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Хавсралт 1
Загвар (2.21)-ийн математик гаргалгаа
Эдийн засгийг уул уурхайн экспортын салбар NR, уул уурхайн бус
экспортын салбар MX, мөн экспортын бус салбар N гэж гурав хуваавал:
N = F(KN, LN, NR, MX) (4.1)
NR = G(KNR, LNR) (4.2)
MX = M(KMX, LMX) (4.3)
Y = RN + MX + N (4.4)
Уул уурхайн экспортын салбарын нийт орлого NR нь тус салбарын
капитал KNR, ажиллах хүч LNR –ээс, уул уурхайн бус салбарын нийт орлого
MX нь тус салбарын капитал KMX, ажиллах хүч LMX –ээс хамаарах функц байх
ба уг хоёр салбар нь экспортын бус салбар N –д эерэг дам нөлөө үзүүлнэ.
Эдийн засгийн нийт орлого уг гурван салбарын орлогын нийлбэрээс бүрдэнэ.
Уул уурхайн экспортын салбар болон экспортын бус салбар дахь
үйлдвэрлэлийн хүчин зүйлсийн ахиу бүтээмжийн хуваарилалтын харьцаа
нэгээс гэсэн фактороор, уул уурхайн бус экспортын салбар болон
экспортын бус салбар дахь үйлдвэрлэлийн хүчин зүйлсийн ахиу бүтээмжийн
хуваарилалтын харьцаа нэгээс r гэсэн фактороор хазайсан гэж үзье, өөрөөр
хэлбэл,
1
L
L
K
K
F
G
F
G
r
F
M
F
M
L
L
K
K
1 (4.5)
үүнд GL, ML, FL нь ажиллагсадын ахиу бүтээмж, GK, МK, FK нь капиталын
ахиу бүтээмж, нь уул уурхайн экспортын салбарын бүтээмжийн илүү
хэм ээ, нь уул уурхайн бус экспортын салбарын бүтээмжийн илүү хэмжээг
илэрхийлнэ.
ж r
Тэгшитгэл (4.1)-(4.3) –ыг дифференциалчилбал:
dMXFdNRFdLFdKFdN MXNRNLNK (4.6)
NRLNRKNRLNRK dLFdKFdLGdKGdNR )1()1( (4.7)
MXLMXKMXLMXK dLFrdKFrdLMdKMdMX )1()1( (4.8)
Тэгшитгэл (4.4)-г дифференциалчилбал:
dMXdNRdNdY (4.9)
97
106.
Тэгшитгэл (4.9)-д тэгшитгэл(4.6)-(4.8)-г орлуулбал:
)()(
)()(
MXLMXKNRLNRKMXNR
MXNRNLMXNRNK
dLFdKFrdLFdKFdMXFdNRF
dLdLdLFdKdKdKFdY
(4.10)
Тэгшитгэл (4.6) болон (4.7), (4.8)-ийн дагуу:
dNRdLGdKGdL
G
dK
G
dLFdKF NRLNRKNR
L
NR
K
NRLNRK
1
1
)(
1
1
11
(4.11)
dMX
r
dLMdKM
r
dL
r
M
dK
r
M
dLFdKF MXLMXKMX
L
MX
K
MXLMXK
1
1
)(
1
1
11
(4.12)
MXNRN dKdKdKdK ; MXNRN dLdLdLdL гэж үзээд, тэгшитгэл
(4.11), (4.12)-ийг тэгшитгэл (4.10)-т орлуулбал:
dMXF
r
r
dNRFdLFdKF
dMX
r
r
dNRdMXFdNRFdLFdKFdY
MXNRLK
MXNRLK
11
11
(4.13)
Нийт хөрөнгө оруулалт dKI гэж тооцъё. Тухайн салбарын ажиллах
хүчний бодит ахиу бүтээмж болон эдийн засаг дахь нэг ажиллах хүчинд
ногдох ДНБ-ний хооронд шугаман хамаарал бий гэж тооцоолъё:
L
Y
FL (4.14)
Тэгшитгэл (4.13)-ын хоёр талыг Y-д хувааж, KF гэж илэрхийлвэл
дараах гаргалгаа гарна:
Y
MX
MX
dMX
F
r
r
Y
NR
NR
dNR
F
L
dL
Y
I
Y
dY
MXNR
11
(4.15)
Өсөлтийг цэгээр илэрхийлж, тогтмол хувьсагч , үлдэгдэл -г нэмбэл:
Y
MX
XMF
r
r
Y
NR
RNFL
Y
I
Y MXNR
11
(4.16)
98
107.
Хавсралт 2.
Эконометрик шинжилгээнийүр дүн
Хүснэгт 3.2 дахь ADF Нэгж язгуурын тестийн үр дүн
Null Hypothesis: RPL_NEW has a unit root
Exogenous: None
Lag Length: 0 (Automatic based on SIC, MAXLAG=9)
t-Statistic Prob.*
Augmented Dickey-Fuller test statistic -2.477214 0.0150
Test critical values: 1% level -2.641672
5% level -1.952066
10% level -1.610400
*MacKinnon (1996) one-sided p-values.
Null Hypothesis: GDPCAP has a unit root
Exogenous: Constant, Linear Trend
Lag Length: 0 (Automatic based on SIC, MAXLAG=9)
t-Statistic Prob.*
Augmented Dickey-Fuller test statistic -2.834034 0.0008
Test critical values: 1% level -2.641672
5% level -1.952066
10% level -1.610400
*MacKinnon (1996) one-sided p-values.
Null Hypothesis: LAND has a unit root
Exogenous: Constant, Linear Trend
Lag Length: 9 (Automatic based on SIC, MAXLAG=9)
t-Statistic Prob.*
Augmented Dickey-Fuller test statistic -5.136628 0.0023
Test critical values: 1% level -4.440739
5% level -3.632896
10% level -3.254671
*MacKinnon (1996) one-sided p-values.
Null Hypothesis: KPL has a unit root
Exogenous: None
Lag Length: 6 (Automatic based on SIC, MAXLAG=9)
t-Statistic Prob.*
Augmented Dickey-Fuller test statistic -3.470535 0.0011
Test critical values: 1% level -2.660720
5% level -1.955020
10% level -1.609070
*MacKinnon (1996) one-sided p-values.
99
108.
Тэгшитгэл 3.5-ын регрессийнүр дүн
Estimation Command:
=====================
LS RPL_NEW C GDPCAP LAND KPL
Estimation Equation:
=====================
RPL_NEW = C(1) + C(2)*GDPCAP + C(3)*LAND + C(4)*KPL
Substituted Coefficients:
=====================
RPL = -1.274177254 + 7.992658744e-06*GDPCAP + 0.378193824*LAND - 6.29764679e-05*KPL
Dependent Variable: RPL
Method: Least Squares
Date: 02/04/14 Time: 04:09
Sample: 1981 2012
Included observations: 32
Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.
C -1.274177 0.116410 -10.94555 0.0000
GDPCAP 7.99E-06 1.07E-06 7.474927 0.0000
LAND 0.378194 0.027627 13.68912 0.0000
KPL -6.30E-05 1.31E-05 -4.811784 0.0000
R-squared 0.898874 Mean dependent var 0.228723
Adjusted R-squared 0.888039 S.D. dependent var 0.171919
S.E. of regression 0.057525 Akaike info criterion -2.756722
Sum squared resid 0.092656 Schwarz criterion -2.573505
Log likelihood 48.10755 F-statistic 82.96068
Durbin-Watson stat 1.040597 Prob(F-statistic) 0.000000
100
109.
Хүснэгт 3.10 дахьADF Нэгж язгуурын тестийн үр дүн
Null Hypothesis: GDP_GROW has a unit root
Exogenous: None
Lag Length: 0 (Automatic based on SIC, MAXLAG=9)
t-Statistic Prob.*
Augmented Dickey-Fuller test statistic -1.709128 0.0825
Test critical values: 1% level -2.644302
5% level -1.952473
10% level -1.610211
*MacKinnon (1996) one-sided p-values.
Null Hypothesis: INV has a unit root
Exogenous: None
Lag Length: 0 (Automatic based on SIC, MAXLAG=9)
t-Statistic
Augmented Dickey-Fuller test statistic -1.191705
Test critical values: 1% level -3.661661
5% level -2.960411
10% level -2.619160
*MacKinnon (1996) one-sided p-values.
Null Hypothesis: D(INV) has a unit root
Exogenous: None
Lag Length: 0 (Automatic based on SIC, MAXLAG=9)
t-Statistic Prob.*
Augmented Dickey-Fuller test statistic -4.637153 0.0009
Test critical values: 1% level -3.670170
5% level -2.963972
10% level -2.621007
*MacKinnon (1996) one-sided p-values.
Null Hypothesis: L_GROW has a unit root
Exogenous: None
Lag Length: 0 (Automatic based on SIC, MAXLAG=9)
t-Statistic Prob.*
Augmented Dickey-Fuller test statistic -3.830587 0.0004
Test critical values: 1% level -2.644302
5% level -1.952473
10% level -1.610211
*MacKinnon (1996) one-sided p-values.
101
110.
Null Hypothesis: X_GROWhas a unit root
Exogenous: None
Lag Length: 0 (Automatic based on SIC, MAXLAG=9)
t-Statistic Prob.*
Augmented Dickey-Fuller test statistic -4.159842 0.0002
Test critical values: 1% level -2.644302
5% level -1.952473
10% level -1.610211
*MacKinnon (1996) one-sided p-values.
Null Hypothesis: XX has a unit root
Exogenous: Constant
Lag Length: 0 (Automatic based on SIC, MAXLAG=8)
t-Statistic Prob.*
Augmented Dickey-Fuller test statistic -4.560112 0.0011
Test critical values: 1% level -3.670170
5% level -2.963972
10% level -2.621007
*MacKinnon (1996) one-sided p-values.
Null Hypothesis: DISTORTION has a unit root
Exogenous: Constant
Lag Length: 0 (Automatic based on SIC, MAXLAG=9)
t-Statistic Prob.*
Augmented Dickey-Fuller test statistic -3.840311 0.0064
Test critical values: 1% level -3.661661
5% level -2.960411
10% level -2.619160
*MacKinnon (1996) one-sided p-values.
Null Hypothesis: TI has a unit root
Exogenous: None
Lag Length: 0 (Automatic based on SIC, MAXLAG=9)
t-Statistic Prob.*
Augmented Dickey-Fuller test statistic -4.069315 0.0165
Test critical values: 1% level -4.284580
5% level -3.562882
10% level -3.215267
*MacKinnon (1996) one-sided p-values.
Null Hypothesis: CTI has a unit root
Exogenous: None
Lag Length: 2 (Automatic based on SIC, MAXLAG=9)
t-Statistic Prob.*
Augmented Dickey-Fuller test statistic -1.974935 0.0477
Test critical values: 1% level -2.647120
5% level -1.952910
10% level -1.610011
*MacKinnon (1996) one-sided p-values.
102
111.
Хүснэгт 3.11 дахьТэгшитгэл (3.5)-ийн Johansen коинтеграцийн тестийн
үр дүн
Sample(adjusted): 1984 2012
Included observations: 29 after adjusting endpoints
Trend assumption: Linear deterministic trend
Series: GDP_GROW INV L_GROW X_GROW DISTORTION TRANS
Lags interval (in first differences): 1 to 1
Unrestricted Cointegration Rank Test
Hypothesized Trace 5 Percent 1 Percent
No. of CE(s) Eigenvalue Statistic Critical Value Critical Value
None ** 0.804522 150.1614 94.15 103.18
At most 1 ** 0.752740 102.8245 68.52 76.07
At most 2 ** 0.688198 62.30230 47.21 54.46
At most 3 0.474395 28.50612 29.68 35.65
At most 4 0.233755 9.853154 15.41 20.04
At most 5 0.070873 2.131794 3.76 6.65
*(**) denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 5%(1%) level
Trace test indicates 3 cointegrating equation(s) at both 5% and 1% levels
Hypothesized Max-Eigen 5 Percent 1 Percent
No. of CE(s) Eigenvalue Statistic Critical Value Critical Value
None ** 0.804522 47.33696 39.37 45.10
At most 1 ** 0.752740 40.52217 33.46 38.77
At most 2 ** 0.688198 33.79619 27.07 32.24
At most 3 0.474395 18.65296 20.97 25.52
At most 4 0.233755 7.721360 14.07 18.63
At most 5 0.070873 2.131794 3.76 6.65
*(**) denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 5%(1%) level
Max-eigenvalue test indicates 3 cointegrating equation(s) at both 5% and 1% levels
Unrestricted Cointegrating Coefficients (normalized by b'*S11*b=I):
GDP_GROW INV L_GROW X_GROW DISTORTION TRANS
17.51827 -7.721401 31.29846 -4.696507 0.908824 1.626640
30.64943 -3.277773 -34.48958 -10.17210 4.525775 -1.578264
-53.78679 0.661785 20.72979 9.500499 0.359710 -2.798368
-26.73476 0.161112 24.95964 -1.708906 -4.084778 -3.514447
15.75268 -3.039498 17.53785 2.142029 1.152858 0.008800
10.36028 9.478718 -9.433752 -2.732589 1.924776 1.333227
Unrestricted Adjustment Coefficients (alpha):
D(GDP_GRO
W)
0.008135 -0.003953 0.018700 -0.003072 -0.009127 -0.005701
D(INV) -0.010619 -0.007515 -0.007101 -0.018106 -0.005565 -0.010729
D(L_GROW) -0.020080 0.018996 -0.006687 0.002681 -0.011470 0.001282
D(X_GROW) 0.148336 8.64E-06 2.56E-06 0.014046 -0.030531 -0.030464
D(DISTORTIO
N)
-0.007394 -0.116114 -0.075006 0.164313 -0.059971 0.011691
103
ABSTRACT OF THETHESIS
THE EFFECT OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE ON
THE ECONOMIC GROWTH OF MONGOLIA
(Empirical Analysis)
by Tumurbaatar Ayursaikhan
Supervisor: B.Purev, Ph.D, professor
Academic Advisor: R.Orosoo, Ph.D, professor
B.Khuldorj, Ph.D, professor
Mongolian State University of Agriculture
School of Economics and Business
The importance of the study
The concept of the causal relationship between trade liberalization and
growth is highly controversial, because there is no single and the same conclusion
for all countries regarding openness and economic growth. Theoretical framework,
which explains how international trade interacts with the pace of economic growth
has been significantly improved. There have been done and seems to be done a
number of time series and cross country empirical analyzes that employ large sets
of data and utilize various kind of sophisticated methods such as cointegration with
multivariate error correction models, Granger causality, VAR models with variance
decomposition, and impulse response functions. Nevertheless, there are ongoing
debates and disagreements among economists regarding the interaction of trade
liberalization and economic growth performance.
Concerning the disagreements on the effect of trade on growth, the
economy of Mongolia is not an exception: the transition from inward-oriented
policy implementations to outward-looking industrialization under the pressure of
solid international institutions such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and
International Monetary Fund (IMF) rendered still ongoing doubts and debates
concerning whether openness is good for Mongolian economy. With the transition
from state-led to market economy, Mongolia has experienced a number of radical
changes, such as governance style, institutional reforms, privatization, trade
liberalization, currency devaluation, and price reform. As in any other transitional
economy, the effect of trade liberalization on economic development is difficult to
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separate from theeffect of above reforms. Nevertheless, this study tries to
address trade liberalization issue and analyze its effect on economic growth of
Mongolia. Trade liberalization can refer to one of at least three things (Greenaway
Sapsford 1994, p.158): a reduction in import restrictions with no change in
export encouragements; a movement in relative prices towards neutrality via
reduction in import restrictions and/or increase in export encouragements; and the
replacement of less costly with more costly method of protection. Dollar (1992,
p.524) explains outward orientation as a combination of two factors: first, the level
of protection, especially for the inputs of production process, is relatively low, and
second, the real exchange rate is relatively stable, in order to assure consistency
of incentives over time.
Both in classical and neoclassical growth models, technological change is
assumed to be exogenous; it is not affected by a country’s level of trade
liberalization. On the other hand, in endogenous growth models openness to world
trade affects long-run growth rate through its impact on technological development.
However, these ‘new’ growth theories do not conclude that openness
unambiguously raises economic growth (Harrison 1996, p.421). Since theoretical
literature does not provide unambiguous causal relationship between openness
and growth, this study tried to address the debate by conducting empirical work.
Literature Review
The relevant econometrical studies can be classified into two parts: (a) the
effect of trade volume (total exports plus imports, or total exports) on income
growth and (b) the effect of trade policy (exchange rate devaluation, maintaining
stable price levels, removing quotas, and reducing tariffs) on income growth.
When addressing the effect of trade liberalization on economic growth,
some economists, including Ram (1985), Dar Amirkhalkhali (2003), Dawson
Hubbard (2004), tried to analyze the effect of trade (as export volume or total trade
as a ratio to GDP) on growth. Another group of researchers, including Dollar
(1992), Harrison (1996), Frankel Romer (1999) among others, concentrated in
the interaction of trade policy and economic growth, by constructing different
‘openness measures’ that express inward or outward orientation of government
policies.
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Feder (1983) usedaverage data of 31 countries for the period 1964-73, and
found out significant, positive effect of exports on income (p.65). Ram (1985)
using data for 88 developing countries over the period 1960-82, did time series
and cross-section analyses, and approved the importance of the role of exports in
economic growth (pp.419-20). Harrison (1995) found out a positive effect of trade
on income at 5% significance level when annual data is used (p.37). Among others
Dawson, P.J. Hubbard, L.J. (2004) studied panel data of 14 Central and East
European countries (CEECs) during transitional period of 1994-1999. They found
out that a 1% increase in export growth leads to a 0.16% increase in GDP growth
(p.1823). Dollar (1992, pp.525-33) calculated the exchange rate distortion index
for 117 countries over the period 1976-85 and used it to analyze whether there is
empirical relationship between trade liberalization and GDP. He found out a
significant, negative relationship between exchange rate distortion and economic
income growth rate, which means freer trade leads to higher income. Harrison
(1995, pp.10-11) used six different openness indicators previously developed by
other researchers and employing data over the period 1960-84, found out that the
choice of time period for analysis is decisive; provided that only one openness
measure positively affects economic growth when cross-section data are used, 3
out of 7 measures produce significant positive relationship with growth when the
data are averaged over five-year periods, and 6 out of 7 measures are statistically
significant when annual data are used. Frankel and Romer (1999, p.379) offer
countries’ geographic characteristics in constructing instrumental variables that
can estimate the effect of trade on income. By regressing log income per person
on the data sets of 63 countries for 1985, they found out statistically significant
positive effect of trade on income.
Objective of the study
The objective of the research is to describe qualitatively and analyze
empirically the effect of export expansion and trade liberalization on the economic
growth of Mongolia in order to draw policy recommendations on government
intervention to international trade relations.
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Main hypothesis
The hypothesisof the study is as following:
Н0: Mongolia experiences export-led growth and in the long-run trade
openness positively affects growth through knowledge and technology diffusion.
Methodology of the study
A time series analysis is done for the period 1981-2012, to find out the
statistical relationship between export promotion, trade liberalization and economic
growth in Mongolia. In the regression model, a combined effect of export growth
and exports share in GDP is employed to analyze the effect of export expansion
on growth; a constructed index of the real exchange rate distortion from its free
trade level, Trade Intensity index as a ratio of total trade to domestic GDP and
Composite Trade Intensity index as a ratio of total trade to the total world trade as
a measure of openness to the world market is employed to analyze the effect of
trade liberalization on economic growth in Mongolia.
Main findings of the study
There are a number of factors which can lead to economic growth.
Considering nowadays increased debates regarding globalization issues,
economists and policymakers worthily are drawing attention on trade liberalization
and have conducted a number of researches that study the causal relationship
between trade liberalization and economic growth performance. This study
analyzes qualitative indirect effects of trade on growth and quantitatively examines
the interaction between trade and income growth in Mongolia during the period
1981-2012. The study also adresses key issues of the trade, like necessity of Free
Trade Agreements, Impact of Mining exports on the economy. The results of the
study indicate robust, positive effect of export growth and trade liberalization on
the growth performance of Mongolia during the study period.
JEL classification: C5, C22, F14 F43
Keywords: Econometric Modeling, Empirical Studies of Trade, Time-Series
Models, Economic Growth of Open Economies, natural resource,
growth, externalities, export