Energy source, India’s production and reserves of commercial energy sources, need for nonconventional energy sources, energy alternatives, solar, thermal, photovoltaic. Water power, wind biomass, ocean temperature difference, tidal and waves, geothermal, tar sands and oil shale, nuclear (Brief descriptions); advantages and disadvantages, comparison (Qualitative and Quantitative). Solar Radiation: Extra-Terrestrial radiation, spectral distribution of extra terrestrial radiation, solar constant, solar radiation at the earth’s surface, beam, diffuse and global radiation, solar radiation data. Measurement of Solar Radiation: Pyrometer, shading ring pyrheliometer, sunshine recorder, schematic diagrams and principle of working.
Hybrid Power System is the integration of number of generating plants those are working together serve a particular region. They may be off grid or may not be.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the future, the cost of energy will increase due to environmental problems and limited resources. The electric motor consumes major part of the electric energy in the industry. The induction motor is the main driven system in the modern industrial society. It would also reduce the production of greenhouse gases and push down the total environmental cost of electricity generation. Also these motors can reduce maintenance costs and improve operation in industry. Energy efficient motors use less electricity, run cooler, and often last longer than NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) B motors of the same size.
Motors and motor-driven systems account for 43%-46% of all global electricity consumption and 69% of all electricity used by industry. Inefficient electric motors waste electrical energy and therefore cost more to operate. Since most electricity is generated from fossil-fuelled power plants, motors and motor-driven systems are also indirect contributors to greenhouse gas emissions produced by these plants. Hence, there are compelling economic and environmental reasons to increase the use of energy efficient motors.
it provides the overview about compresses air energy storage with a method used to store electrical energy when it is surplus and release energy back to the system during peak demand.
Hybrid Power System is the integration of number of generating plants those are working together serve a particular region. They may be off grid or may not be.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the future, the cost of energy will increase due to environmental problems and limited resources. The electric motor consumes major part of the electric energy in the industry. The induction motor is the main driven system in the modern industrial society. It would also reduce the production of greenhouse gases and push down the total environmental cost of electricity generation. Also these motors can reduce maintenance costs and improve operation in industry. Energy efficient motors use less electricity, run cooler, and often last longer than NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) B motors of the same size.
Motors and motor-driven systems account for 43%-46% of all global electricity consumption and 69% of all electricity used by industry. Inefficient electric motors waste electrical energy and therefore cost more to operate. Since most electricity is generated from fossil-fuelled power plants, motors and motor-driven systems are also indirect contributors to greenhouse gas emissions produced by these plants. Hence, there are compelling economic and environmental reasons to increase the use of energy efficient motors.
it provides the overview about compresses air energy storage with a method used to store electrical energy when it is surplus and release energy back to the system during peak demand.
Outline:
1. Introduction
2. Solar Energy
3. Wind Energy
4. Hydropower
5. Biomass Energy
6. Geothermal Energy
7. Wave and Tidal Energy
Note: This is only the introduction part of a very big presentation. Please download the full version from here:
https://goo.gl/bXRLGd
It is type of hybrid energy system consist of a photovoltaic array coupled with a wind turbine.This would create more output from the wind turbine during the winter, whereas during the summer, the solar panels would produce their peak output.Solar Photovoltaic (PV) – Wind Turbine (WT) Hybrid System is the best way to utilize not just one local available RE resource but multiple renewable RE resources.
Demand Side Management” means the actions of a Distribution Licensee, beyond the customer's meter, with the objective of altering the end-use of electricity
Sea waves have high energy densities, the highest among renewable energy sources with the natural seasonal variability of wave energy following the electricity demand in temperate climates securing energy supplies in remote regions.
WIND POWER GENERATION SCHEMES are Constant speed - Constant frequency systems (CSCF)
Variable speed - Constant frequency systems (VSCF)
Variable speed - Variable frequency systems (VSVF)
Solar Energy Storage:-
Methods of storage such as sensible, latent heat &
thermochemical storage,selection of method of storage,
properties of storage materials and different arrangements of
storages
Outline:
1. Introduction
2. Solar Energy
3. Wind Energy
4. Hydropower
5. Biomass Energy
6. Geothermal Energy
7. Wave and Tidal Energy
Note: This is only the introduction part of a very big presentation. Please download the full version from here:
https://goo.gl/bXRLGd
It is type of hybrid energy system consist of a photovoltaic array coupled with a wind turbine.This would create more output from the wind turbine during the winter, whereas during the summer, the solar panels would produce their peak output.Solar Photovoltaic (PV) – Wind Turbine (WT) Hybrid System is the best way to utilize not just one local available RE resource but multiple renewable RE resources.
Demand Side Management” means the actions of a Distribution Licensee, beyond the customer's meter, with the objective of altering the end-use of electricity
Sea waves have high energy densities, the highest among renewable energy sources with the natural seasonal variability of wave energy following the electricity demand in temperate climates securing energy supplies in remote regions.
WIND POWER GENERATION SCHEMES are Constant speed - Constant frequency systems (CSCF)
Variable speed - Constant frequency systems (VSCF)
Variable speed - Variable frequency systems (VSVF)
Solar Energy Storage:-
Methods of storage such as sensible, latent heat &
thermochemical storage,selection of method of storage,
properties of storage materials and different arrangements of
storages
This course introduces renewable energy technologies. Emphasizes exploration of principles and concepts as well as the application of renewable energy technologies (RET). Explores topics such as energy consumption, the prose and cons of renewable energy, energy production and cons, energy conversion, environmental issues and concerns
Summary Presentation for The Great Transition: Shifting from Fossil Fuels to ...Earth Policy Institute
The energy transition is here. As fossil fuel resources shrink, as air pollution worsens, and as concerns about climate instability cast a shadow over the future of coal, oil, and natural gas, a new world energy economy is emerging. The old economy, fueled largely by coal and oil, is being replaced with one powered by solar and wind energy.
The topic 'Impact of Power Electronics on Global Warming' is presented and prepared by Mohammed Azeem Azeez, iOS Engineer in Technopark, IN.This presentation is regarding the impact of power electronics to reduce the global warming and to utilising the renewable sources.
* Referred several sources * -Links attached.
Lecture 5
Continuing Fossil Fuels & Renewable Resources
May 4, 2016
Oil
Like coal, most of the oil on Earth was formed millions of years ago
Certain warm shallow seas, such as the Gulf of Mexico and Tethys Sea were so ideal for life that organic material was formed faster than it could decompose
Large masses of organic material became buried at the sea bottom, were heated and pressurized, forming oil.
The present day distribution of oil lines up with these ancient shallow seas
Majority of oil reserves are in Middle Eastern countries
In elemental composition, oil is similar to coal
Mostly carbon, but also hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur
As a liquid, oil can be distilled (separated) into other fuels such as gasoline, kerosene, and diesel fuel
Oil Extraction
As a liquid, oil can be pumped directly out of the ground. This eliminates the need for mining.
A long drill is used to bore deep into the Earth to reach the deposit.
The hole is lined with a steel pipe and cement.
The top is outfitted with a collection of pipes and valves
The ease of transporting oil has enabled drilling at very remote locations
At its peak, Alaska accounted for about 25% of the U.S. oil production
It is transported to the southern ports of the state through the Alaska Oil Pipeline.
As a liquid, oil can also escape more easily, forming an oil spill
Oil spills are devastating to marine life
Penetrates through the fur and feathers of animals, reducing their ability to fly, float, and insulate themselves
Benthic organisms, living at the bottom of the sea, can be suffocated
Entire populations of krill and plankton can be wiped out
Oil Reserves
Of the fossil fuels, oil has been the most quickly depleted
Peak oil is defined as the point at which all known oil reserves have been tapped and production will begin declining in the following years.
The U.S. reached its peak production in the 1970s
The estimated date of worldwide peak oil is unknown
OPEC
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is comprised of 13 countries.
Members: Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela.
In 2010, OPEC holds about 77% of the entire world’s crude oil reserves.
The U.S. has only about 2% of the world’s proven oil reserves. China has 1.1% and India has 0.4%. Japan as none
It will be necessary to find alternatives to or other sources of crude oil to sustain the today’s usage.
Natural Gas
Natural gas is actually a mixtures of gases
50-90% methane
Smaller amounts of propane and butane
As a gas, it is the most difficult fossil fuel to transport
A supply of natural gas exists above most oil wells, however, if no pipelines are nearby, it will often simply be burned off.
Natural gas has a relatively small amount of pollution produced by burning it (Only two waste products-CO2 & Water vapor)
Natural Gas Extraction
Hydraulic Fracturing or Fracking-a controversial technique used ...
Similar to Module-1 Non Conventional Energy sources (20)
Geothermal Energy Conversion: Principle of working, types of geothermal station with schematic diagram, geothermal plants in the world, problems associated with geothermal conversion, scope of geothermal energy. Energy from Bio Mass: Photosynthesis, photosynthetic oxygen production, energy plantation, bio gas production from organic wastes by anaerobic fermentation, description of bio-gas plants, transportation of bio-gas, problems involved with bio-gas production, application of bio-gas, application of bio-gas in engines, advantages.
Wind Energy : Properties of wind, availability of wind energy in India, wind velocity and power from wind; major problems associated with wind power, wind machines; Types of
wind machines and their characteristics, horizontal and vertical axis wind mills, elementary
design principles; coefficient of performance of a wind mill rotor, aerodynamic considerations of wind mill design, numerical examples.
Tidal Power: Tides and waves as energy suppliers and their mechanics; fundamental characteristics of tidal power, harnessing tidal energy, limitations.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSEDuvanRamosGarzon1
AIRCRAFT GENERAL
The Single Aisle is the most advanced family aircraft in service today, with fly-by-wire flight controls.
The A318, A319, A320 and A321 are twin-engine subsonic medium range aircraft.
The family offers a choice of engines
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdfKamal Acharya
The Division of Vaccine and Immunization is facing increasing difficulty monitoring vaccines and other commodities distribution once they have been distributed from the national stores. With the introduction of new vaccines, more challenges have been anticipated with this additions posing serious threat to the already over strained vaccine supply chain system in Kenya.
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
1. Dr. Ramesh B T
Assistant Prof, MED
Jain Institute of Technology
Davangere-577003
Mail ID: rameshbt049@gmail.com
Phone No: 9900784915
4/9/2022
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2. Energy
The word ‘energy’ itself is derived from the Greek
word which means ‘in-work’ or ‘work content’. The work
output depends on the energy input.
Energy can be defined as the ability to do work.
Energy is measured in the same unit as work: joules (J).
Energy is all around us. we can hear energy as sound. we can
see energy as light and we can feel it as wind.
The five main forms of energy are:
Heat
Chemical
Electromagnetic
Nuclear
Mechanical
4/9/2022
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3. All forms of energy can be converted into other forms.
The sun’s energy through solar cells can be converted directly into
electricity.
Green plants convert the sun’s energy (electromagnetic) into
starches and sugars (chemical energy).
In an electric motor, electromagnetic energy is converted to
mechanical energy.
In a battery, chemical energy is converted into electromagnetic
energy.
The mechanical energy of a waterfall is converted to electrical
energy in a generator.
All forms of energy can be in either of two states:
Potential
Kinetic
4/9/2022
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4. Kinetic Energy
The energy of motion is called kinetic energy
K.E. = mass x velocity
Potential Energy
Potential Energy is stored energy, Stored chemically in fuel,
the nucleus of atom, and in foods. Or stored because of the
work done on it:
Stretching a rubber band.
Winding a watch.
Pulling back on a bow’s arrow.
Lifting a brick high in the air.
4/9/2022
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5. Classification of energy resources:
*Conventional/ Commercial
*Non - Conventional
*Renewable
*Non – renewable
*Primary resources
*Intermediate resources
*Secondary resources
Conventional sources:
Energy sources which are available in less amount and will one day be
exhausted, are known as conventional sources of energy. E.g. fossil fuels
Non - conventional sources:
The energy sources which are renewable and can be regenerated are
known as renewable or non-conventional sources of energy.
As the population is increasing the energy consumption also is increasing.
Hence we need such sources of energy which can be renewed from time
to time and they can meet our needs regularly. 4/9/2022
5
7. The different sources of energy are:
1. Fossil fuels
2. Biomass
3. Hydro power plant
4. Wind energy
5. Solar energy
6. Geothermal energy
7. Ocean thermal energy
8. Tidal energy
9. Wave energy
10.Nuclear energy
4/9/2022
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8. The need for alternatives:
* The average rate of increase of oil production in the world is declining & a peak in
production may be reached around 2015. There after the production will decline
gradually & most of the oil reserves of the world are likely to be consumed by the end of
the present century. The serious nature of this observation is apparent when one notes
that oil provides about 30% of the world‘s need for energy from commercial sources &
that oil is the fuel used in most of the world‘s transportation systems.
* The production of natural gas is continuing to increase at a rate of about 4% every year.
Unlike oil, there has been no significant slowdown in the rate of increase of production.
Present indications are that a peak in gas production will come around 2025, about 10
years after the peak in oil production.
* As oil & natural gas becomes scarcer, a great burden will fall on coal. It is likely that the
production of coal will touch a maximum somewhere around 2050.
* Finally, it should be noted that in addition to supplying energy, fossil fuels are used
extensively as feed stock material for the manufacture of organic chemicals. As
resources deplete, the need for using fossil fuels exclusively for such purposes may
become greater.
4/9/2022
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9. need for non-conventional energy sources
• CO2 is at 407ppm (Oct 2018)
increased by 90ppm in the last
70 years
• Global warming ~1.1°C in the
past 200 years
• Ocean acidification
• Rising sea level ~3.2mm each
year
• Decreasing ice sheet mass
• Retreating glaciers
• Decreasing Arctic ice at a rate
of 13% each decade
NASA Youtube video showing planet warming
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=9&v=s3RWTTtPg8E 4/9/2022
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17. 1. Coal and Lignite:
2. Oil and Gas:
3.Hydroelectric power:
4.Atomic or Nuclear Power:
5. Nuclear Power
4/9/2022
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18. SALIENT FEATURES OF NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES
Merits:
* NCES are available in nature, free of cost.
* They cause no or very little pollution. Thus, by and large, they are
environmental friendly.
* They are inexhaustible.
* They have low gestation period.
Demerits:
* Though available freely in nature, the cost of harnessing energy from NCES is
high, as in general, these are available in dilute forms of energy.
* Uncertainty of availability: the energy flow depends on various natural
phenomena beyond human control.
* Difficulty in transporting this form of energy.
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19. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES:
ADVANTAGES:
• Coal: as present is cheap.
• Security: by storing certain quantity, the energy availability can be ensured for a
certain period.
• Convenience: it is very convenient to use.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Fossil fuels generate pollutants: CO, CO2, NOX, SOX. Particulate matter & heat.
The pollutants degrade the environment, pose health hazards & cause various
other problems.
• Coal: it is also valuable petro-chemical & used as source of raw material for
chemical & paints, industries, etc. From long term point of view, it is desirable
to conserve coal for future needs.
• Safety of nuclear plants: it is a controversial subject.
• Hydro electrical plants are cleanest but large hydro reservoirs
cause the following problems
• As large land area submerges into water, which leads to deforestation
Causes ecological disturbances such as earthquakes
• Causes dislocation of large population & consequently their rehabilitation
problems. 4/9/2022
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20. Solar energy is a very large, inexhaustible source of energy.
4/9/2022
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31. 4/9/2022
31
https://youtu.be/BsojDI7tQm0
Biomass energy is energy generated or produced by living or once-living
organisms. ... Biomass is organic, meaning it is made of material that comes
from living organisms, such as plants and animals. The most
common biomass materials used for energy are plants, wood, and waste.
34. he temperature of the ocean also varies from top to bottom, giving a vertical
structure to most of the ocean. There is an upper layer of water, up to 200m
deep, that is warmed by the Sun and has the same temperature from top to
bottom. Below that is a layer called the thermocline, reaching down in places to
1000m, which is colder at the bottom than at the top. The deep ocean below the
thermocline, making up 80% of the ocean, is the same very cold temperature
throughout
Some properties of water change with temperature:
• Cold water is denser than warm water, so it tends to sink.
• Cold water holds more dissolvable gases, such as carbon dioxide
• Water temperature can affect the productivity of organisms living in it.
Water expands when it warms up – heat energy makes its molecules move around
more and take up more space. Because the molecules are more spread out,
the density goes down. When water cools, it contracts and becomes denser.
Temperature and salinity both affect the density of water, resulting in water
moving up or down through the ocean layers and moving as currents around the
ocean.
4/9/2022
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37. 4/9/2022
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Tidal energy is energy produced by the tides of the ocean. Tides are produced by
the pull of gravity from the Moon as well as the spin of the Earth. There is a lot of
energy in the movement of that much water.
The first wave power plant in the world opened in 2008 at the Farm in Portugal.
Tidal power to turn water wheels and grind grains was used as far back as
Roman times and the Middle Ages. The idea of using tidal power for electricity
is fairly recent, but the costs have been too high to make it a major energy
source. Recent technological advances have shown that it could become a
competitive and viable source.
Oscillating Water Column (OWC)
39. 4/9/2022
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Some advantages of tidal energy are:
• Environment-friendly
• A highly predictable energy source
• High energy density
• Operational and maintenance costs are low
• An inexhaustible source of energy
Some of the disadvantages of tidal energy are:
• High tidal power plant construction costs
• Negative influence on marine life forms
• Location limits
• The variable intensity of sea waves
43. 4/9/2022
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Oil shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock containing large amounts of organic
matter (kerogen), which can yield substantial quantities of hydrocarbons.
Tar sands are grains of sand or, in some cases, porous
carbonate rocks that are intimately mixed with a very
heavy, asphalt-like crude oil called bitumen.
44. 4/9/2022
44
oil shale contains about 4% kerogen. When heated to 350-400 °C, it yields about 6
gallons of oil per ton of shale. Rich shale may contain up to 40% kerogen and
typically yields about 50 gallons of oil per ton.
Oil is then recovered from the shale by retorting the shale. Retorting involves
heating the shale in the absence of air to temperatures of 500 °C or more.
Typically, 75-80% of the kerogen is converted to oil.
https://youtu.be/Dx1jOD-V8mc
45. 4/9/2022
45
The bitumen is much too viscous to be recovered by traditional petroleum recovery
techniques. If tar sand is heated to about 80 °C, by injecting steam into the deposit
in a manner analogous to that of enhanced oil recovery, the elevated temperature
causes a decrease in the viscosity of the bitumen just enough to allow its pumping
to the surface. Alternatively, it is sometimes easier to mine the tar sand as a solid
material. When the mined tar sand is mixed with steam and hot water, the bitumen
will float on the water while the sand sinks to the bottom of the container, allowing
for easy separation. Heating the bitumen above 500 °C converts about 70% of it to
a synthetic crude oil. Distilling this oil gives good yields of kerosene and other
liquid products in the middle distillate range. The remainder of the bitumen either
thermally cracks to form gaseous products or reacts to form petroleum coke
47. 4/9/2022
47
Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions to produce electricity. Nuclear
power can be obtained from nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion
reactions.
51. The solar constant, GSC is the energy from the sun, per unit time, received on
a unit area of surface perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
radiation, at mean earth-sun distance, outside of the atmosphere.
Earth’s elliptic orbit
The elliptical path causes
only small variations in the
amount of solar radiation
reaching the earth.
4/9/2022
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61. The Earth is a planet with an atmosphere and is largely transparent to the incoming
solar radiation. There are constituents in the atmosphere which prevent some kinds of
radiation from reaching the surface, such as ozone which stops the ultraviolet. A fair
proportion of the Earth is covered by clouds which reflect a lot of the Sun's radiation
and thus affecting the surface temperature.
The process of scattering occurs when small particles and gas
molecules diffuse part of the incoming solar radiation in random
directions without any alteration to the of the electromagnetic
energy. Scattering does, however, reduce the amount of
incoming radiation reaching the Earth's surface. A significant
proportion of scattered shortwave solar radiation is redirected
back to space. The amount of scattering that takes place is
dependent on two factors: of the incoming radiation and the
size of the scattering particle or gas molecule. In the Earth's
atmosphere, the presence of a large number of particles with a
size of about 0.5 m results in shorter wavelengths being
preferentially scattered. This factor also causes our sky to look
blue because this color corresponds to those wavelengths that
are best diffused. If scattering did not occur in our atmosphere
the daylight sky would be black.
4/9/2022
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62. If intercepted, some gases and particles in the atmosphere
have the ability to absorb incoming insolation. Absorption is
defined as a process in which solar radiation is retained by
a substance and converted into heat. The creation of heat
also causes the substance to emit its own radiation. In
general, the absorption of solar radiation by substances in
the Earth's atmosphere results in temperatures that get no
higher than 1800° C. Bodies with temperatures at this level
or lower would emit their radiation in the longwave band.
Further, this emission of radiation is in all directions so a
sizable proportion of this energy is lost to space.
The third process in the atmosphere that modifies
incoming solar radiation is reflection. Reflection is a process
where sunlight is redirect by 180° after it strikes an
atmospheric particle. This redirection causes a 100 % loss
of the insolation. Most of the reflection in our atmosphere
occurs in clouds when light is intercepted by particles of
liquid and frozen water. The reflectivity (albedo) of a cloud
can range from 40 to 90 %.
4/9/2022
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63. At the smallest scale the electromagnetic radiation behaves as a particle, like when light is
emitted by a single atom or molecule. When energy is given off there is a change in the
orbital pattern of the electrons that surround the nucleus of an atom. As the orbit
changes, a bundle of energy called a "photon" is released. However, particles of light
differ from particles of matter: they have no mass, occupy no space, and travel at the
speed of light. The amount of energy carried by a photon varies inversely with
wavelength, the shorter the wavelength the more energetic is the photon. Normally, light
is formed from a large number of photons, with the intensity related to the number of
them.
The gasses that comprise our atmosphere absorbs
only particular wavelengths of light. Electrons orbit
the nucleus of an atom at fixed orbital distances
called orbital shells. The orbital shell for each atom
is different and discrete. That is, for a given atom
like hydrogen, its electrons can only orbit at
particular distances and are different than those
for atoms of other gases.
4/9/2022
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64. 4/9/2022
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Sun is a sphere of hot gaseous matter with a diameter of 1.39*10^9m. Due to its
temperature, sun emits energy in the form of electromagnetic waves, which is
called radiation energy. The energy from the sun is X-ffered to the earth in the
form of photons (Small packet of energy) moving at the speed of 3*10^8 m/s.
When Photon energy- absorption (metal)- Heat energy .When Photon energy-
absorption (Plant)- (Photon energy combine with O2)Chemical energy. The heat
energy received on the earth through photons is responsible foe earth’s
temperature. The amount of solar radiation reaching different parts of the world is
not the same .
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Extraterrestrial Radiation:
The extraterrestrial radiation refers to the amount of radiation falling on
earth, outside its atmosphere. The extraterrestrial solar radiation received by
the earth is essentially constant. The solar constant, a measure of flux, is the
amount of incoming solar electromagnetic radiation per unit area that would
be incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays, at a distance of one
astronomical unit (AU) (roughly the mean distance from the Sun to the Earth).
Solar radiation incident
outside the earth's
atmosphere is called
extraterrestrial radiation.
On average the
extraterrestrial irradiance
is 1367 W/m2. This value
varies by ±3% as the
earth orbits the sun.
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Solar Radiation at the Earth's Surface
While the solar radiation incident on the Earth's atmosphere is relatively constant,
the radiation at the Earth's surface varies widely due to:
• atmospheric effects, including absorption and scattering;
• local variations in the atmosphere, such as water vapour, clouds, and pollution;
• latitude of the location; and
• the season of the year and the time of day.
The above effects have several impacts on the solar radiation received at the Earth's
surface. These changes include variations in the overall power received, the
spectral content of the light and the angle from which light is incident on a surface.
In addition, a key change is that the variability of the solar radiation at a particular
location increases dramatically. The variability is due to both local effects such as
clouds and seasonal variations, as well as other effects such as the length of the day
at a particular latitude. Desert regions tend to have lower variations due to local
atmospheric phenomena such as clouds. Equatorial regions have low variability
between seasons.
69. equator
90o
Beam radiation is the solar radiation received from the Sun without having
been scattered by the atmosphere. Diffuse radiation is that received from the
Sun after its direction has been changed by scattering by the atmosphere.
The total solar radiation is the sum of the beam (B) and
diffuse solar (D) radiation on a surface (Eq. 5.1). The
most common measurements of solar radiation are total
radiation on a horizontal surface, often referred to as
global radiation on the surface.
G= B+ D
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Diffuse radiation :
radiation reaching earth’s surface after having been scattered from the direct
solar beam by molecules or suspensoids in the atmosphere.
72. Irradiance is given in W/m2 and is represented by the
symbol G.
The rate at which radiant energy is incident on a surface
per unit area of surface.
Irradiation is given in J/m2 and is the incident energy per
unit area on a surface - determined by integration of
irradiance over a specified time, usually an hour or a day.
Insolation is a term used to solar energy irradiation
Radiosity is the rate at which radiant energy leaves a
surface, per unit area, by combined emission, reflection
and transmission.
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73. The path length of the solar radiation
through the Earth’s atmosphere in units
of Air Mass (AM) increases with the
angle from the zenith. The AM 1.5
spectrum is the preferred standard
spectrum for solar cell efficiency
measurements.
The easiest way to estimate the air
mass in practice is to measure the
length of the shadow s cast by a
vertical structure of height h using
AM 1
h
s2
Air Mass AM : The ratio of the mass of atmosphere through which beam radiation passes to
the mass it would pass through if the sun were at zenith (directly overhead).
At sea level, AM =1 when the sun is at zenith; AM = 2 for a zenith angle z of 60o.
For 0 < z < 70o AM= 1/cos z
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*The amount of solar radiation on a surface on earth at any position
at a particular time depends on the orientation and inclination of a
surface.
*An inclined surface takes direct (GBt), diffuse (GDt) and ground
reflected (GGt) radiation given by:
*Gt=GBt + GDt +GGt
79. Pyranometer for
• Global radiation
• Direct radiation
• Diffuse radiation
Definition: A type of actinometer used to measure irradiance of solar
energy within the preferred location as well as flux density of solar radiation.
The range of solar radiation extends between 300 & 2800 nm.
The SI units of irradiance are W/m² (watts /square meter). Usually, these are
used in the fields of researches like climatological & weather monitoring, but
current attention is showing interest in pyranometers for solar energy
worldwide.
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80. Pyranometer
https://youtu.be/zdZYMl-w2Y0
The working principle of the pyranometer mainly depends on the difference in
temperature measurement between two surfaces like dark and clear. The solar
radiation can be absorbed by the black surface on the thermopile whereas the
clear surface reproduces it, so less heat can be absorbed.
The thermopile plays a key role in measuring the difference in temperature. The
potential difference formed within the thermopile is due to the gradient of
temperature between the two surfaces. These are used to measure the sum of
solar radiation.
But, the voltage which is generated from the thermopile is calculated with the
help of a potentiometer. The information of radiation needs to be included
through planimetry or an electronic integrator.
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The pyranometer advantages and disadvantages are
• The temperature coefficient is extremely small
• Standardized to ISO standards
• Measurements of performance ration & performance index are accurate.
• Response time is longer compare to PV cell
The disadvantage of the pyranometer is,
• its spectral sensitivity is imperfect, so it does not observe the complete
spectrum of the sun. So errors in measurements can occur.
The applications are
• The solar intensity data can be measured.
• Climatological & Meteorological studies
• PV systems design
• Locations of the greenhouse can be established.
• Expecting the requirements of insulation for building structures
82. Pyranometer shade ring
When a shade ring is used to shield a pyranometer from direct solar
radiation, a correction to the measured diffuse radiation is necessary to
account for diffuse radiation intercepted by the ring. A general analysis is
developed to relate shade‐ring corrections to the radiance distribution of
diffuse radiation.
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83. Pyrheliometer
A pyrheliometer is an instrument for measurement of direct beam solar
irradiance. Sunlight enters the instrument through a window and is directed onto
a thermopile which converts heat to an electrical signal that can be recorded.
The signal voltage is converted via a formula to measure watts per square metre
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