Climate change and mitigation measures for sustainability.

Global Warming & Climate change
Climate change and mitigation measures
 Clean Development Mechanism –
 Carbon Trading –
 Examples of future clean technology – Biodiesel – Natural
Compost – Eco-friendly plastic – Alternate Energy – Hydrogen
– Bio-fuels – Solar Energy – Wind – Hydroelectric Power –
 Mitigation Efforts in India and Adaptation funding.
 Key Mitigation Technologies and Practices
– Energy Supply – Transport – Buildings – Industry –
Agriculture – Forestry –
 Carbon sequestration – Carbon capture and storage (CCS) –
 Waste (MSW & Bio-waste, Biomedical, Industrial waste)
 International and Regional cooperation

The Clean Development Mechanism
 The clean development mechanism has been designed to be a viable option
for reducing the industrialized countries’ carbon emissions.
 This mechanism is built into the Kyoto Protocol, which was created after
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change came into
existence.
 The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), defined in Article 12 of the
Protocol, allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation
commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to implement an
emission-reduction project in developing countries.
 India is the major recipient, accounting for around 31% of global carbon trading
through the clean development mechanism, which is estimated to generate at least -
10 billion over time.
 Gujarat Fluoro-Chemicals (GFL), based in Vadodara, India, is the first Indian
company and one of only three in the world to have a reduction-of-emissions CDM
project certified after review by the heavily-regarded UNFCCC (Union Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change) Executive Board.

The objectives of a clean development mechanism are:
 Contribute to the halting and prevention of climate change.
 Assist developing countries in strategy development that is long-
lasting.
 Assist industrialized countries in reducing emissions and
transitioning to greener energy sources.
 Assist countries in implementing creative strategies for reducing
emissions.
 Diminishing the reliance on fossil fuels.
 Employing animal excrement to create energy and actively
managing it.
 Decreasing the amount of pollution produced during the
manufacturing process.

Operating Details of Clean Development Mechanism in India
1. Identification of the Project :
2. Approval From the Government:
3. Development of the Project:
4. Authentication:
5. Registration Process:
6. Tracking:
7. Verification:
8. Certification:.

Other then this it can be classified in two
broad terms:-
1. Renewable resources
Solar energy
Wind energy
Geothermal energy
Hydropower energy
Biomass
Hydrogen and fuel cells
2. Non Renewable Resources
Fossil fuels
Coal
Petroleum
Natural gas
Nuclear
TYPES OF ENERGY

RENEWABLE RESOURCES OF ENERGY
Solar. This form of energy relies on the nuclear fusion power from the core of the
Sun. This energy can be collected and converted in a few different ways. The
range is from solar water heating with solar collectors or attic cooling with solar
attic fans for domestic use to the complex technologies of direct conversion of
sunlight to electrical energy using mirrors and boilers or photovoltaic cells.
Unfortunately these are currently insufficient to fully power our modern society.
Application of solar energy
a) Solar Water heating.
b) Solar Heating of Building.
c) Solar – Distillation
d) Solar Furnaces
e) Solar Cooking
f) Solar Electric Power Generation
(Photovoltaic System)
g) Solar Thermal Power Production.
h) Production of Power through Solar Ponds.
i) Solar Green Houses.

2. Wind - The movement of the atmosphere is driven by differences of
temperature at the Earth‘s surface due to varying temperatures of the Earth's
surface when lit by sunlight. Wind energy can be used to pump water or generate
electricity, but requires extensive areal coverage to produce significant amounts
of energy.

Biomass is the term for energy from plants. Energy in this form is very commonly
used throughout the world. Unfortunately the most popular is the burning of trees
for cooking and warmth. This process releases copious amounts of carbon dioxide
gases into the atmosphere and is a major contributor to unhealthy air in many
areas. Some of the more modern forms of biomass energy are methane
generation and production of alcohol for automobile fuel and fuelling electric
power plants.

Geothermal power/Energy left over from the original accretion of the planet and
augmented by heat from radioactive decay seeps out slowly everywhere,
everyday. In certain areas the geothermal gradient (increase in temperature with
depth) is high enough to exploit to generate electricity. This possibility is limited to
a few locations on Earth and many technical problems exist that limit its utility.
Another form of geothermal energy is Earth energy, a result of the heat storage in
the Earth's surface. Soil everywhere tends to stay at a relatively constant
temperature, the yearly average, and can be used with heat pumps to heat a
building in winter and cool a building in summer. This form of energy can lessen
the need for other power to maintain comfortable temperatures in buildings, but
cannot be used to produce electricity.

Hydroelectric energy - this form uses the gravitational potential of elevated water
that was lifted from the oceans by sunlight. It is not strictly speaking renewable
since all reservoirs eventually fill up and require very expensive excavation to
become useful again. At this time, most of the available locations for hydroelectric
dams are already used in the developed world.

Renewable Energy

Renewable Energy
• Maine is endowed with plentiful bioenergy, wind,
hydropower, ocean, and other renewable energy
resources.
• Non-hydro renewables are responsible for 32% of in-
state generation, a higher percentage than in any
other state in the nation.

Solar Energy
We use solar thermal energy systems to
• heat water for use in homes, buildings, or swimming pools
• heat the inside of homes, greenhouses, and other buildings
• heat fluids to high temperatures in solar thermal power plants
Solar photovoltaic devices, or solar cells, change sunlight
directly into electricity.

Solar Energy

Solar Energy
The two main benefits of using solar energy are
• Systems do not produce air pollutants or carbon dioxide.
• Systems on buildings have minimal impact on the environment.
The main limitations of solar energy are
• The amount of sunlight that arrives at the earth's surface is not
constant. The amount of sunlight varies depending on location, time of
day, season of the year, and weather conditions.
• The amount of sunlight reaching a square foot of the earth's surface is
relatively small, so a large surface area is necessary to absorb or collect
a useful amount of energy.

Wind Energy
• Wind turbines operate on a simple principle. The energy in the
wind turns two or three propeller-like blades around a rotor.
The rotor is connected to the main shaft, which spins a
generator to create electricity.

Wind Energy

Wind Energy
• Wind turbines are mounted on a tower to capture
the most energy. At 100 feet or more above
ground, they can take advantage of faster and less
turbulent wind.
• Wind turbines can be used to produce electricity
for a single home or building, or they can be
connected to an electricity grid for more
widespread electricity distribution.

Wind Energy
• Advantages of Wind Energy
• Clean and renewable source of power
• Cost effective
• Rapid growth of industry, large potential
• Disadvantages of Wind Energy
• Wind reliability
• Threat to wildlife
• Noise and visual pollution

Tidal Energy
• Tidal Stream Generator
• Makes use of the kinetic energy of moving water to power turbines, in
a similar way to wind turbines that use wind to power turbines.
• Tidal Barrage
• Tidal barrages make use of the potential energy in the difference in
height between high and low tides.

Tidal Energy
• Advantages
• Clean fuel source compared to fossil fuels
• Domestic source of energy
• Disadvantages
• Tidal power can have effects on marine life.
• The turbines can accidentally kill swimming sea life with the
rotating blades.
• Some fish may no longer utilize the area if threatened with a
constant rotating or noise-making object.
• Installing a barrage may change the shoreline within the
bay or estuary, affecting a large ecosystem that depends on tidal
flats.

Wave Energy
• Ocean waves contain tremendous energy potential.
• Wave power devices extract energy from the surface
motion of ocean waves or from pressure fluctuations
below the surface.

Wave Energy
• Advantages
• Renewable
• Environmentally friendly compared to fossil fuel energy
• Variety of designs to use
• Less energy dependence from foreign governments
• Disadvantages
• Can affect the marine environment
• May disturb private or commercial shipping
• Dependent on wavelength for best operation
• Poor performance in rough weather
• Visual/noise issues

Geothermal Energy
• (geo = earth and thermal = heat), geothermal
energy comes from heat produced by the Earth.

Geothermal Energy
• Direct geothermal energy can be accessed in areas where hot
springs/geothermal reservoirs are near the surface of the
Earth.
• Geothermal heat pumps utilizes a series of underground
pipes, an electric compressor and a heat exchanger to absorb
and transfer heat.
• Geothermal power plants also harness the heat of the Earth
through hot water and steam. In these plants, heat is used to
generate electricity.

Geothermal Energy
• Advantages
• Renewable energy
• Cleaner than burning fossil fuels
• Disadvantages
• Cost of drilling, researching proper areas
• Requires a suitable location

Biofuels
• The two most common types of biofuels
are ethanol and biodiesel.

Biofuels
• Ethanol is an alcohol.
• Ethanol is mostly used as a fuel additive to cut down a
vehicle's carbon monoxide and other smog-causing
emissions.

Biofuels
• Biodiesel is made by combining alcohol (usually
methanol) with vegetable oil, animal fat, or
recycled cooking greases.
• It can be used as an additive to reduce vehicle
emissions (typically 20%) or in its pure form as a
renewable alternative fuel for diesel engines.

Biofuels
• Advantages
• Easy to source
• Renewable
• Reduces greenhouse gases
• Reduced dependence on foreign energy
• Disadvantages
• Higher cost of production (lower supply than gasoline)
• Monoculture
• Shortage of food
• Water Use

Key Mitigation Technologies and Practices
Energy Supply
 almost a quarter of total GHG emissions.
 Industries involved in the extraction of primary energy, those that transform energy
supplies from primary fuels into secondary fuels, and
 Involved in transporting energy - electric generation, oil refining, ethanol production,
coal mining, and oil production, as well as traditional sectors such as charcoal
production.

Mitigation Measures: Mitigation measures in the energy supply sector include:
 Increasing plant efficiency;
 switching to lower-carbon fuels;
 reducing losses in the transmission and distribution of electricity and fuels;
and
 Increasing the use of renewable energy forms, such as Solar, Hydropower,
Ocean, Wind, Biomass, and Geothermal Energy.
Policies for Mitigation
 Market-based instruments include GHG and energy taxes, cap-and-trade systems
and subsidies for renewable energy.
 Regulatory measures consist of specifying the use of lowcarbon fuels, performance
and emissions standards.
 Hybrid measures include tradable emissions permits and renewable portfolio
standards.
 Government funded research, development and demonstration activities are also
vital in establishing a low-carbon energy supply sector.

Transportation
 In 2004, transport was responsible for 13% of total GHG emissions; petroleum
currently supplies 95% of total energy needs in that sector.
 Road transport accounts for 74% of transport energy use and light-duty vehicles
alone comprise about 50 per cent of all road transport.
 Air travel is the second largest and most rapidly growing mode of transport and is
responsible for about 12% of current energy use in the transport sector.
 Emissions from road transport are a result of many factors, such as:
 Activity: the quantity of transport duties undertaken;
 Structure: the split between different modal shares (road, rail, air, water);
Intensity: the efficiency with which energy is used to complete travel duties;
 Fuel: the types of fuel used to power transport.
 The growth of energy use in the transport sector, its continued reliance on petroleum
and the consequent increase in carbon emissions are determined by long-term trends
of the increasing motorization of world transport systems and an ever-growing
demand for mobility.
 Emissions from transport in developing countries are increasing faster than in other
regions of the world.

Mitigation Measures: Mitigation measures in the transport sector include
 Fuel efficiency improvements, such as changes in vehicle and engine design (e.g.
hybrids), and
 Alternative low-carbon fuel sources such as biofuels and compressed natural gas
(CNG).
 A comprehensive mitigation strategy in this sector may also include the expansion of
public transport infrastructure.
 Public transport technologies
such as buses and trains can
generally operate with much
lower emissions per passenger
per km than cars or airplanes.
 Improved land-use planning
(dense settlements instead of
urban sprawl) is also an
important mitigation option in
the longer term.

Policies for Mitigation: Government policies can include a combination of market based
programmes and regulatory measures.
 Market-based programmes include increases in fuel taxes, incentives for mass
transport systems, and fiscal incentives and subsidies for alternative fuels and
vehicles.
 Regulatory instruments include fuel economy standards, mandates on vehicle design
or alternative fuels, and direct investment by governments in infrastructure
improvements, research and development.

Buildings
In 2004, CO2 emissions from the building sector were around 8.6 Gt CO2, accounting for
about 8% of total GHG emissions.
Mitigation Measures: There are many cost-effective technologies and measures that have
the potential to significantly reduce the increase in GHG emissions from buildings. Examples
include:
 energy-efficient heating and cooling systems, lighting, air conditioners, appliances and
motors;
 improving building thermal integrity though insulation and air sealing;
 using solar energy in active and passive heating and cooling; and effectively using natural
light (“daylighting”).

Policies for Mitigation: Government policies may include a combination of
market based programmes and regulatory measures.
 Market-based programmes include: incentives for consumers to use new
energy-efficient products (in many situations, the fate of less efficient second-
hand equipment must also be considered); incentives for manufacturers to
develop energy efficient products; and government or large-customer
procurement for energy-efficient products.
 Regulatory measures, if well
enforced, can be highly
effective. Such measures
include mandates on energy-
efficiency performance
standards, building codes,
appliance efficiency standards
and efficiency labelling.

Industry
 Energy-related CO2 emissions from the industrial sector grew from 6.0 Gt CO2 in 1971 to
9.9 Gt CO2 in 2004.
 Industry is responsible for almost 20% of total GHG emissions.
 Since 1980, industrial energy demand has stagnated in industrialized countries, but
continues to grow rapidly in many developing countries, especially in Asia.
 Although there is significant potential for improving energy efficiency in all industries, the
greatest opportunities for savings are in the energy-intensive industries.
 Five of these – iron and steel, chemicals, petroleum refining, pulp and paper, and cement –
account for roughly 45 per cent of global industrial energy consumption.
 Energy purchases represent such a large fraction of production costs in these industries
that new technologies for producing basic materials have been more energy-efficient than
the technologies they replaced, a trend that is likely to continue.

Mitigation Measures: Mitigation measures in the industrial sector include -
 process changes to directly reduce CO2 emissions,
 material-efficient product design,
 material substitution, and
 Product and material recycling.
In light industries, mitigation options to reduce GHG emissions include
 efficient lighting,
 efficient motors and drive systems,
 process controls, and
 Saving energy in space heating.

Policies for Mitigation:
 Introducing new regulations is the most direct method of changing industrial
behavior.
 Among the most viable options for influencing industry's use of energy are
equipment efficiency standards, reporting and targeting requirements, and the
regulation of utilities to encourage both the implementation of demand-side
management programmes and the purchase of cogenerated electricity.
 By excluding sub-standard equipment from the market, equipment efficiency
standards can have a large impact in a short time.
 They can also help to lower the price of higher efficiency equipment by increasing
the size of the markets.
 Market-based policies such as cap-and-trade systems and offset programmes have
also proven effective in controlling and mitigating emissions while, at the same
time, fostering innovation and investment in new technologies.

Agriculture
Agricultural areas (e.g. cropland, managed grassland and permanent crops including
agro-forestry and bio-energy crops) occupy about 40–50% of the earth’s land surface.
In 2005, agriculture accounted for an estimated 10–12% of the total global
anthropogenic GHG emissions.
Mitigation and Sequestration Measures: Mitigation measures in the agricultural
sector include improving rice cultivation and animal husbandry to minimize CH4
emissions, decreasing the use of artificial fertilizer to minimize N2O emissions and
improving cultivation methods, such as the no-till approach, to increase carbon storage
in soil.
Policies for Mitigation and Sequestration Policies in the agricultural sector can
include market-based mechanisms such as offset programmes and conservation
easements, as well as regulatory measures in the form of incentives and taxes.

Forestry
Forest-related emissions accounted for about 17% of global GHG emissions in 2005. Hundreds
of millions of households depend on goods and services provided by forests and it is, therefore,
particularly important to assess activities in the forestry sector that are aimed at mitigating
climate change in the broader context of sustainable development and community impact.
Mitigation and Sequestration Measures: Mitigation measures include reforestation, protecting
existing forests and substituting wood fuel with other fuels. In some situations, where wood fuel
production is highly unsustainable, substituting household wood fuel with fossil fuels may
paradoxically constitute a mitigation option.
Policies for Mitigation and Sequestration Policies for forest protection and afforestation have
to cover a wide range of areas and should include clarifying and securing land tenure for small
farmers, the use of incentive programmes such as pay for conservation services, market
mechanisms such as offset programmes for sequestration projects, and enforcing bans on logging
in protected areas

Waste
 Post-consumer waste accounts for less than 5% of global GHG emissions, with
a total of approximately 1.3 Gt CO2 eq in 2005.
 Waste and waste management affect the release of GHGs through:
 Methane emissions during the anaerobic decomposition of the organic
content of solid waste and wastewater;
 Reducing fossil fuel use by utilizing energy recovery from waste
combustion;
 Reducing energy consumption and process gas releases in extractive and
manufacturing industries, as a result of recycling;
 Carbon sequestration in forests, caused by a decrease in demand for virgin
paper;
 Energy use in the transport of waste for disposal or recycling; except for the
long-range transport of glass for reuse or recycling, transport emissions of
secondary materials are often one or two orders of magnitude smaller than
the other four factors.

Mitigation Measures: Mitigation measures in the waste sector include source reduction
through waste prevention, recycling, composting, waste-to-energy incineration and CH4,
capture from landfills and wastewater.
Policies For Mitigation Policies for waste minimization and GHG reduction include taxes
on solid waste disposal (bag fees), market incentives (e.g. offsets) for improved waste
management and recovery of CH4, and regulatory standards for waste disposal and
wastewater management (e.g. mandatory capture of landfill gas)

Carbon Sequestration
Carbon sequestration is the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon
dioxide. It is one method of reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
with the goal of reducing global climate change.
Carbon sequestration, the long-term storage of carbon in plants, soils, geologic
formations, and the ocean. Carbon sequestration occurs both naturally and as a result
of anthropogenic activities and typically refers to the storage of carbon that has the
immediate potential to become carbon dioxide gas. In response to growing concerns
about climate change resulting from increased carbon dioxide concentrations in
the atmosphere, considerable interest has been drawn to the possibility of increasing the
rate of carbon sequestration through changes in land use and forestry and also through
geoengineering techniques such as carbon capture and storage.

Types of Carbon Sequestration
Biological Carbon Sequestration
the storage of carbon dioxide in
vegetation such as grasslands or
forests, as well as in soils and oceans.
Geological Carbon Sequestration
 the process of storing carbon dioxide in
underground geologic formations, or
rocks.
 CO2 is captured from an industrial
source, such as steel or cement
production, or an energy-related source,
such as a power plant or natural gas
processing facility and injected into
porous rocks for long-term storage.
Technological Carbon Sequestration
Scientists are exploring new ways to remove and store carbon
from the atmosphere using innovative technologies. Researchers
are also starting to look beyond removal of carbon dioxide and
are now looking at more ways it can be used as a resource.

The Sleipner A project injects
carbon dioxide into saltwater
aquifers deep beneath the sea floor
off the Norwegian coast. (Credit:
Statoil).
The Orca plant in Icelad.
It will capture 4,000 tons of
carbon dioxide sucked up from the
air every year – which is
equivalent to the greenhouse
emissions from about 870 cars.

Carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation
 The Kyoto Protocol under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
allows countries to receive credits for their carbon-sequestration activities in the area of
land use, land-use change, and forestry as part of their obligations under the protocol.
 Such activities could include afforestation (conversion of non-forested land to
forest), reforestation (conversion of previously forested land to forest), improved forestry
or agricultural practices, and revegetation.
 According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), improved
agricultural practices and forest-related mitigation activities can make a significant
contribution to the removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere at relatively low cost.
 These activities could include improved crop and grazing land management—for instance,
more efficient fertilizer use to prevent the leaching of unused nitrates, tillage practices that
minimize soil erosion, the restoration of organic soils, and the restoration of degraded
lands.
 In addition, the preservation of existing forests, especially the rainforests of the Amazon
and elsewhere, is important for the continued sequestration of carbon in those key
terrestrial sinks.

Carbon capture and storage
 Some policy makers, engineers, and scientists seeking to mitigate global warming have
proposed new technologies of carbon sequestration.
 These technologies include a geoengineering proposal called carbon capture and
storage (CCS).
 It’s a three-step process, involving: capturing the carbon dioxide produced by power
generation or industrial activity, such as steel or cement making; transporting it; and then
storing it deep underground
 In CCS processes, carbon dioxide is first separated from other gases contained in industrial
emissions.
 It is then compressed and transported to a location that is isolated from the atmosphere for
long-term storage.
 Suitable storage locations might include geologic formations such as deep saline
formations (sedimentary rocks whose pore spaces are saturated with water containing high
concentrations of dissolved salts), depleted oil and gas reservoirs, or the deep ocean.
 Although CCS typically refers to the capture of carbon dioxide directly at the source of
emission before it can be released into the atmosphere, it may also include techniques such
as the use of scrubbing towers and “artificial trees” to remove carbon dioxide from the
surrounding air.
 There are many economic and technical challenges to implementing carbon capture and
storage on a large scale.

 The IPCC has estimated that carbon capture and storage would increase the cost of
electricity generation by about one to five cents per kilowatt-hour, depending on the
fuel, technology, and location.
 Possible storage sites for carbon emissions include saline aquifers or depleted oil and gas
reservoirs. These typically need to be 1km or more under the ground.
 As an example, a storage site for the proposed Zero Carbon Humber project in the UK is a
saline aquifer named ‘Endurance’, which is located in the southern North Sea, around
90km offshore. Endurance is approximately 1.6km below the seabed and has the potential
to store very large amounts of CO2.
 Leakage of carbon from reservoirs is also a concern, but it is estimated that properly
managed geological storage is very likely (that is, 66–90% probability) to retain 99 percent
of its sequestered carbon dioxide for over 1,000 years.
 According to the Global CCS Institute’s 2019 report, at that time there were 51 large-scale
CCS facilities globally. 19 of these were in operation, 4 under construction and the
remainder in various stages of development. 24 of these were in the Americas, 12 in
Europe, 12 in Asia-Pacific and 2 in the Middle East.

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