions to generate electricity, power naval vessels, produce medical isotopes, and conduct research. The reactor core contains fuel rods that split atoms when hit by neutrons, releasing energy as heat. This heat is transferred by coolant like water to power turbines and generators. Key reactor components include fuel pins bundled in fuel assemblies, control assemblies, and the reactor vessel. Common reactor types are pressurized water reactors, where coolant is contained in a pressurized primary loop, and boiling water reactors, where the same water acts as coolant and steam source. Nuclear reactors have important applications in power generation, nuclear weapons reduction, scientific research, and medicine.
Nuclear physics studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei. The field is the basis for applications like nuclear power, nuclear bombs, nuclear medicine, and radiocarbon dating. Atoms consist of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by orbiting electrons. Radioactivity occurs when unstable atomic nuclei decay by emitting particles like alpha and beta particles or gamma rays. Nuclear fission and fusion can release energy as nuclei split or combine.
Nuclear fission is a process by which certain heavy atomic nuclei split into two, most often after collision with a neutron. The process produces heat and also releases neutrons; these neutrons can go on to cause further fissions, allowing a chain reaction to be sustained. Fission is the basic reaction that underlies our use of nuclear energy.
Nuclear power involves using heat from nuclear fission or fusion reactions to generate electricity. There are two main types of reactions - fission which splits atoms, and fusion which fuses smaller atoms into larger ones. Nuclear power is used globally to produce electricity and also has applications in transportation like ships and submarines, as well as medical uses. Bangladesh is working to build two nuclear power plants with Russian assistance to help meet its growing electricity demands and reduce reliance on other sources. While nuclear power has advantages like low emissions, it also has disadvantages such as high costs and generating long-lasting radioactive waste.
The document discusses the dangers of nuclear energy at each stage from mining to waste disposal. It notes that radiation levels continually increase at each stage and contaminate large areas. Nuclear accidents can make areas uninhabitable for thousands of years and impact vegetation, agriculture, animals and human health through increased cancer risks and birth defects. While renewable sources like solar and wind are presented as cheaper alternatives that do not pose the same risks, nuclear power is promoted in India due to lucrative business and commission opportunities for foreign companies and politicians.
This document provides an introduction to nuclear physics. It discusses the history and development of the field, from the discovery of radioactivity and the electron in the early 20th century to the proposal of the liquid drop model and development of the semi-empirical mass formula to describe nuclear structure. Key events discussed include Rutherford's discovery of the nuclear model of the atom, the discovery of the neutron by Chadwick, and Yukawa's proposal of the meson to explain nuclear forces. The introduction concludes by outlining the chapters to follow on topics like nuclear decay, fusion, fission, and reactor physics.
Nuclear power generation involves harnessing energy from nuclear fission reactions that take place inside nuclear reactors. The document discusses how nuclear fission reactions produce heat that is used to generate steam and power turbines to produce electricity. It also notes that nuclear power plants do not emit greenhouse gases like fossil fuel plants. However, nuclear power does produce radioactive waste that requires careful management and storage. Overall, the document presents nuclear power as a potential solution to meeting energy demands while reducing environmental impacts compared to fossil fuels.
Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom and released through fission, fusion, or radioactivity. It is produced naturally in stars and man-made in nuclear reactors. There are two main types of nuclear reactions that produce energy - nuclear fission which splits large nuclei, and nuclear fusion which combines small nuclei. Nuclear energy has applications in electric power generation, medicine, scientific research, food and agriculture, and space. However, nuclear disasters like Chernobyl and Fukushima have shown the dangers, with loss of life and long-term effects on the environment.
The document summarizes the key concepts of nuclear fusion as an energy source. It discusses how fusion works by combining light atoms at high temperatures and pressures to release energy. It also outlines some of the major challenges of fusion like maintaining the superheated plasma long enough for reactions to occur. The document then describes the major components of a fusion reactor, including magnetic confinement to contain the plasma away from the walls of the reactor. It concludes by noting fusion has potential benefits but significant technological challenges remain before it can be achieved on a commercial scale.
Nuclear fusion is the process by which lighter atomic nuclei fuse together to form heavier nuclei, releasing enormous amounts of energy. It is the process that powers stars like our Sun by fusing hydrogen into helium. Researchers are working to develop fusion as an energy source on Earth by containing and heating hydrogen isotopes to fuse in reactors such as tokamaks using magnetic and inertial confinement. Fusion reactors could provide safe, sustainable, and virtually limitless clean energy but developing viable commercial fusion power remains an engineering challenge that requires overcoming high costs and achieving breakeven where energy output exceeds energy input.
This document explores nuclear energy and its potential uses. It discusses how nuclear fission works and how it generates heat energy through splitting atoms in a chain reaction. While nuclear power provides benefits like zero emissions and low-cost energy, it also faces challenges from past accidents and the unresolved issue of permanent waste storage. In conclusion, nuclear energy could be one solution to growing energy demands if developed and regulated safely and for the benefit of humanity.
This document discusses nuclear fission, including its history, the fission chain reaction process, nuclear reactors, and applications. It describes how nuclear fission was discovered in 1938 and involves splitting uranium-235 atoms with neutrons, releasing energy and up to 3 neutrons to split more atoms. A self-sustaining chain reaction can occur in a nuclear reactor, where the heat generated is used to produce steam to power generators and produce electricity. Nuclear fission is applied in nuclear power plants, nuclear weapons, and medical and scientific research.
83-87
Hydrogen
10-14
Nitrogen
0.1-2
Oxygen
0.1-1.5
Sulphur
0.5-6
The document discusses various topics related to energy production and consumption including:
- Energy production has steadily increased worldwide from 215 quadrillion BTU in 1970 to 417 quadrillion BTU in 2003, a 94% rise.
- The top three energy producing countries in 2003 were United States, Russia, and China.
- Energy consumption is directly related to quality of life as measured by factors like life expectancy, education, and GDP.
- Foss
This document discusses organic solar cells, which convert light to electricity using conjugated polymers and molecules rather than traditional silicon materials. It provides background on the need for alternative energy sources due to growing energy demand and limited fossil fuels. Organic solar cells absorb light, transfer charges, transport the separated charges, and collect them. Researchers have achieved a new record efficiency of 15.6% for a graphene-based solar cell that uses titanium oxide, graphene, and perovskite, manufactured via low-temperature solution deposition. While organic solar cells offer advantages like lower costs and flexibility, their efficiency remains below silicon cells and they suffer from degradation. Further improving charge carrier transport and interface engineering is needed to enhance performance.
Journal of Nuclear Engineering & Technology (JoNET) is a print and e-journal focused towards the rapid publication of fundamental research papers on all areas of Nuclear Engineering & Nuclear Technology.
Focus and Scope Covers
Nuclear Power
Nuclear Medical Applications
Nuclear Industrial Applications
Nuclear Commercial Applications
Nuclear Safety
Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear Proliferation
Nuclear engineers must have a bachelor's degree in nuclear engineering and it is recommended they participate in a cooperative education program. Their average salary is around $99,920. Nuclear engineers design nuclear equipment, monitor nuclear facility operations to ensure safety compliance, examine nuclear accidents to design preventative measures, write operational instructions, direct plant maintenance activities, perform experiments testing nuclear material usage, and take corrective actions in emergencies. Duke Energy generates over half its power from nuclear plants and Areva is a large French conglomerate focused on nuclear power employing over 47,000 people. J. Robert Oppenheimer led the Manhattan Project and is considered the father of the atomic bomb while Enrico Fermi developed the first nuclear reactor.
Nuclear power plants generate electricity through nuclear fission reactions that are controlled by control rods. The key components of a nuclear power plant are the nuclear reactor, where fission takes place inside fuel rods; the steam generator, which uses the reactor's heat to create steam; and a turbine, which is spun by steam to generate electricity. Nuclear power produces low carbon emissions but radioactive waste is a disadvantage. India's nuclear power capacity is expanding rapidly with plans to increase output five-fold by 2032.
1) Boosted fission weapons use small amounts of deuterium and tritium gas in the core of a fission bomb, producing a faster fission reaction that increases energy yield over 200% compared to regular fission.
2) Staged radiation implosion, or Teller-Ulam, weapons are two-stage processes using lighter fusion elements after a fission trigger, releasing more energy from the separate fusion reaction and subsequent fast fissioning of materials.
3) The "alarm clock" or "sloika" design uses concentric uranium or plutonium shells, but fusion is only 15-20% of yield, making it inefficient compared to staged designs. The
Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to produce heat and generate electricity. Fission occurs when certain atomic nuclei are split into smaller nuclei. This releases energy. In a nuclear reactor, a self-sustaining chain reaction is controlled to generate heat, which is then used to power turbines and produce electricity. The document discusses different types of nuclear reactions like fusion and fission. It also provides details about how nuclear power plants and reactors work, the status of nuclear energy programs in India, safety considerations, and consequences of the Fukushima nuclear accident.
A nuclear reactor is a device that maintains a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction to produce controlled nuclear fission. Nuclear reactors were first conceptualized in the 1930s and the first artificial reactor was built in 1942. There are two main types of reactors - research reactors designed to produce radiation beams and power reactors that produce heat primarily to drive power generators. A reactor contains nuclear fuel, a neutron moderator, and a coolant and uses control rods to regulate the fission rate.
A nuclear reactor contains and controls sustained nuclear chain reactions to generate electricity, power naval vessels, produce medical isotopes, and conduct research. The reactor core contains fuel rods that split atoms when hit by neutrons, releasing energy as heat. This heat is transferred by coolant like water to power turbines and generators. Key reactor components include fuel pins bundled in fuel assemblies, control assemblies, and the reactor vessel. Common reactor types are pressurized water reactors, where coolant is contained in a pressurized primary loop, and boiling water reactors, where the same water acts as coolant and steam source. Nuclear reactors have important applications in power generation, nuclear weapons reduction, scientific research, and medicine.
Nuclear physics studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei. The field is the basis for applications like nuclear power, nuclear bombs, nuclear medicine, and radiocarbon dating. Atoms consist of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by orbiting electrons. Radioactivity occurs when unstable atomic nuclei decay by emitting particles like alpha and beta particles or gamma rays. Nuclear fission and fusion can release energy as nuclei split or combine.
Nuclear fission is a process by which certain heavy atomic nuclei split into two, most often after collision with a neutron. The process produces heat and also releases neutrons; these neutrons can go on to cause further fissions, allowing a chain reaction to be sustained. Fission is the basic reaction that underlies our use of nuclear energy.
Nuclear power involves using heat from nuclear fission or fusion reactions to generate electricity. There are two main types of reactions - fission which splits atoms, and fusion which fuses smaller atoms into larger ones. Nuclear power is used globally to produce electricity and also has applications in transportation like ships and submarines, as well as medical uses. Bangladesh is working to build two nuclear power plants with Russian assistance to help meet its growing electricity demands and reduce reliance on other sources. While nuclear power has advantages like low emissions, it also has disadvantages such as high costs and generating long-lasting radioactive waste.
The document discusses the dangers of nuclear energy at each stage from mining to waste disposal. It notes that radiation levels continually increase at each stage and contaminate large areas. Nuclear accidents can make areas uninhabitable for thousands of years and impact vegetation, agriculture, animals and human health through increased cancer risks and birth defects. While renewable sources like solar and wind are presented as cheaper alternatives that do not pose the same risks, nuclear power is promoted in India due to lucrative business and commission opportunities for foreign companies and politicians.
This document provides an introduction to nuclear physics. It discusses the history and development of the field, from the discovery of radioactivity and the electron in the early 20th century to the proposal of the liquid drop model and development of the semi-empirical mass formula to describe nuclear structure. Key events discussed include Rutherford's discovery of the nuclear model of the atom, the discovery of the neutron by Chadwick, and Yukawa's proposal of the meson to explain nuclear forces. The introduction concludes by outlining the chapters to follow on topics like nuclear decay, fusion, fission, and reactor physics.
Nuclear power generation involves harnessing energy from nuclear fission reactions that take place inside nuclear reactors. The document discusses how nuclear fission reactions produce heat that is used to generate steam and power turbines to produce electricity. It also notes that nuclear power plants do not emit greenhouse gases like fossil fuel plants. However, nuclear power does produce radioactive waste that requires careful management and storage. Overall, the document presents nuclear power as a potential solution to meeting energy demands while reducing environmental impacts compared to fossil fuels.
Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom and released through fission, fusion, or radioactivity. It is produced naturally in stars and man-made in nuclear reactors. There are two main types of nuclear reactions that produce energy - nuclear fission which splits large nuclei, and nuclear fusion which combines small nuclei. Nuclear energy has applications in electric power generation, medicine, scientific research, food and agriculture, and space. However, nuclear disasters like Chernobyl and Fukushima have shown the dangers, with loss of life and long-term effects on the environment.
The document summarizes the key concepts of nuclear fusion as an energy source. It discusses how fusion works by combining light atoms at high temperatures and pressures to release energy. It also outlines some of the major challenges of fusion like maintaining the superheated plasma long enough for reactions to occur. The document then describes the major components of a fusion reactor, including magnetic confinement to contain the plasma away from the walls of the reactor. It concludes by noting fusion has potential benefits but significant technological challenges remain before it can be achieved on a commercial scale.
Nuclear fusion is the process by which lighter atomic nuclei fuse together to form heavier nuclei, releasing enormous amounts of energy. It is the process that powers stars like our Sun by fusing hydrogen into helium. Researchers are working to develop fusion as an energy source on Earth by containing and heating hydrogen isotopes to fuse in reactors such as tokamaks using magnetic and inertial confinement. Fusion reactors could provide safe, sustainable, and virtually limitless clean energy but developing viable commercial fusion power remains an engineering challenge that requires overcoming high costs and achieving breakeven where energy output exceeds energy input.
This document explores nuclear energy and its potential uses. It discusses how nuclear fission works and how it generates heat energy through splitting atoms in a chain reaction. While nuclear power provides benefits like zero emissions and low-cost energy, it also faces challenges from past accidents and the unresolved issue of permanent waste storage. In conclusion, nuclear energy could be one solution to growing energy demands if developed and regulated safely and for the benefit of humanity.
This document discusses nuclear fission, including its history, the fission chain reaction process, nuclear reactors, and applications. It describes how nuclear fission was discovered in 1938 and involves splitting uranium-235 atoms with neutrons, releasing energy and up to 3 neutrons to split more atoms. A self-sustaining chain reaction can occur in a nuclear reactor, where the heat generated is used to produce steam to power generators and produce electricity. Nuclear fission is applied in nuclear power plants, nuclear weapons, and medical and scientific research.
83-87
Hydrogen
10-14
Nitrogen
0.1-2
Oxygen
0.1-1.5
Sulphur
0.5-6
The document discusses various topics related to energy production and consumption including:
- Energy production has steadily increased worldwide from 215 quadrillion BTU in 1970 to 417 quadrillion BTU in 2003, a 94% rise.
- The top three energy producing countries in 2003 were United States, Russia, and China.
- Energy consumption is directly related to quality of life as measured by factors like life expectancy, education, and GDP.
- Foss
This document discusses organic solar cells, which convert light to electricity using conjugated polymers and molecules rather than traditional silicon materials. It provides background on the need for alternative energy sources due to growing energy demand and limited fossil fuels. Organic solar cells absorb light, transfer charges, transport the separated charges, and collect them. Researchers have achieved a new record efficiency of 15.6% for a graphene-based solar cell that uses titanium oxide, graphene, and perovskite, manufactured via low-temperature solution deposition. While organic solar cells offer advantages like lower costs and flexibility, their efficiency remains below silicon cells and they suffer from degradation. Further improving charge carrier transport and interface engineering is needed to enhance performance.
Journal of Nuclear Engineering & Technology (JoNET) is a print and e-journal focused towards the rapid publication of fundamental research papers on all areas of Nuclear Engineering & Nuclear Technology.
Focus and Scope Covers
Nuclear Power
Nuclear Medical Applications
Nuclear Industrial Applications
Nuclear Commercial Applications
Nuclear Safety
Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear Proliferation
Nuclear engineers must have a bachelor's degree in nuclear engineering and it is recommended they participate in a cooperative education program. Their average salary is around $99,920. Nuclear engineers design nuclear equipment, monitor nuclear facility operations to ensure safety compliance, examine nuclear accidents to design preventative measures, write operational instructions, direct plant maintenance activities, perform experiments testing nuclear material usage, and take corrective actions in emergencies. Duke Energy generates over half its power from nuclear plants and Areva is a large French conglomerate focused on nuclear power employing over 47,000 people. J. Robert Oppenheimer led the Manhattan Project and is considered the father of the atomic bomb while Enrico Fermi developed the first nuclear reactor.
This document discusses Assystem Energy and Nuclear, a leading engineering consultancy that provides services to the nuclear industry. It has over 10,000 professionals across Europe with offices near major nuclear sites. Assystem offers multi-disciplinary engineering expertise in areas like plant design, construction, and decommissioning. It has extensive knowledge of nuclear facilities in the UK and can provide technical assistance, outsourced engineering, and project management services tailored to clients' needs.
Irradiation is a process that exposes food to gamma rays, x-rays or electrons to kill microorganisms and insects, improving shelf life and safety without generating heat. Key radiations used are ultraviolet, beta rays, gamma rays and x-rays. Irradiation breaks chemical bonds in pathogens but can partially degrade some vitamins and nutrients. Extensive research has found irradiated food to be safe for human consumption. Common foods approved for irradiation include beef, pork, poultry, shellfish, eggs and various fruits and vegetables.
This lecture exposes students to food irradiation, the source of radiation, discusses whether it is save to consume irradiated foods and the effects of irradiation to food quality.
This document discusses food irradiation as a method of food preservation. It outlines the safety and benefits of food irradiation, which include preventing foodborne illness without using chemicals. However, barriers to greater adoption include public association with radioactivity, added costs, and consumer acceptance issues. Overcoming resistance will require focusing on health benefits rather than innovation, positive labeling, and international cooperation to remove unofficial barriers. Overall, commercial use of irradiated food has been slowly increasing in recent decades without incident.
This document summarizes food irradiation, which involves exposing foods to radiation like gamma rays or electron beams. It lists foods that can be irradiated like meat, fruits and vegetables. The doses for different foods are provided. The effects are said to not impact nutrition but extend shelf life by killing bacteria and stopping spoilage. It discusses the costs to build an irradiation facility and notes some existing facilities in India. Advantages are listed as killing insects and microbes to extend storage time, while disadvantages include limited applicability and potential vitamin reductions.
Food irradiation is a process that uses ionizing radiation to kill microorganisms, insects, and pests in food in order to extend shelf life and reduce foodborne illness. It has advantages like pathogen reduction and preservation without chemicals or loss of juices, but also has disadvantages like potential formation of chemical byproducts and loss of nutritional content. The document discusses what food irradiation is, how to identify irradiated foods, reasons for irradiating food, advantages and disadvantages of the process, and examples of its use.
Nuclear energy is generated from nuclear fission or fusion reactions. Fission of heavy radioactive elements like uranium and plutonium produces heat that is used to generate electricity in nuclear power plants. Fusion combines light elements and occurs in the sun but cannot currently be used to generate electricity. Nuclear energy has advantages of low emissions but disadvantages of high costs and radioactive waste storage issues. India has a three-stage nuclear program utilizing thorium and aims to increase its nuclear energy capacity.
The document discusses the basics of nuclear energy, including:
1) Nuclear energy comes from splitting uranium atoms through fission, which generates heat that can be used to produce electricity.
2) Constructive uses of nuclear energy include non-destructive testing of radioactive waste, tracing pollutants, medical applications like cancer treatment, and powering satellites.
3) While nuclear power generates energy, it also produces radioactive emissions that can damage human life and property if not properly contained in safety measures.
Nuclear medicine is an imaging specialty that uses radioactive tracers and detection systems to examine organ and tissue function. Tracers are introduced into the body and selectively taken up by organs, then detected by gamma cameras to create functional images. Common tracers include technetium-99m, iodine-131, and fluorine-18. The field has its origins in the late 19th century discoveries of x-rays and radioactivity by Roentgen, Becquerel, and the Curies. Pioneering work by Rutherford, Bohr, Chadwick, Lawrence and others led to an understanding of nuclear structure and the development of cyclotrons to produce artificial radionuclides for medical use. Tech
- There are two main systems for measuring radiation - the conventional US system and the International System of Units (SI).
- Radioactivity is measured in curies (Ci) in the US system and becquerels (Bq) in the SI system. 1 Ci equals 37 billion Bq.
- Exposure rate is measured in roentgens (R) per hour in the US system. The SI unit is the coulomb per kilogram (C/kg).
- Absorbed dose is measured in rads in the US system and grays (Gy) in the SI system. 1 Gy is equal to 100 rads.
This document provides an overview of radioactivity including its discovery, sources, applications, and health effects. It discusses how radioactivity was discovered by Becquerel and the Curies. Sources include primordial radionuclides in the Earth, cosmogenic radionuclides from cosmic rays, and anthropogenic radionuclides from nuclear activities. Applications include uses in medicine, industry, electricity generation, space exploration and food preservation. Examples of nuclear disasters like Chernobyl and Fukushima are provided along with effects of radiation exposure.
The document discusses various topics related to radioactivity including its sources, types of radiation emitted, units of radioactivity, applications in medicine, and examples of nuclear disasters. It provides background on radioactivity and its discovery. Key points include that radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation from unstable atomic nuclei, the three main types of radiation are alpha, beta, and gamma, and applications of radioactivity include uses in medicine such as medical imaging and carbon dating. Nuclear disasters discussed include Chernobyl and Fukushima.
This document discusses radioactivity and its applications. It begins with an introduction to radioactivity, sources of radionuclides, and background radiation. It then discusses several applications of radioactivity including medical uses in diagnosis and treatment, food preservation, crop improvement, and space exploration. The document also summarizes several nuclear disasters and accidents involving radioactivity. It concludes with information on radiation dose limits and additional references.
Naturally Occurring Radioactivity (NOR) in natural and anthropic environmentsSSA KPI
This document provides an overview of naturally occurring radioactivity (NOR) and naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) with a focus on their relevance to the oil and gas industry. It discusses the main radionuclides of interest, including radium-226, radium-228, uranium, radon-222, and lead-210. It also summarizes the origins of NORM in the oil and gas industry and the types of radiation emitted by NORM.
The document summarizes the history and science of nuclear power. It describes key discoveries like nuclear fission and the development of nuclear reactors. Some main points covered include:
- James Chadwick discovered neutrons in 1932 which were later found to cause fission when fired at heavy nuclei.
- In 1939, Meitner and Frisch proposed nuclear fission where absorbing neutrons causes heavy nuclei to split into lighter nuclei, releasing energy.
- Fermi discovered this could create a self-sustaining chain reaction. This led to the Manhattan Project and development of nuclear weapons and power.
- The first commercial nuclear power plant opened in 1959. Issues discussed include waste disposal and safety of nuclear power
Lesson 4 Ionizing Radiation | The Harnessed Atom (2016)ORAU
The document provides information about different types of radiation, including ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. It discusses radioactive decay and half-life. It also addresses natural and human-made sources of radiation exposure and averages about 6 mSv of annual exposure for Americans. Radiation can potentially cause cell damage but low levels are generally harmless due to body's ability to repair itself.
The document discusses the structure of atoms including subatomic particles like protons, neutrons and electrons. It describes atomic number and mass number, isotopes, radioactive decay, and different types of radiation (alpha, beta, gamma). It explains how radiation can be detected and some uses and biological effects of radiation including cancer risks from ionizing radiation. The concept of half-life is introduced with examples of how radioactive materials decay over time in a predictable pattern.
Radioactive Contamination and Procedures of Decontaminationmahbubul hassan
Training Course on Radiation Protection for Radiation Workers and RCOs of BAEC, Medical Facilities and Industries, TI, AERE, BAEC Savar, 27 October 2021
Antimatter is composed of antiparticles that have the same mass but opposite charge as normal matter particles. For example, a positron is the antiparticle of the electron. When antimatter comes into contact with normal matter, they annihilate each other and release a large amount of energy. While antimatter holds promise for medical imaging technologies like PET scans, it remains extremely difficult and costly to produce and contain due to the high energies and precision required.
* The half-life of I-123 is 13 hours
* We want to know how much is left after 39 hours
* 39 hours is 3 half-lives (39/13 = 3)
* Each half-life, the amount is reduced by half
* Starting with 64 mg:
** After 1 half-life: 64/2 = 32 mg
** After 2 half-lives: 32/2 = 16 mg
** After 3 half-lives: 16/2 = 8 mg
* Therefore, the amount left after 39 hours is 8 mg.
Nuclear medicine is a medical specialty that uses small amounts of radioactive substances to diagnose and treat diseases. These radioactive substances, known as radiopharmaceuticals, are detected by specialized imaging equipment that utilizes the radiation emitted. Common nuclear medicine procedures include PET scans, SPECT scans, and bone scans which provide functional information about organs and tissues. Radiopharmaceuticals are administered to patients and their distribution throughout the body is tracked using gamma cameras or PET scanners. Nuclear medicine plays an important role in diagnosing and monitoring many diseases.
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION
INTRODUTION
Radiation And Radioactivity:
The application of radioactive elements in nuclear weapons, X-rays, MRI and other medical equipment causes their exposure to human beings.
The deposition of these radioactive gases in water bodies also cause radioactive contamination.
Radiation is the transport of energy through space.
Two types of radiation. - Ionizing radiation
- Non ionizing radiation
Sources of radioactive pollution
Natural sources of radiation: Natural sources of radiation are mentioned below:
In natural sources of radioactive pollution, atomic radioactive minerals are one among them.
Cosmic rays possess high energy ionizing electromagnetic radiation.
Another source of radioactive radiation is naturally occurring radioisotopes. Radioisotopes are found in soil in small quantity.
Radioactive elements like radium, thorium, uranium, isotopes of potassium and carbon occur in lithosphere
Anthropogenic sources of radiation
Human activities mentioned below include in sources of radioactive pollution:
Nuclear tests
Nuclear reactors
Diagnostic medical applications
Nuclear Wastes
Nuclear explosions
Nuclear metal processing
Nuclear Reactor Accidents
Almost 99 such nuclear accidents have been occur through out worldwide. 56 of 99,have been occurred only in USA.
Kyshtym, Russia (former Soviet Union) – 29,september,1957 (INES Level 6)
200 people died on direct radiation and almost 8000 people died in 32 years of this nuclear accidents
Major nuclear accidents
Three Mile Island, United States – 28 March, 1979 (INES Level 5)
one of the elements of the power plant’s system malfunctioned
Chernobyl, Ukraine (former Soviet Union) – 26,april,1986 (INES Level 7)
A series of events led to the explosion of the reactor number four at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant
Fukushima, Japan –11,march 2011 (INES Level 7)
9.0 magnitude earthquake struck off the coast of Japan. The resulting tsunami (49 feet tall) hit the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant 51 and experienced meltdown
NUCLEAR BOMBS
August 6, 1945, Hiroshima
directly killing an estimated 80,000 people. By the end of the year, injury and radiation brought total casualties to 90,000–140,000
On August 9, 1945, Nagasaki
Almost 75,000 people died and more affected by radiation.
Radiation Health Effects
Radionuclides are carcinogens and at high doses can also cause rapid sickness and death.
The health effects of exposure to radiation depend on many factors.
the amount of energy it deliver
the length of exposure time
the organs and tissues exposed
characteristics of the exposed person
How does radiation injure people?
High energy radiation breaks chemical bonds.
This creates free radicals, like those produced by other insults as well as by normal cellular processes in the body.
The free radicals can change chemicals in the body.
These changes can disrupt cell function and may kill cells.
The document discusses various topics related to radiation and nuclear physics, including:
1) The inverse-square law and how radiation intensity decreases with distance from the source. An experiment is described to demonstrate this.
2) Different types of ionizing radiation like alpha, beta, gamma rays and their properties. Experiments with shielding materials like lead are proposed.
3) Natural and medical sources of radiation and how they contribute to typical human annual radiation doses. Most exposure is from natural background sources like radon.
4) Nuclear reactions like alpha decay, neutron capture, and beta decay are explained. Isotopic notation and how the element changes during these reactions is also covered.
Radiation can be ionizing or non-ionizing and comes from natural and man-made sources. Ionizing radiation like alpha, beta, gamma, and x-rays can damage biological tissues by ionizing atoms. Exposure to high doses can cause acute effects while long-term low doses are linked to increased cancer risks. Radiation protection methods aim to reduce exposure time near sources and increase distance and shielding between people and radiation. Exposure is monitored using personal dosimeters and survey meters to track doses and identify sources.
Radiation detectors work by exploiting how radiation interacts with matter to produce measurable signals. The document discusses several types of radiation detectors, including gas-filled detectors like Geiger-Muller counters, scintillation detectors, and semiconductor detectors. It explains how each detector works and its applications, advantages, and limitations. The document also covers topics like pulse processing, resolving time, and quenching in Geiger counters to restore the detector to a quiescent state between detections.
Wilhelm Rontgen discovered X-rays in 1895, which led Henri Becquerel to discover that uranium salts cause fluorescence without exposure to light, showing they were radioactive. Marie Curie coined the term radioactivity and isolated the radioactive elements polonium and radium from pitchblende ore. Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable atomic nuclei accompanied by emission of three types of radiation: alpha, beta, and gamma rays. Half-life is used to characterize the rate of radioactive decay, which varies widely from fractions of seconds to millions of years.
Let's Integrate MuleSoft RPA, COMPOSER, APM with AWS IDP along with Slackshyamraj55
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Ivanti’s Patch Tuesday breakdown goes beyond patching your applications and brings you the intelligence and guidance needed to prioritize where to focus your attention first. Catch early analysis on our Ivanti blog, then join industry expert Chris Goettl for the Patch Tuesday Webinar Event. There we’ll do a deep dive into each of the bulletins and give guidance on the risks associated with the newly-identified vulnerabilities.
For the full video of this presentation, please visit: https://www.edge-ai-vision.com/2024/06/building-and-scaling-ai-applications-with-the-nx-ai-manager-a-presentation-from-network-optix/
Robin van Emden, Senior Director of Data Science at Network Optix, presents the “Building and Scaling AI Applications with the Nx AI Manager,” tutorial at the May 2024 Embedded Vision Summit.
In this presentation, van Emden covers the basics of scaling edge AI solutions using the Nx tool kit. He emphasizes the process of developing AI models and deploying them globally. He also showcases the conversion of AI models and the creation of effective edge AI pipelines, with a focus on pre-processing, model conversion, selecting the appropriate inference engine for the target hardware and post-processing.
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5th LF Energy Power Grid Model Meet-up SlidesDanBrown980551
5th Power Grid Model Meet-up
It is with great pleasure that we extend to you an invitation to the 5th Power Grid Model Meet-up, scheduled for 6th June 2024. This event will adopt a hybrid format, allowing participants to join us either through an online Mircosoft Teams session or in person at TU/e located at Den Dolech 2, Eindhoven, Netherlands. The meet-up will be hosted by Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), a research university specializing in engineering science & technology.
Power Grid Model
The global energy transition is placing new and unprecedented demands on Distribution System Operators (DSOs). Alongside upgrades to grid capacity, processes such as digitization, capacity optimization, and congestion management are becoming vital for delivering reliable services.
Power Grid Model is an open source project from Linux Foundation Energy and provides a calculation engine that is increasingly essential for DSOs. It offers a standards-based foundation enabling real-time power systems analysis, simulations of electrical power grids, and sophisticated what-if analysis. In addition, it enables in-depth studies and analysis of the electrical power grid’s behavior and performance. This comprehensive model incorporates essential factors such as power generation capacity, electrical losses, voltage levels, power flows, and system stability.
Power Grid Model is currently being applied in a wide variety of use cases, including grid planning, expansion, reliability, and congestion studies. It can also help in analyzing the impact of renewable energy integration, assessing the effects of disturbances or faults, and developing strategies for grid control and optimization.
What to expect
For the upcoming meetup we are organizing, we have an exciting lineup of activities planned:
-Insightful presentations covering two practical applications of the Power Grid Model.
-An update on the latest advancements in Power Grid -Model technology during the first and second quarters of 2024.
-An interactive brainstorming session to discuss and propose new feature requests.
-An opportunity to connect with fellow Power Grid Model enthusiasts and users.
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ABSTRACT: A prima vista, un mattoncino Lego e la backdoor XZ potrebbero avere in comune il fatto di essere entrambi blocchi di costruzione, o dipendenze di progetti creativi e software. La realtà è che un mattoncino Lego e il caso della backdoor XZ hanno molto di più di tutto ciò in comune.
Partecipate alla presentazione per immergervi in una storia di interoperabilità, standard e formati aperti, per poi discutere del ruolo importante che i contributori hanno in una comunità open source sostenibile.
BIO: Sostenitrice del software libero e dei formati standard e aperti. È stata un membro attivo dei progetti Fedora e openSUSE e ha co-fondato l'Associazione LibreItalia dove è stata coinvolta in diversi eventi, migrazioni e formazione relativi a LibreOffice. In precedenza ha lavorato a migrazioni e corsi di formazione su LibreOffice per diverse amministrazioni pubbliche e privati. Da gennaio 2020 lavora in SUSE come Software Release Engineer per Uyuni e SUSE Manager e quando non segue la sua passione per i computer e per Geeko coltiva la sua curiosità per l'astronomia (da cui deriva il suo nickname deneb_alpha).
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Read Taking AI to the Next Level in Manufacturing to gain insights on AI adoption in the manufacturing industry, such as:
1. How quickly AI is being implemented in manufacturing.
2. Which barriers stand in the way of AI adoption.
3. How data quality and governance form the backbone of AI.
4. Organizational processes and structures that may inhibit effective AI adoption.
6. Ideas and approaches to help build your organization's AI strategy.
How to Interpret Trends in the Kalyan Rajdhani Mix Chart.pdfChart Kalyan
A Mix Chart displays historical data of numbers in a graphical or tabular form. The Kalyan Rajdhani Mix Chart specifically shows the results of a sequence of numbers over different periods.
Skybuffer SAM4U tool for SAP license adoptionTatiana Kojar
Manage and optimize your license adoption and consumption with SAM4U, an SAP free customer software asset management tool.
SAM4U, an SAP complimentary software asset management tool for customers, delivers a detailed and well-structured overview of license inventory and usage with a user-friendly interface. We offer a hosted, cost-effective, and performance-optimized SAM4U setup in the Skybuffer Cloud environment. You retain ownership of the system and data, while we manage the ABAP 7.58 infrastructure, ensuring fixed Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) and exceptional services through the SAP Fiori interface.
Have you ever been confused by the myriad of choices offered by AWS for hosting a website or an API?
Lambda, Elastic Beanstalk, Lightsail, Amplify, S3 (and more!) can each host websites + APIs. But which one should we choose?
Which one is cheapest? Which one is fastest? Which one will scale to meet our needs?
Join me in this session as we dive into each AWS hosting service to determine which one is best for your scenario and explain why!
Building Production Ready Search Pipelines with Spark and MilvusZilliz
Spark is the widely used ETL tool for processing, indexing and ingesting data to serving stack for search. Milvus is the production-ready open-source vector database. In this talk we will show how to use Spark to process unstructured data to extract vector representations, and push the vectors to Milvus vector database for search serving.
Unlock the Future of Search with MongoDB Atlas_ Vector Search Unleashed.pdfMalak Abu Hammad
Discover how MongoDB Atlas and vector search technology can revolutionize your application's search capabilities. This comprehensive presentation covers:
* What is Vector Search?
* Importance and benefits of vector search
* Practical use cases across various industries
* Step-by-step implementation guide
* Live demos with code snippets
* Enhancing LLM capabilities with vector search
* Best practices and optimization strategies
Perfect for developers, AI enthusiasts, and tech leaders. Learn how to leverage MongoDB Atlas to deliver highly relevant, context-aware search results, transforming your data retrieval process. Stay ahead in tech innovation and maximize the potential of your applications.
#MongoDB #VectorSearch #AI #SemanticSearch #TechInnovation #DataScience #LLM #MachineLearning #SearchTechnology
4. Early History 450 BC: Democritus termed atomos as the “smallest indivisible particle of matter” Early models of the atom: John Dalton, 1803: ‘Cannonball’ like atoms JJ Thomson, 1904: Plum pudding model After his 1897 discovery of the electron
5. Discovering the Nucleus Bad news for Thomson Plum pudding was disproved by Rutherford with his classic backscattering experiment This proved the existence of the nucleus in 1911
6. Discovering Electrons Enter Niels Bohr Electrons must have energy levels Proposes planetary model of the atom based on Rutherford’s Math checks out for light elements
7. Discovering Radiation 1896: Henri Becquerel discovers that uranium emits gamma rays In the following years, Marie Curie finds more radioactive elements, like radium
8. Discovering Fission Hahn and Meitner discover fission in 1938 Fermi conducts first successful chain reaction at the University of Chicago in December, 1942
9. First Nuclear Weapons Manhattan Project (1945) “Little Boy” – uranium device dropped on Hiroshima “Fat Man” – plutonium device dropped on Nagasaki
10. First Nuclear Power 1951: EBR-1 in Idaho is first reactor to generate electricity 1957: Shippingport Reactor in Pennsylvania is the first commercial nuclear power plant in U.S.
18. How does radiation damage happen? 4 kinds of radiation: Alpha, Beta, Neutron Gamma ¾ are PARTICLES Primary mode of damage: COLLISIONAL ~ Billiard Balls Damage is a function of: KINETIC ENERGY TRANSFER [1]
19. Biological Radiation Damage The damage process Incident particles interact with the material Cause ionizations Change/Destroy Molecules Biological materials do not have a crystal lattice to add strength Much more readily damaged [3]
20. Biological effects, continued [4] With incident radiation cells can be: Unchanged Damaged Damage can be repaired, can return to normal functioning Damage can be repaired, cell functions are off-normal Can damage other cells, can reproduce unhealthy cells, can be unable to reproduce Killed The number and type of cells damaged or killed determines the impact of a radiation does to biological materials
21. How do you protect yourself from radiation? 21 Shielding Distance Time Amount
24. Answer: Detectors There are many types of detectors Today we will use a Geiger-Müller Counter Basic concept: Radiation enters chamber Ionizes the gas Creates ions that are attracted to the wire
28. Want to split an atom? Look at your Television! CRT (giant TV’s) take electrons and speeds them up. They’re smashed into phosphor molecules on the screen Collision releases energy and lights the TV screen http://science.howstuffworks.com/atom-smasher2.htm
29. How a high- energy accelerator works Differences from the TV? Particles are bigger Particles move faster (near speed of light!) Move in a circular track Collision results in more subatomic particles How it works? Particles are accelerated using EM waves like a surfer riding a swell The more energetic the particle, the easier it is to see the structures. Example? If you hit a cue ball in pool and make it go faster the rack of balls will scatter faster and further. http://science.howstuffworks.com/atom-smasher2.htm
30. What is detected? There are many types of detectors Things that can be detected: Number of particles Energy Mass http://science.howstuffworks.com/atom-smasher9.htm
37. Nuclear Power Facts Even though no new plants have been built, the percentage of US electricity generated has increased! Radiation from nuclear power has never caused a death or cancer in the United States A nuclear power plant cannot undergo a nuclear explosion
40. Challenges for Nuclear Fusion Power Materials challenges First wall High-power superconducting magnets High energy neutron fluxes Lithium blankets, neutron absorbers Control of plasma We can do this if we solve the materials challenges
41. Nuclear Fuel Cycle 41 Mining & Milling – Uranium Oxide (U3O8) Conversion to UF6 Enrichment to 3-4% U-235 Fabrication in to Fuel Assemblies Burned in Reactor Storage in Spent Fuel Pool Dry Cask Storage Permanent Underground Storage Reprocessing to Make New Fuel
42. Energy Equivalence 1 Uranium Pellet 3 Barrels of Oil 17,000 Cubic Feet of Natural Gas 1 Ton of Coal 42
43. Energy Equivalence 1000 MWe Nuclear Power Plant 1 km2 1000 Windmills 100 km2 Solar Cells 5000 km2 43
46. Radioactive Waste Low-level waste: items that have become contaminated or radioactive Contaminated protective shoe covers and clothing Wiping rags, mops, filters, tools Luminous dials Medical tubes, swabs, injection needles, syringes, and laboratory animal carcasses and tissues Low-level waste is disposed underground 46
47. Spent Nuclear Fuel About 1/3 of the core is removed every 12-18 months Spent fuel is extremely radioactive! Stored in spent fuel pool at plant for 5 years to cool Moved to dry storage once pool is full Currently have 60,000 metric tons of spent fuel (covers a football field, 7 yards deep) What are we going to do with it?
48. Nuclear Non-Proliferation Nuclear material from the nuclear fuel cycle could be diverted to a weapons program Atomic Bomb Need to chemically separate or enrich material Takes a lot of time, money, and technology Dirty Bomb: disperse radioactive materials International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Facilitates peaceful use of nuclear technology Protects nuclear material around the world and verifies that it is not diverted
49. Homeland Security CIA works with IAEA to detect nuclear weapons Seismic monitoring can detect nuclear weapons testing (like in North Korea) Portal radiation monitors scan incoming cargo 49
51. What is Nuclear Medicine? Nuclear Medicine is a branch of medicine that uses radioisotopes to: diagnose, treat, and track diseases in the human body. Basic Principle: Certain organs and tissue uptake specific isotopes or chemical compounds Radioisotopes are combined with pharmaceuticals that will be absorbed in the tissue or organ in question
52. Diagnose Imaging based on function and physiology, not solely on anatomy. Scan types: Planar SPECT: Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography PET: Positron Emission Tomography CAT and MRI scans do not use radioactivity
55. Treatment Radiopharmaceuticals emit ionizing radiation that travels a short distance in the body Minimizes unwanted side effects and damage to noninvolved organs and tissues Some Examples: Iodine-131 : hyperthyroidism Yttrium-90: Lymphoma Strontium-89: bone pain treatment
56. How it Works Imaging Administration IV Inhaled as a gas Swallowed The tracer accumulates, and then is imaged with gamma cameras Treatment Administration IV Inhaled as a gas Swallowed The tracer accumulates, and then decays, delivering localized dose
57. What happens after invivo treatment? Treatments are generally outpatient treatments The treatment will continue to decay while in your body Isotopes are choose with have short half lives, so they decay quickly Your body also has a natural “filtration system” that removes the tracers from your system, known as a biological half-life.
59. Space Application: Power Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RGT) Long life power source (months-100yr) Alpha decay heats thermocouples for electricity New Horizons Mission to Pluto RTG Apollo 14
60. Space Application: Power Fission Surface Power Source Fission Reactor to be used on the surface of the moon or mars Would be used to power a permanent outpost Liquid metal coolant used instead of water
61. Space Applications: Propulsion Nuclear Thermal Rocket Engines Propellant gas (hydrogen) is heated in a reactor and is pushed through a nozzle Ion Propulsion Ionized hydrogen gas (protons) are accelerated by a strong electric field powered by a nuclear reactor or RTG NERVA rocket Ion Engine
62. Consumer Products: Smoke Detectors Smoke Detectors An alpha emitter (Am-241) is used in smoke detection circuit Alphas ionize an electric plate Smoke stops ionization of the plate which sets off alarm NOTE: To properly dispose of a smoke detector, just send it back to the manufacturer.
63. Consumer Products: Self-Powered Lighting Beta emitters (such as Tritium) are combined with a phosphorescent material to produce light Can make lights that run continuously for 20 years Example products Watch dials Emergency signs Gun scopes
64. Consumer Products: Irradiated Gemstones Color in gemstones is caused by small imperfections in the crystal structure Most types of radiation (especially neutrons) can effectively change the color of a gemstone to something more desirable
65. Manufacturing: Radiation Hardening Radiation causes small defects in a material which hardens it Gamma radiation is most commonly used because it can penetrate deep into materials Examples: Polymerization of plastics Protective coatings for hard wood floors
66. Food Irradiation Food irradiation: Does not “kill” or spoil the food (it is already dead) Does not make the food radioactive Does kill living things in the food (bacteria, viruses) Irradiation can prevent: Food borne diseases Food infestation Food contamination and spoilage 66
71. More nuclear professionals are needed The demand exceeds the supply of graduates trained in nuclear science and technology Many nuclear professionals are retiring and need to transfer their knowledge to the next generation of experts. Scholarships, awards, and honors exist for student education and research Nuclear Engineers have the 3rd highest median income among the engineering professions at $102,000/year
72. Government and National Security Nuclear Regulatory Commission Department of Energy Research at national labs Homeland security Central Intelligence Agency NASA
78. Research Areas Ultraintense Laser Science and Technology Center for Materials Under Extreme Environment Radiation Materials and Surface Interactions Nuclear Detection and Remote Sensing Radiation Shielding for Space Applications Thermal Hydraulics and Reactor Safety Fuel Cycle and Waste Management Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Nuclear Systems Simulation Applied Intelligent Systems Reactor Fusion Reactor Physics
79. First Year Engineering Introduction to Engineering Calculus I and II Chemistry I and II Physics I and II English Communications Computer Science
80. Nuclear Engineering Curriculum Math (4) Intro to Nuclear Engr. Mechanical Engr. (3) Radiation Lab Materials (2-3 & Lab) Neutron Physics (2) Thermal-Hydraulics (2) Fluid Mechanics Lab Linear Circuit Analysis Reactor Lab Nuclear Power Systems Nuclear Reactor Theory Colloquium Series Technical Electives (6) General Electives (6) Senior Design (2)
85. Sources American Nuclear Society U.S. Department of Energy U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Nuclear Energy Institute International Atomic Energy Agency American Wind Energy Association World Nuclear Association NASA
86. Three Mile Island Accident – Pennsylvania 1979 Cooling malfunction caused part of the core to melt, destroyed reactor Some radioactive gas was released a couple of days after the accident, but not above background levels to local residents No injuries or adverse health effects http://www.teachersparadise.com/ency/en/wikipedia/t/th/three_mile_island.html
87. Chernobyl Accident – Ukraine 1986 Flawed reactor design, operated by inadequately trained personnel, unsafe operation Steam explosion and fire released 5% of the radioactive reactor core into the atmosphere 28 people died within four months from radiation or thermal burns, 19 have subsequently died, and about 9 deaths from thyroid cancer: total 56 fatalities Damaged reactor currently contained in sarcophagus New sturdy steel containment to be built soon http://blog.kievukraine.info/uploaded_images/5436-708397.jpg
Editor's Notes
Geiger counter: Incident radiation will penetrate the tube, ionize the gas, and create ions that will be attracted to the wire
Questions being asked:Why are there 3 pairs of quarks when only one pair is used to create matter?What gives particles mass?Why is the top quark so massive (35x larger)?
Radiotracer, Tracer, and Radiopharmaceuticals– drugs that emit radioactivity. They are radionuclides that have been chemically combined with pharmaceuticals
Diagnostic imaging (also known as “radio nuclide imagin” or “nuclear scintigraphy”)After the tracer has been administered to the patient, it will localize in the organ, tissue, bones, etc. External gamma cameras can then form images from the radiation emitted by the radiotracer. Different from, say, an x-ray. An X-ray uses external radiation that passes through the body to create a picture. Because the image is based on the uptake of the compound in the tissue, it gives information on how the organ is FUNCTIONING, not just how it LOOKS. “Unlike other imaging techniques, nuclear medicine imaging studies are less directed toward picturing anatomy and structure, and more concerned with depicting physiologic processes within the body, such as rates of metabolism or levels of various other chemical activity. Areas of greater intensity, called "hot spots", indicate where large amounts of the radiotracer have accumulated and where there is a high level of chemical activity. Less intense areas, or "cold spots", indicate a smaller concentration of radiotracer and less chemical activity.”CENTRAL POINT: Healthy tissues and organs will uptake compounds differently than tissues and organs that have a disease. Scan types: Planar: provides a 2-D image of the funcion of the image being processesSPECT:Provides 3-D computer-reconstructed images of multiple views and function of the organ being imaged. PET: Produces high energy, 3-D computer-reconstructed images measuring and determining the function or physiology in a specific organ, tumor, or other metabolically active site.In general, the PET has replaced older forms of nuclear medicine scans, such as gallium scans, indium white blood cell scans, MIBG and octreotide scans.Image fusions: examples being the SPECT/CT or PET/CT the advantage is that you get information on the function and the anatomy of the organ.
Fusing the images, again, you get information on the function and the anatomy of the organ. So here in this healthy scan, you can see the anatomy from the CT, then the physiology from the PET, and it provides you with a more holistic picture of what the patient is experiencing. In this normal scan, we don’t see hot spots or cold spots on the PET scan, the tracers are being uniformly up taken in the body
In this Abnormal whole body PET/CT scan with multiple metastases from a cancer, we can see hot spots, or these darker regions on the image. When the images are fused, you can see where the uptake is located, and how that fits into the anatomy. The whole body PET/CT scan has became an important tool in the evaluation of cancer. it can also allow for diagnosis at an earlier stage than other diagnostic tests. (you can see the increased uptake, for example, without having to have large growth in the anatomy. Or doing invasive surgery).
While there are applications of nuclear medicine in vitro (such as RIA, or Radioimmunoassay, which uses radiochemicals and antibodies to measure the levels of hormones, vitamins, and drugs in a patients blood), the majority of treatments are done in vivo, which is when radiopharmaceuticals are given directly to the patient. Nuclear Medicine can be used for disease treatment because it can deliver localized dose within the patient. The “rate of release” of the radiation is determined by the half life (biological and physical) of the radio isotope in the medicine.
It is good for the isotopes to decay quickly for two reasons. The first, is that more quickly an isotope decays, the more dose it will give to the tumorous tissue. The second, is that it will decay quickly, meaning that you will not have the dose long in your body.