1) John Stevens explored and documented 44 Mayan sites in 1839, finding the cities desolate with no inhabitants. 2) He described intricate architecture, art, and evidence of a cultivated people who had risen and fallen. 3) The cause of the Maya decline around 800-900AD remains mysterious, with hypotheses including climate change, overpopulation, famine, or rebellion against the elite class.
The Maya people used a written language and a numeral system. They were good at art, building, and math. Their priests studied stars and planets, which helped them make calendars. The Maya civilization was biggest between the years of 420 AD and 900 AD.
The Maya people used a written language and a numeral system. They were good at art, building, and math. Their priests studied stars and planets, which helped them make calendars. The Maya civilization was biggest between the years of 420 AD and 900 AD.
This presentation talk about the Mayan Civilization.
The Mayan civilization was developed in the region of Mesoamerica, including the southwest of Mexico, Guatemala and Belize, and the west of El Salvador and Honduras.
LifeTech Capital Updates NeoStem (NBS) Strong Buy $4.00 Target. New York, NY-based NeoStem is a multi-faceted, multinational medical company. Among their business are adult stem cell collection, processing and storage in the U.S., research and development for diagnostic and therapeutic applications using autologous adult stem cells, including their VSEL™ technology (very small embryonic-like stem cells) and several China-based, adult stem cell therapeutics operational and R&D activities for adult stem cell therapeutics focused on regenerative medicine. In addition, NeoStem and the Vatican's Pontifical Council for Culture announced a joint initiative with their charitable foundations to expand research and raise awareness of adult stem cell therapies. A 3-day international conference at the Vatican on adult stem cell research, including VSEL™ technology, is planned for 2011 and will focus on medical research presentations and theological and philosophical considerations and implications of scientific achievements.
This presentation talk about the Mayan Civilization.
The Mayan civilization was developed in the region of Mesoamerica, including the southwest of Mexico, Guatemala and Belize, and the west of El Salvador and Honduras.
LifeTech Capital Updates NeoStem (NBS) Strong Buy $4.00 Target. New York, NY-based NeoStem is a multi-faceted, multinational medical company. Among their business are adult stem cell collection, processing and storage in the U.S., research and development for diagnostic and therapeutic applications using autologous adult stem cells, including their VSEL™ technology (very small embryonic-like stem cells) and several China-based, adult stem cell therapeutics operational and R&D activities for adult stem cell therapeutics focused on regenerative medicine. In addition, NeoStem and the Vatican's Pontifical Council for Culture announced a joint initiative with their charitable foundations to expand research and raise awareness of adult stem cell therapies. A 3-day international conference at the Vatican on adult stem cell research, including VSEL™ technology, is planned for 2011 and will focus on medical research presentations and theological and philosophical considerations and implications of scientific achievements.
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tweetbook: Digitalna hronika kluba 5/2010 - 10/2014 Дигитална хроника клубаБициклистички клуб ГОРСКИ
http://bkgorski.com/vesti/tweetbook-digitalna-hronika-kluba-52010-102014
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AVReporter Schneider Electric M221 plc impulse counterAvreporter KONsys
This document describes the components and procedures required to specify and deliver a simple consumption monitoring and reporting solution, using a Schneider Electric M221 PLC and AVReporter v3.0 software.
Mayan ruins are the leftover archaeological sites of the Mayan civilization which existed between 1300 BCE - 1200 CE. The Mayans are known for being an extremely advanced civilization that flourished primarily between 300 CE -900 CE. The Mayans inhabited lands in the current day Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and Belize, and they were responsible for building large monuments to carry out numerous rituals and ceremonies. The ruins of these ceremonial monuments can be visited at hundreds of locations around areas of Mexico and Central America.
In this ppt i have explained about Mayans and their ruins. Hope it helps u all. :)
Essay On The Mayans
Mayan Beliefs And Beliefs
The Ancient Maya Essay
The Mayan Empire Essay
The Mayans Essay
Mayan Astronomy Essay
Mayan Calendar Essay
The Mayans Essay
Mayan Achievements Essay
The Mayan Civilization
Mayan Civilizations
Ancient Maya Essay
The Fall of the Mayan Empire Essay
Mayan Culture Essay
Civilizations in Mesoamerica rose and fell repeatedly, leaving behind a distinctive worldview and some mysteries.
Register to explore the whole course here: https://school.bighistoryproject.com/bhplive?WT.mc_id=Slideshare12202017
Albania an important energy hub for the Southern Gas Corridor Realistic over...Albania Energy Association
Albania an important energy hub for the Southern Gas Corridor
Realistic overview of the Albanian and West Balkan
Erlet Shaqe
Co-Founder and Chairman of AEA
aea@aea-al.org
EU Gas Demand
Composition of the European gas supply
Existing and planned import pipelines to Europe
Natural gas demand on the Balkans
The Balkan Gas Hub
The Albania/Balkan region
Regional primary energy production WB
Natural Gas Role in the Albanian Energy Balance
Ionian – Adriatic Pipeline
TAP is considered important for Albania
Albania Natural Gas Forecast
Realistic potential area for developing the gas transmission and distribution in Albania
Underground Gas Storage potentials of Albania.
*Credits AEA-Albania Energy Association
Albania investments and Hydropower development 2017
The Albania Energy Association represents the Albania energy industry, covering all renewable, power, heat and fuels.
Albania Country of Opportunities .
CILESIA E AJRIT NE AMBIENTET E BRENDESHME
Studimi i mirëqënies termike nuk mund te jete i shkeputur nga ajoe e
cilësisë së ajrit në brendësi të ambienteve të rrethuara. Vëzhgimi i
sëmundjeve në dukje (sindroma të ndërtesës së sëmurë) të çuditshme në
kushte të caktuara ka çuar në lindjen e një linje tjetër studimi që i
referohet cilësisë kimike – fizike të ajrit qe, sot njihet si IAQ (Indoor Air Quality-Cilësia e Ajrit të Brendshëm). Materialet përshtatura për ndërtime, mobiljet, gazrat e përdorur në impiante, të gjithë këto prodhojnë substanca avulluese organike ( Volatile Organic Compound, VOC– Përzierje Organike Avulli) që, në përqëndrim të pakontrolluar mund të sjellin sëmundje të natyrave dhe rrezikshmërive të ndryshme.
TREGUESIT E CILËSISE SË AJRIT
PROÇESET PSIKROMETRIKE
RRL
Ngarkesa Ftohëse
CENTRALET FRIGORIFERIKE
Metodat e permasimit te tubave te ajrit
The revival and transformation of Europe’s largest onshore oilfield; the Pato...Albania Energy Association
Presentation: The revival and transformation of Europe’s largest onshore oilfield; the Patos-Marinza field
Leonidha Çobo, General Manager, Bankers Petroleum Albania Ltd
Presentation: Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP) – The European leg of the Southern Gas Corridor
Shkelqim Bozgo, Country Manager for Albania, Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP)
Presentation: Overall analysis of the onshore sector of Albania and current developments
Dritan Spahiu, Director of Policies and Development of Hydrocarbons, Ministry of Energy and Industry
How Albanian legislation facilitates the exploration and development of hydro...Albania Energy Association
Presentation: How Albanian legislation facilitates the exploration and development of hydrocarbons
Dael Dervishi, Executive Director, National Agency of Natural Resources (AKBN)
vercoming challenges in the exploration of Albania’s high potential carbonate...Albania Energy Association
Presentation: Overcoming challenges in the exploration of Albania’s high potential carbonate structures
Peter Sider, Vice President, Engineering, Operations and Business Development, Petromanas
Presentation: The role of Southern Gas Corridor for energy security of Europe
Ilkin Aslanov, Executive Assistant to SOCAR President Advisor, SOCAR, Azerbaijan
Presentation: Environmental services for the oil and gas industry
Giannis Karakolis, North Greece Director, POLYECO S.A.
Simon Geragthy, Drilling Waste Management Expert, POLYECO S.A
Presentation: Concessions and the legal framework in Energy
Etleva Kondi, Director of Concessions, Procurement and Privatisation, Ministry of Energy and Industry
Presentation: Strengthening integration on Energy Community and investment opportunities
Lorenc Gordani, Professor of EU Law and Project Director, ACERC
Presentation: The refining sector of Albania
Christophe Darbord, Chief Executive Officer, Armo Refinery
Presentation: What is the energy investment outlook in Albania for 2020?
Entela Çipa, Advisor to the Minister of Energy and Industry
Presentation: Extractive Industry Transparency Initiative - EITI in Albania
Dorina Çinari, Director, Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) Albania
Presentation: The National Economic Council; Fostering Business-Government dialogue
Elona Varfi, COO, National Economic Council (NEC)
Keynote Presentation from the Ministry of Energy and Industry - Electricity Directorate
Agim Bregasi, Director of Policies and Development of Electricity, Ministry of Energy and Industry
Presentation: An overview of Albania’s greatest energy source - Hydropower
Aas Agnar, Director of Governmental Affairs, Devoll Hydropower, Albania
Presentation: An overview of the mining sector in Albania
Mehmet Hasalami, Policy and Development Directorate of Mines, Ministry of Energy and Industry
Transporti me litare, perfshine ato lloje te transporti ne te cilen objekti qe transportohet c’vendoset me ndihmen e nje litari. Kjo eshte konceptuar ne terheqjen e mjetit mbartes me anen e litarit, pergjate udhes se tij, ose shtriries se tij. Historikisht tipike, ky lloj transporti perfaqesonte levizjet e mjeteve lundruese, mbi lumenj ose kanale lundruese. Sot ky lloj transporti (lumenj lundruese) eshte gjeneruar ne forma te ndryshme, sic do ta shohim ne leksionet e meposhteme. Peshen kryesore ne kete lloj transporti e ze transporti me teleferik dhe ai me ashensore, (pa permendur makinat ngritese-transportuese). Transporti me terheqje rreshqanthi, pergjate tokes, eshte pak i perhapur. (Ekzistojne studime te cilat tentojne te perfshijne kete lloj transporti, te permendur ne fund, ne formen e linjave me shina, si nje forme e transportit urban ne qytetet e medha dhe me infrastrukture te dobed). Ne ne leksionin tone do te trajtojme transportin me teleferik, dhe ai me ashensore, si dy forma transporti me mundesi perhapje ne Shqiperi. Per transportin me makina peshengritese-transportuese, nuk do ti trajtojme, per specifikat e vecanta te tyre, si dhe per detyren qe ne kemi vene ne lenden tone, Transportin publik
Kerkesa per parkim
Karakteristika e problemeve te transportit
Parkimi eshte nje aspekt i rendesishem i transportit qe ndihmon (pranon) ne praktike levizjen e automjeit. Ne qendrat urbane politika e vendqendrimeve te inspirohet nga kritere dhe objektiva te ndryshme , por ne cdo rast p[ermban nje total racionale e bazuar ne njohjen e ofertes ne veprim dhe kerkeses me te gjitha kuptimet sasiore e cilesore. Vleresimi i ofertes eshte nje problem i nje vezhgimi te paster statistikore ndersa kerkesa varion ne hapsire dhe ne kohen dhe mbi gjithshka ne sjelljen e perdoruesave ne lidhjen me politiken e pergjitheshme dhe ne vecanti me vete politiken e vendqendrimeve. Ne kete kapitull do te mundohemi te ndertojme tek disa modele te vleresimit te kerkeses, ne vecanti tek modeli gravitacional , dhe do te dallohen disa parametra qe bejne matjen e kerkeses per parkim.
Po te levizjen per sherbim transporti si nje rryme fluidi (ajri/lengu), dhe infrastrukturen si nje labirinth tubash, me pike fillimi, mbarimi, si dhe interseksione te ndryshme, ku neper kete sistem tubash kalon fluidi ne fjale. Eshte e kuptueshme qe per kontrollin ose komandimin e rastit, te vendosen disa elemente konstruktive, te cilet disiplinojne kalimin e fluidit neper nje, ose disa tuba te vecante, ose te lidhur ne njefare sistemi. Keshtu me kete lloj perfytyrimi qe ne po krijojme, mund ta njehsojme levizjen kaotike neper infrastrukture, te perdoruesave te mjeteve (shofere transporti mallrash, ose pasagjeresh, ose qytetare perdorues te mjeteve private, te cilet levizin neper infrastrukturen ekzistuese, per te realizuar nje cvendosje nga nje pozicion ne nje tjeter). Ne q. se vazhdojme te krahasojme situacionin e mesiper, ne llidhje me nje fluid vleresohen parametrat cilesor te tij si:, temperaturat dhe vetit e fizike te tij, vizkoziteti, pasha specifike, shpejtesia etj. Te cilat vleresojne levizjen e fluidit ne keto tubacione. Ne nje sistem transporti levizja e perdoruesave te infrastruktures ne nje intinerar mund te vleresohet nga disa parametra ose karkateristikat e fluksit te perdoruesave, te cilat mund te grupojme 3 faktore qe influencojne direkt per kete fenomen, ose levizje. Mjeti-drejtuesi-ambjenti, te tre keto grupime jane elmente perberes dhe influencues ne cdo lloj levizje mjetesh ne te gjithe infrastrukturen.
Ne c’do projekt transporti, ne aspektin e trajtimit te skemes klasike, sic quhet teknologjia e transportit (ai i transportit te objektit nga nje vend ne nje tjeter),.kemi kete perberje ne procesin teknologjik :
Levizja e objektit (mall ose njerez) me mjetin mbartes. Ne kapitujt e mesiperm ne i kemi permendur keto lloj mjetesh te cilet percaktojne dhe llojin e transportit, konkretisht kane keto emertime:
• transporti automobilistik (mjeti eshte automobili)
• transporti detare e lumore (mjeti eshte lundra, varka)
• transporti hekurudhore (mjeti eshte vagoni i terhequr me lokomotive )
• transporti airore (mjeti eshte aeroplani, helikopteri, balona, )
• transporti me litare (mjeti eshte teleferiku, ashensori, ose c’do makine ngritese transportuese)
Nganjehere kerkohet te parashikohet nje perspektive e zhvillimit te transportit, ose te ristrukturohet ne drejtim te permiresimit te parametrave, nje sistemi transporti. Keshtu, mund dhe duhet te behen, ridimensionimet gjenerale te modeleve matematikore, ose te relacioneve matematikore te bashkangjitura keto projektit te sistemit te transportit. Sa me siper, mund te shprehim ne forme te pergjitheshme :
Tij* = ( fk1,fk2,...fkn )= f(A,B,C,...,M) ku :
T fluksi i spostimeve ndaj 2 zonave i-j dhe me karakteristikat e ketij fluksi fk1,..fkn. te cilat japin funksionet relative A,B,C,... per sistemin e transportit.
Eshte e domosdoshme te sqarojme se, ne evolucionin e kerkeses per transport, futen parametra me te dukshme, ndersa te tjerat nuk perfillen, per vete natyren diskrete, te ketyre rasteve, ky fakt e ben qe, here pas here te rishikohen vleresimet, per zgjidhjen e sistemit kzistues, (sepse faktoret ndryshojne, si koha/ kosto/ distanca e levizjes me kemb/ parkimi/ komoditeti etj.). Ne perdorimin e modelit matematik, per nje sistem transporti, praktikisht behet nje thjeshtim i realitetit, gje qe zgjidhjet optimale duhen te merren duke i permiresuar here pas here parametrat e nje sistemi transporti, ne perputhje me kushtet aktualehere.
Si duhet ta shikojme/studjojme rrealisht nje statistike ne fushen e transportitAlbania Energy Association
Elementi baze ne ndertimin e nje projekti transporti eshte analiza e kerkes-ofert per transport. Kjo shpesh vjen nga verejtjet, ose pamjat direkte ne terren, nga menyra se si sillen ose levizin njerezit apo mallrat. Ashtu si dhe ne vleresimet e tjera per terrenin, edhe ketu kemi nje logjike te perafert, e dalluar, si me poshte:
1) Niveli i sherbimit mbi infrastrukturen ekzistuese, kjo ka te beje me grumbullimin e te dhenave rreale, statistikore mbi infrastrukturen ekzistuese, si dhe kerkesen per transport, apo sherbimet e transportit, si dhe pyetjet ose ceshtjet te tjera, qe lindin ne kete bashkeveprim kerkese-oferte
2) Modelimi simulues i nje sistemi, ne te cilen jane parashikuar vleresimet tekniko-ekonomike, nder te tjerat dhe demografike, social-ekonomike, urbanistike, etj. Si kane ndikuar ose vijuar keto elemente, gjate shfrytezimit ?
3) Treguesit Financiare, si kane qene dhe si eshte bilanci financiare i ketij sherbimi, dinamika e tij, si dhe ndonje alternative e tij, ne pasqyren e kostove e te rendimentit
Per ndertimin e nje projekt transporti, duhet detyrimisht te merren ne konsiderate shume elemente, ose kushte, te cilat konvertohen ne nje bashkesi ndervaresie e quajtur Modeli i sistemit te transportit, ky model eshte i afte ti simuloje keto kushte apo elemente, te projektit duke ne dhene rezultatet respektive. Sa me siper, nje projekt per nje sistem transporti, duhet te ece neper keto faza logjike:
Individualizimi i objeketve qe kerkojne levizje (kerkesa per transport)
Analiza sasiore e sistemit te transportit aktual (ose per disa sisteme)
Ndertimi i nje model varesie, qe perfaqeson nje sitem transporti, i cili eshte ne gjendje te funksionoje me te dhenat (dati) aktuale, si edhe me parametrat e vlerave te prespektives, ne lidhje me kete sistem qe po projektojme, se bashkeu me sistemet e tjere konkurues
Pergjithesime
Nje nder problemet qe e veshtiresojne shperndarjen, shtririen e transportit te mallrave mbi rruge, eshte koha e madhe jo levizese e mallit, ne pikat e nderthuries se levizjeve (grumbullimin, shperndarjen, vazhdim levizjeje te mallit ne destinacion) e cila presupozon kohen e perpunimit te mallit. Si dhe siperfaqet e disponueshme per kete kohe ne keto pika te nderthurjes se levizjes e te perpunimit te mallrave. Keshtu mga viti 1930-40 filloj nje koncep i ri “unifikimi i njesive te ngarkesave” kjo do te thote qe menyra te ambalazhimit te jete e paraqykyar qe ne projektim si nje element ne teknologjine e organizimit te transportit te objektit, kjo gje solli qe:
Delivering Micro-Credentials in Technical and Vocational Education and TrainingAG2 Design
Explore how micro-credentials are transforming Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) with this comprehensive slide deck. Discover what micro-credentials are, their importance in TVET, the advantages they offer, and the insights from industry experts. Additionally, learn about the top software applications available for creating and managing micro-credentials. This presentation also includes valuable resources and a discussion on the future of these specialised certifications.
For more detailed information on delivering micro-credentials in TVET, visit this https://tvettrainer.com/delivering-micro-credentials-in-tvet/
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
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Mystery of the maya collapse
1. Mystery of the Maya Collapse
from Curtis et al. 1997
Scientific Authorship: David Hodell & Lisa M. Lixey
As Interpreted by M. Anderson, 2007
2. Discovery of the Maya
Maya cities were deserted, hidden by trees, and virtually
unknown until rediscovered in 1839 by a rich American
lawyer named John Stevens, who, under appointment by
President Martin Van Buren, explored and documented
the existence of 44 Mayan sites and cities.
Stevens wrote: “ The city was desolate. No remnant of this
race hangs round the ruins….It lay before us like a
shattered bark in the midst of the ocean, her mast gone,
her name effaced, her crew perished, and none to tell
whence she came, to whom she belonged, how long her
journey or what caused her destruction….
3. Discovery of the Maya
….Architecture, sculpture, and painting, all of the arts which
embellish, has flourished in this overgrown forest; orators,
warriors and statesman, beauty ambition and glory have
lived and passed away, and none knew that such things
had been or could tell of their past existence….Here was
the remains of a cultivated, polished, and peculiar people,
who had passed through all the stages incident to the rise
and fall of nations; reached their golden age, and
perished….
4. Discovery of the Maya
….We went up to their desolate temples and fallen alters; and
wherever we moved we saw the evidence of their taste,
their skill in arts….We called back into life the strange
people who gazed in sadness from the wall; pictured them,
in fanciful costumes and adorned with plumes of feathers,
ascending the terraces of the palace and the steps leading
to the temples….overgrown with trees for miles around, and
without even a name to distinguish it.”
5. Links between
Climate
Change and
Society
Collapse
Copan mound
Our society is increasingly interested in the consequences
of future climate and environmental changes, as well as the
role that humans play in these changes.
Human civilizations throughout history have affected the
environment (and perhaps influenced climate) through
deforestation, agriculture, urbanization and industrialization.
In turn, climate events such as droughts, floods, and
hurricanes have impacted ancient cultures, both socially
and economically.
6. Maya Civilization
The Maya civilization is
one of the best-known
ancient civilizations of
Mesoamerica.
The Maya originated
around 2600 BC in the
Yucatan peninsula and
rose to a cultural and
geographical
prominence in the
classic period (250900 A.D.) when they
occupied present-day
Chiapas, Guatemala,
Belize, Southern
Mexico and Western
Honduras.
7.
Maya Culture
By borrowing the ideas and tools
of neighboring civilizations, the
Maya were able to develop
sophisticated concepts in the
disciplines of astronomy and
mathematics.
They used this knowledge to
construct a calendar system and
implemented the mathematical
concept of zero.
The Maya developed a written
language through the use of
hieroglyphics and were known
for their ceremonial architecture
that included temple-pyramids
and residential palaces.
The Maya were also skilled
farmers, potters, and weavers
trading and distributing goods
with distant peoples.
Copan Great Hieroglyphic Stairway
8.
The Mayan golden age
lasted five centuries from
300 to 800 AD.
At 800 AD they stopped
building temples, declined
and became fragmented
in competing states.
These were easy prey for
invading forces from the
north such as the Toltec.
The Toltecs became the
ruling elite of the Maya in
the post classic period.
Toltec gods were added
to the Maya pantheon but
the Toltecs were
absorbed as they leaned
to speak Yucatec Maya.
Maya Culture
Copan decoration on Temple of Inscriptions
9.
The Maya were organized in
city states, sharing the same
beliefs and deferred to priests
who derived power from their
knowledge of astronomy,
mathematics and numerology.
The Maya were aware of the
passage of time.
They recorded some dates on
stelae and probably much
more in books that are lost
now because Spanish Catholic
priests destroyed them to
eradicate "pagan beliefs".
To retrace the history of the
Maya we have to rely on
whatever clues we can find in
what is left of archaeological
sites that the Spanish did not
plunder or destroy.
Maya Culture
Copan
10. Tikal
Tikal Temple 1
Deep within the tropical rainforests of Guatemala lies Tikal,
one of the largest cities of the Maya civilization.
Serving as an administrative, ritual and cultural center for
the surrounding urban and agricultural regions, Tikal was
home to large populations of people.
During the time period between 600 and 800 A.D., Tikal's
population grew to as many as 60,000 citizens, making the
population density of the city several times greater than the
average city in Europe or America during this time.
15. Mystery of the Maya Collapse
For over a decade, archaeologists
have been trying to unlock the
mystery surrounding the collapse
of the Ancient Maya civilization.
Did human-induced sociopolitical or
ecological change cause the
collapse of this highly advanced
Mesoamerican civilization, or could
natural climate variability of the
Yucatan Peninsula have
contributed to the collapse?
Paleoclimatologists are studying
the climatic history of this region to
provide archaeologists with the
climate context in which the Maya
civilization evolved, flourished and
ultimately collapsed.
Tikal
16. Mystery of
Maya
Decline
Copan Popol Nah Council House
The cause of the Maya decline remains their greatest
mystery.
Their civilization was not destroyed by an overwhelming
outside force.
The Maya power disintegrated from within.
Many hypotheses have been proposed: overpopulation,
famine, epidemics, civil disorder, or could the common
people just stopped believing in the dogma the elites were
using to establish their power and justify their excesses?
17. Sociopolitical Causes of Collapse
The sociopolitical
causes include:
peasant revolts
resulting in the
overthrowing of the
elite class
inter-site warfare
between Maya citystates
invasions by peoples
from outside the
Maya civilization
failure of centralized
political authority
Copan sacrificial alter
18. Natural Causes of Collapse
Natural causes include
factors such as:
soil exhaustion due to
slash-and-burn
agriculture
water loss and erosion
of topsoil evident by
increased
sedimentation in lakes
natural disasters such
as earthquakes and
hurricanes
climatic change
disease
insect infestations
overpopulation
Copan Great Ball Court
20. Symptoms of the Collapse
Copan East Plaza with Temple of Inscriptions and alter Q; R: Copan East Plaza
and Temple 11 with Popol Nah.
Rapid depopulation of the countryside and ceremonial
centers in 50 to 100 years,
Abandonment of administrative and residential structures,
21. Symptoms of the
Collapse
Cessation of: building construction,
carving of sculptured monuments,
manufacture of pottery, stonework,
jade carvings, Classic calendar and
writing systems.
Above: Copan temple; Above R: corbeled
block-work used by Maya; lBelow R:
Copan sculpture.
23. Lake Sediments
The raw material for
paleoenvironmental studies is
sediment that accumulates in an
ordered manner through time and
records changes in past climate
conditions.
The sediments are analogous to a
magnetic cassette tape recording,
and the challenge for
paleoclimatologists is to "play
back" the tape.
Fossil pollen preserved in lake
sediments are often used to
reconstruct vegetation changes
that can be influenced by climate.
Sediment core from Lake
Chichancanab
24. Lake Sediment Cores
Scientists reconstructed the
past climate of the Maya
civilization by studying lake
sediment cores on the Yucatan
Peninsula.
The first area of study, Lake
Chichancanab, is located in the
center of the Yucatan.
Lake Chichancanab is a long
(26-km), narrow (2 km) lake,
consisting of a series of basins
that are connected during high
water level.
Jason Curtis holding core form Lake
Chichancanab
25. Lake Chichancanab
Sediment cores
were collected
from the central
basin in a water
depth of 6.9 m.
The lake lies in a
fault depression
caused by
normal faulting.
The steep hills
on the eastern
side of the lake
represent the
fault line.
26. Lake Sediments
Pollen cannot be used to
reconstruct climate during the
Classic Period because the
Maya severely altered regional
vegetation through clear cutting
of the forest for agricultural
purposes.
It would be impossible to tell,
whether a given vegetation
change was caused by climate
or human agricultural activity.
Because of this, scientists rely
upon geochemical (elemental
and isotopic) evidence for
climatic change found trapped in
the shells of tiny Crustacea
called ostracods.
32. Sediment Cores
To retrieve sediment cores
from both lakes, two different
coring systems were used.
For the top most sediments
that are water-saturated and
oozy, a mud-water interface
corer, consisting of a clear
polycarbonate tube (125 cm
by 7 cm) was used.
Deeper sections of the core
that occur past the mudwater interface are retrieved
in 1 meter intervals using a
square-rod piston corer.
Similar modified Livingston coring
device being used in Trinidad.
33. Coring Site #2
Holdell
The second lake from which scientists retrieved sediment
cores was Lake Punta Laguna, located in the northeastern
part of the Yucatan Peninsula about 20 km N-NE of Coba,
a major Mayan archaeological site.
Punta Laguna consists of three interconnected basins, each
with a maximum depth of about 20-m.
The coring site was located in the far basin in a water depth
of about 6.3-m.
34. Sedimentation Rates
When the cores are returned to the lab, they are split
in two halves. One-half of the core is sampled and
the other half is archived for future use.
The core that was sampled from Lake Chichancanab
had a total length of 4.9 m with a basal radiocarbon
age of 9000 years BP.
The sedimentation rate averaged about 0.5 mm per
year.
The core was sampled continuously at 1-cm intervals
over its length.
A 1-cm sample in the Lake Chichancanab core
represents about 20 years of deposition.
The sedimentation rate determines the temporal
resolution of study and as a result, scientists are able
to reconstruct climatic changes that lasted for
multiple decades or longer.
The sediments of Chichancanab consisted of
alternating layers of organic matter, calcite, and
gypsum.
35. Punta Laguna Core
The total core length from Punta
Laguna was 6.3m with a basal
age of 3300 years.
The sedimentation rate averaged
2 mm/year, which is about four
times greater than the
sedimentation rate in the core
from Chichancanab.
A 1-cm sample for the Punta
Laguna core represents only 5
years of deposition, permitting the
resolution of much shorter climatic
events.
Sediments in the Punta Laguna
core are composed almost
Above and previous cores are
entirely of calcium
similar representation taken from
carbonate(CaCO3).
recent Trinidad expedition.
37. Punta Laguna Water Chemistry
The water chemistry of Punta
Laguna is quite different from
Lake Chichancanab. Punta
Laguna is relatively fresh with
total dissolved solids of 835
mg/L.
The dominant anion is
bicarbonate (HCO3).
The lake water is saturated
with respect to calcium
carbonate(CaCO3), which many
aquatic organisms use to form
their shells.
38. Lake Chichancanab Core
Results
Data from the Lake Chichancanab core supports the
following interpretation that begins at the base of the
core:
From 9200 to 7800 years BP, there was no lake at the coring site as
indicated by the absence of aquatic microfossils and the presence
of land snails.
Beginning at about 7800 years BP, the lake began to fill but the
salinity was much higher than today.
Evidence for this includes high sulfur content indicating gypsum
precipitation, very high 18O and 16O ratios in both ostracods and
gastropods, and the occurrence of a benthic foraminifera, Ammonia
beccarri.
Foraminiferas are almost exclusively marine forms but this species
can tolerate a wide range of salinity (7 to 67 ppt); however, it only
reproduces between 13 and 40 ppt. The large number of specimens
of A. beccarri suggests salinities of at least 13 ppt (the modern lake
salinity is only 4 ppt).
39. Lake Chichancanab Core
Results
The lake basin was filled by 7000 years BP, and relatively wet
conditions prevailed from 7000 to 3000 years BP as evidenced by
low sulfur, high CaCO3, and low 18O and 16O ratios of ostracods and
gastropods.
Beginning about 3000 years BP, a drying trend began that
culminated in peak arid conditions between 1300 and 1100 years
BP.
Evidence for climatic drying includes an increase in gypsum (S)
precipitation and an increase in 18O and 16O ratios. The peak of this
arid event is well dated by an AMS-14C date of a seed taken from the
height of the sulfur and oxygen isotope values.
The radiocarbon date of the seed is 1140 +/-35 years BP, which
translates to a calendar date of 893 A.D.
The collapse of the Classic Maya civilization occurred between 800
and 900 A.D.
44. Comparison of Ostracod Data and
Maya Cultural Periods
From Curtis, et al 2007
The first peak at 585 A.D. coincides with the early/late Classic boundary.
This boundary is associated with the "Maya Hiatus", which lasted between
530 and 630 A.D.
The Maya Hiatus was marked by a sharp decline in monument carving,
abandonment in some areas and social upheaval.
This event may have been drought-related.
45. Comparison of Ostracod Data
and Maya Cultural Periods
From Curtis, et al 2007
During the next 200 years from 600 to 800 A.D., the late Classic
Maya flourished and reached their cultural and artistic apex.
The next peak in 18O/16O occurs at 862 A.D. and coincides with
the collapse of Classic Maya civilization between 800 and 900 A.D.
The earliest Postclassic Period was also relatively dry between 986
and 1051 A.D. At about 1000 A.D., mean oxygen isotope values
decrease indicating a return to more humid conditions.
46. Results
Although a Postclassic
resurgence occurred in
the northern Yucatan,
city-states in the
southern lowlands
remained sparsely
occupied.
These findings
support a rather strong
correlation between
times of drought and
major cultural
discontinuities in
Classic Maya
civilization.
Tikal Temple I and Temple II
49. Climate and Oxygen Isotope
Levels
This illustration shows the simple
working assumptions for interpreting
changes in the sediment record in
terms of climate (evaporation/
precipitation).
Top: Under conditions of wet climate (low
E/P), we expect high lake levels, dilute
concentrations of solutes, low 18O to 16Oratios
in lake water and aquatic shells, and
sediments consisting of mainly organic
carbon and calcite.
Middle: Under conditions of drier climate
(moderate E/P), we expect lower lake levels,
higher concentrations of dissolved solutes,
higher ratios of 18O and 16O, and perhaps
sediments dominated by calcite.
Bottom: Under arid climate conditions (high
E/P), we expect low lake levels (perhaps
desiccation), high dissolved solute
concentrations, high ratios of 18O and 16O
and, in the case of Lake Chichancanab,
sediments dominated by gypsum (CaSO4).
Editor's Notes
The oxygen isotopic composition of precipitation and groundwater averages -4 per mil (1/1000).
Lake Chichancanab averages +4 per mil, indicating that it is 8 per mil enriched in 18O due to evaporation of lake water.
Lake Punta Laguna averages +1 per mil, indicating about a 5 per mil enrichment.
Top: Under conditions of wet climate (low E/P), we expect high lake levels, dilute concentrations of solutes, low 18O to 16Oratios in lake water and aquatic shells, and sediments consisting of mainly organic carbon and calcite.
Middle: Under conditions of drier climate (moderate E/P), we expect lower lake levels, higher concentrations of dissolved solutes, higher ratios of 18O and 16O, and perhaps sediments dominated by calcite.
Bottom: Under arid climate conditions (high E/P), we expect low lake levels (perhaps desiccation), high dissolved solute concentrations, high ratios of 18O and 16O and, in the case of Lake Chichancanab, sediments dominated by gypsum (CaSO4).