Movements/Locomotion in Protists and animals by Saghir Ahmad
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This document discusses different types of muscular and non-muscular movements in animals. It describes amoeboid movement using pseudopodia, flagellary movement using flagella, and ciliary movement using cilia. It provides examples of cells that use each type of movement and outlines the mechanisms, including the roles of actin, myosin, and ATPase. The document also discusses flexing, muscular movement involving muscle fibers and myofibrils, and the classification of muscles into smooth, skeletal, and cardiac types.
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Spermatogenesis is the process by which germ cells differentiate into spermatozoa. It occurs within the seminiferous tubules of the testis and can be divided into three main phases: proliferation of spermatogonia, meiotic reduction division producing spermatocytes, and differentiation of spermatids into spermatozoa. Spermatogenesis progresses through cycles of the seminiferous epithelium, where each stage is defined by the association of germ cells at a specific developmental phase. Repeated cycles ensure continuous production of spermatozoa.
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3. Cell fate specification occurs through different mechanisms in different species, including maternal cytoplasmic determinants, cell signaling, and cell-cell interactions. Axes can be established before or after fertilization.
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Connective tissues are composed of cells and extracellular matrix that provide structure and support to the body. The main cell types include fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, adipocytes, and leukocytes. Fibroblasts produce collagen, elastic fibers, and ground substance. Macrophages phagocytose foreign substances and present antigens. Mast cells release histamine during allergic reactions. Adipocytes store lipids. Leukocytes migrate from blood vessels to connective tissue sites. All of these cell types contribute to the structural, metabolic, and defense functions of connective tissues.
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Mitochondria and chloroplasts are the main energy transformers of the cell, with mitochondria carrying out cellular respiration to break down glucose into ATP and chloroplasts carrying out photosynthesis. The cytoskeleton provides structural support to cells and also functions in cell mobility and regulation through microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. Cilia and flagella are locomotory organelles created by basal bodies and centrioles that aid in cell movement, with many short cilia or few long flagella.
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Snakes develop about 10x the number of somites as a chicken or mouse.pdf
Snakes develop about 10x the number of somites as a chicken or mouse. Use the clock-
wavefront model to explain the molecular basis of this evolutionary difference. First describe the
model, citing experimental support as needed, and then explain how it is modified to produce
additional somites in snakes.
Solution
The clock and wavefront model is a model used to describe the process of somitogenesis in
vertebrates. Somitogenesis is the process by which somites, blocks of mesoderm that give rise to
a variety of connective tissues, are formed.
The model describes the splitting off of somites from the paraxial mesoderm as the result of
oscillating expression of particular proteins and their gradients.
Once the cells of the pre-somitic mesoderm are in place following by cell migration during
gastrulation, oscillatory expression of many genes begins in these cells as if regulated by a
developmental \"clock.\" This has led many to conclude that somitogenesis is coordinated by a
\"clock and wave\" mechanism.
More technically, this means that somitogenesis occurs due to the largely cell-autonomous
oscillations of a network of genes and gene products which causes cells to oscillate between a
permissive and a non-permissive state in a consistently timed-fashion, like a clock. These genes
include members of the FGF family, Wnt and Notch pathway, as well as targets of these
pathways. The wavefront progresses slowly in an anterior-to-posterior direction. As the
wavefront of signaling comes in contact with cells in the permissive state, they undergo an
epithelial-mesenchymal transition and pinch off from the more posterior pre-somitic mesoderm,
forming a somite boundary and resetting the process for the next somite.
In particular, the cyclic activation of the Notch pathway appears to be of great importance in the
wavefront-clock model. It has been suggested that the activation of Notch cyclically activates a
cascade of genes necessary for the somites to separate from the main paraxial body. This is
controlled by different means in different species, such as through a simple negative feedback
loop in zebrafish or in a complicated process in which FGF and Wnt clocks affect the Notch
clock, as in chicks and mice.Generally speaking, however, the segmentation clock model is
highly evolutionarily conserved.
Intrinsic expression of “clock genes” must oscillate with a periodicity equal to the time necessary
for one somite to form, for example 30 minutes in zebrafish, 90 minutes in chicks, and 100
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tail; with it extend thick bands of paraxial mesoderm.As the primitive streak continues to regress,
somites form from the paraxial mesoderm by \"budding off\" rostrally as somitomeres,.
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Reproduction (Creation of a new organism)
First function
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The document discusses sperm development and chromatin structure. It aims to compare methods for evaluating sperm chromatin status in infertile men, specifically image cytometry, computer-assisted semen analysis (CASA), and flow cytometry (FCM). These methods identify spermatogenic cells and evaluate their chromatin structure, which may help assess male factor infertility and predict assisted reproduction outcomes.
What are cytoplasmic determinants What is the relevance of the yell.pdf
we are interested in comparing the mean costs of electrical energy produced by nuclear and coal
powered electrical power plants. Pilot studies have indicated the variation in the costs associated
with the two types of plants are sn= $.224 and sc= $ .20.How many plants of each type should be
sampled in order to estimate the difference mean costs with a 95% confidence interval to within
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sn = 0.224 and sc = 0.20
Let sample sizes be n1 and n2
SE = 0.224/rtn1 + 0.20/rtn2
Margin of error = z alpha/2 (SE)
For 95% z = 1.96
Hence 1.96(0.224/rtn1 + 0.20/rtn2) = 0.01
As there is one equation and two variables assume n1 = n2
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Or rt n1 = 8.313
n1 =69.111
or n >70 for each sample..
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Movements/Locomotion in Protists and animals by Saghir Ahmad
- 1. Muscular and Non-Muscular Movements MOVEMENTS IN ANIMALS
- 2. Muscular Movements AMOEBOID MOVEMENTS and PSEUDOPODIA the false foot FLAGELLARY MOVEMENT and Flagella the small whips CILLIARY MOVEMENT and cilia the eyelashes FLEXING
- 3. Cells Exhibiting Amoeboid Movement Amoeba proteus, Entamoeba histolytica, Embryonic Tissues, Growing Tissue Culture Cells, Leucocytes, etc Movements within the cell..Cyclosis
- 4. Mechanism of Amoeboid Movement Pseudopodium attaches with substratum PM slides over the underlying layer of Cytoplasm like bulldozer Actin and myosin role Ectoplasm to endoplasm modifications Jell and Sol Theory
- 5. FLAGELLARY MOVEMENT Trypanosoma gambiens, Choanoflagellates, Trichonypha etc.
- 6. Mechanism of Cilliary Movement Cilia- Effective Stroke and Recovery Stroke 5/9 and 4/9 microtubules ATPase Pellicle Neuroneme Trichocysts
- 7. Cells Exhibiting Ciliary Movement Paramecium caudatum, P. aurilia etc Vorticella spp Stentor spp Cells in Vasdeferens Cells in Fallopian Tube
- 8. Ciliary and Muscular Movement Coexistence Platyhelminthes eg. Planarians, Nemertines Wo Jhoot bol rha tha barray sleeqay say The evolution must have taken place from ciliary to Muscular locomotion?????
- 9. Flexing Contraction of cell Apicomplexans e.g. Plasmodium spp
- 10. Muscular Movement What is muscle? Muscle>muscle bundle>muscle fiber>myofibril= thick + thin filaments
- 11. Classification of Muscle Smooth Muscle: Non striated, dumble, involuntary Skeletal Muscle: Striated, unbranched, voluntary Cardiac Muscle: Striated, branched, involuntary