Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges that can be caused by bacterial, viral, or fungal infections. Left untreated, meningitis can lead to brain damage, coma, and death. The most common causes of bacterial meningitis are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Haemophilus influenzae. A thorough history and physical exam are important to identify symptoms such as fever, neck stiffness, altered mental status, and seizures. A lumbar puncture is required to diagnose meningitis by examining cerebrospinal fluid. Aggressive antibiotic treatment is needed to prevent complications from the infection.
Myasthenia gravis (MG) is a long-term neuromuscular disease that leads to varying degrees of skeletal muscle weakness. The most commonly affected muscles are those of the eyes, face, and swallowing. It can result in double vision, drooping eyelids, trouble talking, and trouble walking.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disorders COPD is a [preventable and treatable disease with some significant extra pulmonary effects that may contribute to the severity in individual clients.
It is characterized by airflow limitation that is not completely reversible.
Bronchiectasis is a chronic, irreversible dilation of the bronchi and bronchioles. Or •Bronchiectasis is characterized by permanent, abnormal dilation of one or more large bronchBronchiectasis.
Myasthenia gravis (MG) is a long-term neuromuscular disease that leads to varying degrees of skeletal muscle weakness. The most commonly affected muscles are those of the eyes, face, and swallowing. It can result in double vision, drooping eyelids, trouble talking, and trouble walking.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disorders COPD is a [preventable and treatable disease with some significant extra pulmonary effects that may contribute to the severity in individual clients.
It is characterized by airflow limitation that is not completely reversible.
Bronchiectasis is a chronic, irreversible dilation of the bronchi and bronchioles. Or •Bronchiectasis is characterized by permanent, abnormal dilation of one or more large bronchBronchiectasis.
Meningitis is an inflammation (swelling) of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. A bacterial or viral infection of the fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord usually causes the swelling. However, injuries, cancer, certain drugs, and other types of infections also can cause meningitis.
Meningitis is always cerebrospinal infection. Meningitis is a rare infection that affects the delicate membranes -- called meninges -- that cover the brain and spinal cord.There are several types of this disease, including bacterial, viral, and fungal.
Infections and salivary gland disease in pediatric age: how to manage - Slide...WAidid
The slideset by Professor Susanna Esposito aims at explaining how to manage the salivary gland infections in pediatric age, from pathogenesis, to transmission, treatments and vaccination coverage, that should be urgently increased in Italy as well as in EU Countries.
Seminar presentation by 5th-year medical students under the supervision of in house lecturer. He was previously working as a consultant surgeon in Syria. Reference as mentioned in the slides.
Seminar presentation by 5th year Medical Student under the supervision of a pediatric surgery specialist from HRPZ II. Reference as mentioned in the slide.
Seminar presentation by group C 5th year medical student under supervision Dato Imi, endocrine specialist in HRPZ II.
Reference as mentioned at the end of the slide presentation
4th year medical student's seminar presentation under supervision of orthopedic lecturer. Reference is from Dr. Sameh Doss Textbook of upper and lower limb, and also other multiple websites.
Seminar presentation by 4th year medical student of Lincoln University College, supervised by HRPZ Orthopedic's specialist.
Reference were from reliable medical websites and also from texttbook; Apley and Solomon's Concise System of Orthopaedics and Trauma, 4th Ed.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
1. M E N I N G I T I S
P R E S E N T E D B Y
N U R U L H I D A Y U B I N T I I B R A H I M
N I K N O R L I Y A N A
2. OUTLINE
1. Introduction to meningitis
2. Risk factor
3. Anatomy and prognosis
4. Aetiology
5. History and physical examination
6. Clinical features
7. Complications
8. Differential diagnosis
9. Investigations
10. Management
3. INTRODUCTION
Meningitis is a disease caused by the inflammation of the meninges.
The inflammation is usually caused by an infection of the fluid surrounding the
brain and spinal cord.
It can be life-threatening because of the inflammation’s proximity to the brain
and spinal cord; therefore the condition is classified as a medical emergency.
If not treated, meningitis can lead to brain swelling and cause permanent
disability, coma, and even death.
Broadly classified as :
I. Acute meningitis
II. Chronic meningitis
WHAT IS MENINGITIS?
4. TERMS
Set of symptoms similar to those of meningitis but not caused by meningitis.
Meningism is caused by non-meningitic irritation of the meninges, usually associated
with acute febrile illness, especially in children and adolescents.
It therefore requires differentiating from other CNS problems with similar symptoms,
including meningitis and some types of intracranial hemorrhage.
The severity of clinical features varies with the causative organism.
M E N I N G I S M
5. RISK FACTORS
Risk factors that place people at higher risk for bacterial meningitis include
the following:
Adults older than 60 years of age
Children younger than 5 years of age
People with alcoholism
People with sickle cell anemia
People with cancer, especially those receiving chemotherapy
People who have received transplants and are taking drugs that suppress
the immune system
People with diabetes
Those recently exposed to meningitis at home
People living in close quarters (military barracks, dormitories)
IV drug users
People with shunts in place for hydrocephalus
6. ANATOMY OF MENINGES
The meninges is the system of the membranes which envelops
the CNS. It has 3 layers:
1. Dura mater
2. Arachnoid mater
3. Pia mater
Subarachnoid space – is the space which is filled with CSF
10. TRANSMISSION
H O W D O E S M E N I N G I T I S S P R E A D ?
An infectious agent can gain access to the CNS and cause meningeal disease via any of
the 3 following major pathways:
Direct contiguous spread (e.g. sinusitis, otitis media, congenital malformations, trauma,
or direct inoculation during intracranial manipulation)
1 . I N V A S I O N O F T H E B L O O D S T R E A M
Invasion of the bloodstream (i.e., bacteremia, viremia, fungemia, or parasitemia) and
subsequent hematogenous seeding of the CNS
2 . R E T R O G R A D E N E U R O N A L PAT H W AY
A retrograde neuronal (eg, olfactory and peripheral nerves) pathway (eg, Naegleria
fowleri or Gnathostoma spinigerum)
3 . D I R E C T C O N T I G U O U S S P R E A D
11. TRANSMISSION
H O W D O E S M E N I N G I T I S S P R E A D ?
3 . D I R E C T C O N T I G U O U S S P R E A D
Local extension from contiguous extracerebral infection (eg, otitis media,
mastoiditis, or sinusitis) is a common cause.
Possible pathways for the migration of pathogens from the middle ear to the
meninges include the following:
1. The bloodstream
2. Preformed tissue planes (eg, posterior fossa)
3. Temporal bone fractures
4. The oval or round window membranes of the labyrinths
14. PROGNOSIS
Patients with meningitis who present with an impaired level of
consciousness are at increased risk for neurologic sequelae or death.
A seizure during an episode of meningitis also is a risk factor for mortality
or neurologic sequelae, particularly if the seizure is prolonged or difficult
to control.
In bacterial meningitis, several risk factors are associated with death and
with neurologic disability. A risk score has been derived and validated in
adults with bacterial meningitis. This score includes the following
variables, which are associated with an adverse clinical outcome:
1. Older age
2. Increased heart rate
3. Lower Glasgow Coma Scale score
4. Cranial nerve palsies
5. CSF leukocyte count lower than 1000/μL
6. Gram-positive cocci on CSF Gram stain
15. PROGNOSIS
Advanced bacterial meningitis can lead to brain damage,
coma, and death.
In 50% of patients, several complications may develop in the
days to weeks following infection.
Long-term sequelae are seen in as many as 30% of survivors
and vary with etiologic agent, patient age, presenting
features, and hospital course. Patients usually have subtle CNS
changes.
16. AETIOLOGY
B A C T E R I A L
V I R A L
F U N G A L
P H Y S I C A L I N J U R Y
D R U G S R E A C T I O N
Severity/ treatment of illness differ depending on the cause. Thus, it is
important to know the specific cause of meningitis.
17. AETIOLOGY
B A C T E R I A L M E N I N G I T I S V I R A L M E N I N G I T I S
The most serious form of meningitis is
bacterial.
Even with treatment, bacterial meningitis
can be fatal some of the time.
If bacterial meningitis progresses rapidly,
in 24 hours or less, death may occur in
more than half of those who develop it,
even with proper medical treatment.
Determining how many people get viral
meningitis is difficult because it often
remains undiagnosed and is easily
confused with the flu.
The prognosis for viral meningitis is much
better than that for bacterial meningitis,
with most people recovering completely
with simple treatment of the symptoms.
18. AETIOLOGY
F U N G A L M E N I N G I T I S A S E P T I C M E N I N G I T I S
Fungal meningitis is a serious form of
meningitis that is normally limited to
people with impaired immune systems.
Aseptic meningitis is a term referring to
the broad category of meningitis that is
not caused by bacteria.
Approximately 50% of aseptic meningitis
is due to viral infections.
Other less common causes include drug
reactions or allergies, and inflammatory
diseases like lupus.
It occurs in individuals of all ages but is
more common in children
19. BACTERIAL CAUSES
Listeria monocytogenes ( >50 years old)
Group A β-hemolytic streptococcus
Group B β-hemolytic streptococcus
Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Gram –ve rods
C O M M O N O R G A N I S M S :
1. Streptococcus pneumoniae (α-hemolytic streptococcus)
2. Neisseria meningitidis
3. Haemophilus influenzae
O T H E R O R G A N I S M S :
V I R A L C A U S E S
Enteroviruses
Herpes simplex virus
20. ORGANISMS
R I S K O R P R E D I S P O S I N G F A C T O R S B A C T E R I A L P A T H O G E N
Age 3 months – 18 years
Neisseria meningitidis
Streptococcus penumoniae
Haemophilus influenza
Age 18 – 50 years
Streptococcus penumoniae
Neisseria meningitidis
Haemophilus influenza
Age > 50 years
Streptococcus penumoniae
Neisseria meningitidis
Listeria monocytogenes
Aerobic gram-negative bacilli
Immunocompromised state
Streptococcus penumoniae
Neisseria meningitidis
Listeria monocytogenes
Aerobic gram-negative bacilli
Intracranial manipulation, including neurosurgery
Staphylococcus aureus
Coagulase negative staphylococci
Aerobic gram-negative bacilli, including
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Basilar skull fracture
Streptococcus penumoniae
Haemophilus influenza
Group A streptococci
21. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDIS
Also known as meningococcal meningitis
Gram negative aerobic cocci, capsule
10% of healthy people are healthy nasopharyngeal
carriers
Begin as throat infection, rash
Vaccination is recommended
22. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISSTREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE
Gram positive diplococci
70% of people are healthy nasopharyngeal carriers
Most common in children (1 month to 4 years)
Mortality: 30% in children, 80% in elderly
Prevented by vaccination
23. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISHISTORY TAKING
~25% of those who develop meningitis have symptoms that develop
over 24 hours. The remainder generally become ill over one to seven
days.
~25% of patients have concomitant sinusitis or otitis that could
predispose to S pneumoniae meningitis.
Occasionally, if someone has been on antibiotics for another infection,
the symptoms can take longer to develop or may be less intense.
If someone is developing fungal meningitis (most commonly someone
who is HIV positive), the symptoms may take weeks to develop.
D U R AT I O N
24. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISHISTORY TAKING
In contrast, patients with subacute bacterial meningitis and most
patients with viral meningitis present with neurologic symptoms
developing over 1 – 7 days.
Chronic symptoms lasting longer than 1 week suggest the presence of
meningitis caused by certain viruses or by tuberculosis, syphilis, fungi
(especially cryptococci), or carcinomatosis.
D U R AT I O N
26. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISHISTORY TAKING
S Y M P T O M S I G N M E C H A N I S M
Chills, rigors Fever (T>38°) Endogenous cytokines (released during the
immune response to the invading
pathogens) affect the thermoregulatory
neurons of the hypothalamus, changing the
central regulation of body temperature.
Invading viruses or bacteria produce
exogenous substances (pyrogens) that can
also re-set the hypothalamic thermal set
point.
Nuchal rigidity (neck stiffness) Brudzinski sign and Kernig sign Flexion of the spine leads to stretching of
the meninges.
In meningitis, traction on the inflamed
meninges is painful, resulting in limited
range of motion through the spine
(especially in the cervical spine).
Altered mental status Decreased Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ↑ ICP → brain herniation → damage to
the reticular formation (structure in the
brainstem that governs consciousness)
27. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISHISTORY TAKING
S Y M P T O M S I G N M E C H A N I S M
Focal neurological deficits, e.g. vision loss Examples: cranial nerve palsies,
hemiparesis, hypertonia, nystagmus
Cytotoxic edema and ↑ ICP lead to
neuronal damage.
Signs or symptoms depend on the affected
area (cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem,
etc.)
Seizures Inflammation in the brain alters membrane
permeability, lowering the seizure
threshold. Exact seizure pathophysiology is
unknown.
Headache Jolt accentuation of headache: headache
worse when patient vigorously shakes head
Bacterial exotoxins, cytokines, and ↑ ICP
stimulate nociceptors in the meninges
(cerebral tissue itself lacks nerve endings
that generate pain sensation).
Photophobia Due to meningeal irritation. Mechanisms
unclear; pathways are thought to involve
the trigeminal nerve.
Nausea and vomiting ↑ ICP stimulates the area
postrema (vomiting centre), causing nausea
and vomiting.
Petechial rash Meningococcemia (due to N. meningitidis)
28. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISHISTORY TAKING
O T H E R I M P O R TA N T H I S T O R Y
Contact with TB patient (TB meningitis)
Infection of middle ear, sinuses, lung or tooth and gum (brain abscess)
Contact with infected bodily secretions (meningitis, herpes encephalitis)
Sexual contact with a person infected with HIV (HIV encephalopathy)
Penetrating head trauma (brain abscess)
Neurosurgical complications (meningitis, brain abscess)
A chronic illness, such as cancer
A weakened immune system, such those with alcoholism, diabetes, HIV or people
who have had organ transplant.
A history of recent antibiotic use should be elicited. 40% of patients who present
with acute or subacute bacterial meningitis have previously been treated with oral
antibiotics (presumably because of misdiagnosis at the time of initial presentation).
29. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISPHYSICAL EXAMINATION
G E N E R A L E X A M I N AT I O N
Non-toxic looking might suggestive of viral origin.
Sick, toxic looking might suggest bacterial origin.
Glasgow-coma scale
Kernig’s sign
Brudzinki’s sign
Look for other source of infections:
Cutaneous petachie/purpura rash meningococcus
Middle ear, sinus infection
Pneumonia pneumococcus
Papilledema (increase ICP)
Cranial nerves examination (III, IV, V, VI, and VII)
S P E C I F I C E X A M I N AT I O N
32. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISCLINICAL FEATURES
C H R O N I C M E N I N G I T I S
Lymphadenopathy
Papilledema and tuberculomas during funduscopy
Meningismus
Cranial nerve palsies
Occurs most common shortly after primary infection in childhood or as part of
military TB.
The presentation of chronic tuberculous meningitis may be acute, but the classic
presentation is subacute and spans weeks. Patients generally have a prodrome
consisting of fever of varying degrees, malaise, and intermittent headaches.
T U B E R C U L O U S M E N I N G I T I S
33. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISCLINICAL FEATURES
Cranial nerve palsies (III, IV, V, VI, and VII) often develop, suggesting basilar
meningeal involvement.
Clinical staging of tuberculous meningitis is based on neurologic status, as
follows:
Stage 1 - No change in mental function, with no deficits and no
hydrocephalus
Stage 2 - Confusion and evidence of neurologic deficit
Stage 3 - Stupor and lethargy
T U B E R C U L O U S M E N I N G I T I S
C L I N I C A L S TA G I N G O F T U B E R C U L O U S M E N I N G I T I S
35. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISCOMPLICATIONS
1 . H E A R I N G L O S S
2 . C E R E B R A L O E D E M A A N D I N C R E A S E D I C P
4 . B R A I N A B S C E S S
4 . S T R O K E
Infections / inflammation from subarachnoid space via cochlear aqueduct inner ear
Inflammatory response – damages cochlear (hair cells)
Cerebral edema may be vasogenic, from increased vascular permeability, cytotoxic from cerebral hypoxia, interstitial, from
increased CSF volume, or a combination of all. Increased intracranial pressure, in turn, causes decreased cerebral perfusion,
hypoxia/ischemia, and neuronal necrosis.
3 . D I S S E M I N AT E D I N T R A V A S C U L A R C O A G U L O PAT H Y ( D I C )
Bacterial products can damage the brain and blood vessels directly. Bacterial toxins cause neuronal apoptosis, and cell wall
lipopolysaccharide (endotoxin), released from bacteria, activates clotting causing disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC).
36. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISDIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
1 . S u b a r a c h n o i d h e m o r r h a g e
2 . T B m e n i n g i t i s
3 . S p a c e - o c c u p y i n g l e s i o n
4 . M e n i n g o e n c a p h a l i t i s
5 . E p i l e p s y
37. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISINVESTIGATIONS
B L O O D T E S T S
1. Full blood count ( white cell count)
2. C-reactive protein
3. Blood culture and sensitivity
L U M B A R P U N C T U R E A N D C S F A N A LY S I S
For definitive diagnosis of meningitis, CSF needs to be collected for analysis.
C O N T R A I N D I C AT I O N S
Infected skin over needle entry site
Suspicion of increase ICP
Coagulopathy
Significant cardiorespiratory compromise
Immunocompromised
38. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISINVESTIGATIONS
L U M B A R P U N C T U R E A N D C S F A N A LY S I S
T E S T B A C T E R I A L V I R A L F U N G A L T U B E R C U L A R
Opening pressure Elevated Normal Variable Variable
WBC count >1,000 / mm3 <100/mm3 Variable Variable
Cell differential Neutrophils Lymphocytes Lymphocytes Lymphocytes
Protein Mild to marked
elevation
Normal or mildly
elevated
Elevated Very high
CSF-to-serum
glucose ratio
Markedly decreased normal Low Low
I M A G I N G
If a patient has the following:
Focal neurologic findings (excluding cranial nerve palsies), new-onset seizures, severely immunocompromised
state, papilledema or presents with coma, perform a head computed tomography scan prior to doing a lumbar
puncture to rule out the presence of intracranial mass lesions because of the potential risk for herniation
39. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISMANAGEMENT
S U P P O R T I V E T R E AT M E N T
Airway, breathing and circulation
Mechanical ventilation – level of consciousness is very low / evidence of respiratory failure
Intravenous fluid therapy – if hypotension or shock are present
Monitor vital signs and neurologic status regularly
Maintain adequate hydration and nutrition – tube feeding may be necessary
D E F I N I T I V E T R E AT M E N T ( P H A R M A C O T H E R PA P Y )
1. Antibiotic therapy
2. Anti-inflammatory therapy
3. Agents to decrease intracranial pressure (ICP)
4. Anti-convulsants
40. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISMANAGEMENT
A N T I B I O T I C S ( A C U T E M E N I N G I T I S )
I N F E C T I O N
S U G G E S T E D T R E A T M E N T
C O M M E N T S
P R E F E R R E D A L T E R N A T I V E
Common organisms:
Streptococcus
pneumoniae
Neisseria meningitidis
Haemophilus influenzae
Ceftriaxone 2gm IV q12h
OR
Cefotaxime 2 – 4gm IV q8h
Dexamethasone 10mg IV q6h
is recommended to be
administered 15 to 20 minutes
before or at the time of first
dose of antibiotics, for up to 4
days or until there is no
evidence of pneumococcal
meningitis.
Antibiotic treatment must be
started immediately,
regardless of any
investigations undertaken. If
no organism isolated and
patient is responding,
continue antibiotics for 14
days.
41. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISMANAGEMENT
A N T I B I O T I C S ( A C U T E M E N I N G I T I S )
I S O L A T E D C A U S A T I V E
O R G A N I S M
S U G G E S T E D T R E A T M E N T
C O M M E N T S
P R E F E R R E D A L T E R N A T I V E
HAEMOPHILUS INFUENZAE
(GRAM –VE BACILLI)
Ceftriaxone 2gm IV q12h
STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE
(GRAM +VE COCCI)
Benzylpenicillin 4MU IV q4-
6h for 10-14 days.
For penicillin resistant strains
Vancomycin 1gm IV q12h
NEISSERIA MENINGITIDIS
(GRAM –VE COCCI)
Prophylaxis for household and
close contact of meningococcal
meningitis
Ceftriaxone 2gm IV q12h
Ciprofloxacin 500mg PO as
single dose;
Close contacts are defined as
those individuals who have
had contact with
oropharyngeal secretions
either through kissing or by
sharing toys, beverages, or
cigarettes.
42. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISMANAGEMENT
A N T I B I O T I C S ( C H R O N I C M E N I N G I T I S )
I N F E C T I O N
S U G G E S T E D T R E A T M E N T
C O M M E N T S
P R E F E R R E D A L T E R N A T I V E
TUBERCULOUS MENINGITIS
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Intensive 2 months S/EHRZ
and 10 months HR
Pyridoxine 10- 50mg PO q24h
needs to be prescribed
together with Isoniazid.
(Streptomycin should replace
Ethambutol in TB meningitis
as it crosses BBB better than
Ethambutol.)
Treatment is continued for 12
months.
CPG on management of
Tuberculosis, 3rd edition,
2012; 16, 22, 40-42, 56)
WHO Treatment of
Tuberculosis Guidelines, 4th
ed. 2009
43. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISMANAGEMENT
A N T I - I N F L A M M AT O R Y T H E R A P Y
Dexamethasone 10 mg IV 6 hourly x 4 days
Mannitol 1 – 1.5 g/kg IV given over 15 minutes
I C P L O W E R I N G A G E N T
A N T I C O N V U L S A N T S
Diazepam, Lorazepam
Administered if patient has seizure
Action:
Mannitol is a hyperosmolar agent that makes the intravascular space hyperosmolar to the brain and permits movement of water
from brain tissue into the intravascular compartment
44. NEISSERIA MENINGITIDISPREVENTION AND PROPHYLAXIS
P R E C A U T I O N
Completion of recommended schedule of vaccination is an effective way of protecting individuals from certain
types of bacterial meningitis (E.g. meningococcus, pneumococcus and Hib)
F O L L O W U P
Repeat cerebrospinal fluid exam in patients in whom there is doubt about the success of therapy or the
accuracy of the initial diagnosis
Patients who respond promptly to therapy may no longer need repeat cerebrospinal fluid exams
Monitor for hydrocephalus and treat the condition appropriately - hydrocephalus usually manifests within the
first few weeks of infection and is treated with ventriculoperitoneal shunting
Monitor for neurologic sequelae and provide appropriate supportive therapy
Sequelae include hearing impairment, cranial nerve palsies and motor deficits
Supportive therapy should be individually tailored
Use of mask, gloves, and gowns prevents spread of disease as meningitis is a droplet infection
V A C C I N AT I O N