This document discusses the key components and operating principles of a linear accelerator (linac) system. It describes how linacs use resonant cavities and radio frequency waves to gradually accelerate electrons to high energies. The document outlines the main subsystems of a linac including the electron gun, accelerating structure, beam transport system, flattening filters, collimators, and dose monitoring ionization chambers. It also explains how different components like the magnetron, klystron, and pulse modulator are used to generate and synchronize the radio frequency waves needed for particle acceleration.
Cobalt-60 is commonly used as a gamma ray source for teletherapy due to its suitable properties. A Co-60 unit contains a sealed radioactive Co-60 source that emits two gamma rays during decay. The source is moved between shielded and treatment positions using various mechanisms. Beam size and shape are controlled through collimation and additional devices can modify the beam. Precise patient and beam positioning is enabled through computer control and motorized components while shielding protects staff from radiation.
The document provides information on the physics and operation of medical linear accelerators. It discusses the history and development of linear accelerators from 1st to 5th generation machines. The key components of a modern linac are described, including the electron injection system, RF power generation using klystrons or magnetrons, the accelerating waveguide, electron beam transport using bending magnets, and beam collimation and monitoring systems using components like flattening filters, ionization chambers, and multileaf collimators. Modern linacs can accelerate electrons to energies over 20 MeV and are able to treat deep-seated tumors with high precision using computer-controlled systems.
Cobalt-60 is commonly used in teletherapy machines for radiation therapy. It decays via beta emission with a half-life of 5.26 years, emitting two high energy gamma rays. Cobalt-60 sources are typically solid cylinders encapsulated in steel and placed inside the head of a teletherapy machine. The machine head uses mechanisms like sliding drawers or rotating wheels to position the source to emit the therapeutic beam or retract it for safety. Proper housing and collimation are needed to shape the beam and minimize leakage radiation. Cobalt-60 provides advantages over other isotopes as a gamma source for radiation therapy.
This document provides information on teletherapy machines used to treat cancer with radiation. It discusses cobalt-60 teletherapy machines and linear accelerators. Cobalt-60 machines use a radioactive cobalt-60 source to generate gamma rays for treatment. Linear accelerators use microwave energy to accelerate electrons, which are then used to generate x-rays or electron beams for treatment. Both types of machines aim focused radiation beams at tumors while minimizing dose to surrounding healthy tissue using collimators and other targeting mechanisms. Linear accelerators have advantages over cobalt machines like more sharply defined beam edges and ability to vary dose rates.
A linear accelerator uses high-frequency electromagnetic waves to accelerate charged particles like electrons in a linear path inside an accelerator waveguide. It can be used to treat both superficial and deep-seated tumors by either using the high-energy electron beam directly or by directing it at a target to produce x-rays. The first medical linear accelerators were installed in the early 1950s and since then the technology has advanced through multiple generations with improved waveguides, bending magnets, dose rates and computer control.
A linear accelerator (LINAC) is a device that uses high-frequency electromagnetic waves to accelerate electrons to high energies in a linear path inside an accelerator waveguide. LINACs are commonly used for external beam radiation therapy to treat cancer. LINACs work by using microwave technology to accelerate electrons, which are then directed at a target to produce high-energy x-ray or electron beams. The beams exit the machine shaped to the tumor and can be delivered from any angle by rotating the gantry and moving the treatment couch. LINACs are used to plan and deliver targeted radiation treatments to destroy cancer cells while sparing surrounding healthy tissue.
The document summarizes a medical linear accelerator (LINAC). It describes how a LINAC works by using high-frequency electromagnetic waves to accelerate electrons and produce x-rays. It then discusses the history and development of LINACs from the first installation in 1952 to modern machines. Key components of a LINAC are also outlined, including the electron gun, magnetron/klystron, waveguide, and treatment head.
Cobalt-60 is commonly used as a gamma ray source for teletherapy due to its suitable properties. A Co-60 unit contains a sealed radioactive Co-60 source that emits two gamma rays during decay. The source is moved between shielded and treatment positions using various mechanisms. Beam size and shape are controlled through collimation and additional devices can modify the beam. Precise patient and beam positioning is enabled through computer control and motorized components while shielding protects staff from radiation.
The document provides information on the physics and operation of medical linear accelerators. It discusses the history and development of linear accelerators from 1st to 5th generation machines. The key components of a modern linac are described, including the electron injection system, RF power generation using klystrons or magnetrons, the accelerating waveguide, electron beam transport using bending magnets, and beam collimation and monitoring systems using components like flattening filters, ionization chambers, and multileaf collimators. Modern linacs can accelerate electrons to energies over 20 MeV and are able to treat deep-seated tumors with high precision using computer-controlled systems.
Cobalt-60 is commonly used in teletherapy machines for radiation therapy. It decays via beta emission with a half-life of 5.26 years, emitting two high energy gamma rays. Cobalt-60 sources are typically solid cylinders encapsulated in steel and placed inside the head of a teletherapy machine. The machine head uses mechanisms like sliding drawers or rotating wheels to position the source to emit the therapeutic beam or retract it for safety. Proper housing and collimation are needed to shape the beam and minimize leakage radiation. Cobalt-60 provides advantages over other isotopes as a gamma source for radiation therapy.
This document provides information on teletherapy machines used to treat cancer with radiation. It discusses cobalt-60 teletherapy machines and linear accelerators. Cobalt-60 machines use a radioactive cobalt-60 source to generate gamma rays for treatment. Linear accelerators use microwave energy to accelerate electrons, which are then used to generate x-rays or electron beams for treatment. Both types of machines aim focused radiation beams at tumors while minimizing dose to surrounding healthy tissue using collimators and other targeting mechanisms. Linear accelerators have advantages over cobalt machines like more sharply defined beam edges and ability to vary dose rates.
A linear accelerator uses high-frequency electromagnetic waves to accelerate charged particles like electrons in a linear path inside an accelerator waveguide. It can be used to treat both superficial and deep-seated tumors by either using the high-energy electron beam directly or by directing it at a target to produce x-rays. The first medical linear accelerators were installed in the early 1950s and since then the technology has advanced through multiple generations with improved waveguides, bending magnets, dose rates and computer control.
A linear accelerator (LINAC) is a device that uses high-frequency electromagnetic waves to accelerate electrons to high energies in a linear path inside an accelerator waveguide. LINACs are commonly used for external beam radiation therapy to treat cancer. LINACs work by using microwave technology to accelerate electrons, which are then directed at a target to produce high-energy x-ray or electron beams. The beams exit the machine shaped to the tumor and can be delivered from any angle by rotating the gantry and moving the treatment couch. LINACs are used to plan and deliver targeted radiation treatments to destroy cancer cells while sparing surrounding healthy tissue.
The document summarizes a medical linear accelerator (LINAC). It describes how a LINAC works by using high-frequency electromagnetic waves to accelerate electrons and produce x-rays. It then discusses the history and development of LINACs from the first installation in 1952 to modern machines. Key components of a LINAC are also outlined, including the electron gun, magnetron/klystron, waveguide, and treatment head.
1. The document discusses commissioning parameters for flattening filter free (FFF) photon beams from a linear accelerator, including profile normalization methods, dosimetric field size, penumbra, and slope.
2. Profile normalization can be done using the inflection point or renormalization value to compare FFF and flattened beams. Dosimetric field size is measured as the 50% dose width. Penumbra is defined as the 20-80% distance for FFF beams after normalization.
3. Slope describes the peak shape of FFF profiles, and flatness/unflatness parameters are discussed to characterize beam homogeneity for both FFF and flattened beams.
Electron beam therapy uses accelerated electrons to treat superficial tumors. Electrons interact with matter through inelastic collisions that cause ionization and excitation, and elastic collisions that scatter the electrons. This gives electron beams a characteristically sharp dose drop-off beyond the tumor depth. Key applications of electron beams include treatment of skin cancers, chest wall irradiation for breast cancer, and boost doses to lymph nodes.
Linear accelerators (linacs) are used to generate high energy x-ray and electron beams for radiation therapy. A linac consists of an electron gun, radiofrequency power source, accelerating waveguide, beam transport system, and treatment head. Electrons are generated and accelerated to megavoltage energies using microwave fields in the waveguide. The accelerated electron beam is transported and bent using magnets to strike a target and produce x-rays, or exit directly as an electron beam. The treatment head houses the target, flattening filter, collimators, and monitors to shape the beam for patient treatment. Modern linacs provide flexible photon and electron beams with variable energies for radiation therapy.
This document discusses central axis depth doses in water for both SSD and SAD techniques. For SSD technique:
- Percentage depth dose (PDD) curves measure attenuation at different depths and are affected by beam quality, field size, and SSD.
- Buildup region occurs as secondary electrons deposit energy downstream, increasing dose with depth until maximum.
- Depth dose maximum (zmax) depends on beam energy and field size.
- PDD increases with larger field sizes due to increased scatter radiation.
- PDD increases with longer SSD due to the inverse square law of radiation intensity.
This document discusses the components and workflow of a linear accelerator (LINAC) for radiation therapy. It describes the key components of early LINACs from the 1950s, improvements in second and third generation models in the 1960s-1980s, and the main internal components of current LINACs including the electron gun, accelerating waveguide, treatment head, bending magnet, target, collimators, and monitoring systems. The document also briefly discusses the electron beam mode and auxiliary systems that support LINAC operation.
This document summarizes key aspects of acceptance testing and commissioning for a new radiation therapy machine. It describes the necessary measurement equipment, including radiation survey meters, ionization chambers, and phantoms. Acceptance tests and commissioning involve measuring various beam properties to ensure the machine meets specifications and performs reliably before clinical use. This process establishes the machine's baseline performance values which are then monitored ongoing through periodic quality assurance tests.
The document discusses cobalt-60 and its use in external beam radiation therapy. Cobalt-60 is a radioactive isotope that decays through beta decay, emitting two gamma rays with energies of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV. It is used as a sealed source in teletherapy units, where its gamma rays are aimed at cancerous tumors from multiple angles to destroy cancer cells. The main components of a cobalt-60 machine are the head containing the cobalt-60 source, a collimator to shape the beam, a gantry that rotates around the patient, and a patient support assembly. Cobalt-60 therapy has been used for almost 60 years to treat various cancers throughout the body due its precision and effectiveness.
The document summarizes a medical linear accelerator (LINAC). Key points:
- LINAC uses high-frequency waves to accelerate electrons which are used to treat tumors through electron beams or x-ray beams produced by electron impacts on a target.
- Early LINACs from the 1950s-1980s were large, bulky, and had limited motion. Modern LINACs have improved acceleration, more treatment options, and greater reliability.
- LINAC consists of an electron gun, microwave generator, waveguide, treatment head with collimation/target, monitoring devices, and safety systems. It accelerates electrons to treat cancer through precise x-ray beams.
The document summarizes the structure and function of a medical linear accelerator (LINAC). It describes how a LINAC works by using high-frequency electromagnetic waves to accelerate electrons and produce x-rays or electron beams for radiation therapy. Key components of a LINAC include the electron gun, accelerating waveguide, bending magnet, and treatment head for beam shaping and targeting. Modern LINACs can produce multiple photon and electron beam energies for flexible radiation treatment options.
Vmat technique for Breast, Head and Neck, Brain and Craniospinal irradiation ...Biplab Sarkar
Past, present and future of VMAT technique in different sites: Breast, Head and Neck, Brain and Craniospinal irradiation for medduloblastoma and PNET treatment.
Linear accelerators use microwave technology to accelerate electrons, which are then collided with a heavy metal target to produce high-energy photons. The photons are shaped and directed to the patient's tumor. The main components of a linear accelerator include the injection system to produce electrons, the RF system to accelerate the electrons, auxiliary systems, beam transport to deliver electrons to the target, and beam collimation and monitoring systems to shape and measure the photon beam. Linear accelerators have gone through several generations with improvements like higher photon energies, computer control, dynamic wedges, and intensity modulated radiation therapy.
This document discusses various beam modification devices used in radiation therapy. It describes the purpose of beam modification as altering the spatial distribution of radiation to better protect normal tissues and achieve uniform dose distribution. Common devices discussed include shielding blocks, wedges, compensators, and bolus. Shielding blocks are used to protect critical structures by blocking radiation to certain areas. Wedges are used to tilt isodose curves for improved dose conformity. Compensators are designed to even out irregular tissue surfaces. Bolus is placed on the skin to reduce the depth of maximum dose. The document provides details on the materials, design considerations, and clinical applications of these various beam modification tools.
Electron beam therapy uses electrically charged particles called electrons that are generated by a linear accelerator to treat superficial cancers. It deposits dose uniformly from the surface to a specific depth before rapidly falling off, sparing deeper tissues. Electron energies up to 20 MeV can treat disease within 6 cm of the surface. Accessories like applicators, cutouts, bolus and internal shields are used to shape the beam for treatment fields and protect healthy tissues. Precise dose specification and reporting is important for electron therapy due to the rapid dose fall-off and higher skin doses compared to prescription depth.
The document discusses a medical linear accelerator (LINAC). It begins with an overview and definition, explaining that a LINAC uses high-frequency electromagnetic waves to accelerate charged particles like electrons through a linear tube to produce x-rays for radiation therapy. The document then covers the history, generations, major components, and functioning of LINACs, describing how they have advanced from early bulky machines to today's computer-controlled systems that produce precise radiation beams for cancer treatment. Key components discussed include the electron gun, magnetron/klystron, waveguide system, bending magnet, and treatment head.
The document discusses isotopic teletherapy machines, which use cobalt-60 or cesium-137 radioactive sources to produce gamma rays for external beam radiation therapy. It describes the components and operation of cobalt-60 teletherapy machines, including the radioactive cobalt-60 source, source housing, collimators, gantry, patient support assembly, and control console. Key factors in selecting radioisotopes are high gamma ray energy, long half-life, and ability to produce large quantities for clinical use.
Quality assurance of linear accelerator DHXSohail Qureshi
This document outlines the daily quality assurance procedure for a linear accelerator. It describes turning on the machine, performing mechanical checks like gantry and couch movement tests, warming up the machine using various electron and photon energies, and performing dosimetry measurements to ensure parameters are within tolerance levels. Results are documented in a QA sheet for record keeping. The purpose is to ensure consistent machine quality and patient safety by verifying proper dose delivery and checking for any mechanical or software errors.
1. Electronic Portal Imaging Devices (EPIDs) are imaging devices mounted on linear accelerators opposite the MV x-ray source.
2. EPIDs have a wide variety of applications including real-time patient setup verification during treatment and determining beam blocking shapes and leaf positions.
3. Commercially available EPIDs include scanning liquid-filled ion chamber devices, camera-based devices, and active matrix flat panel detectors. They provide localization quality images with doses less than 3 cGy.
In 2000 IAEA published another International Code of Practice.
“Absorbed Dose Determination in External Beam Radiotherapy” (Technical Report Series No. 398)
Recommending procedures to obtain the absorbed dose in water from measurements made with an ionisation chamber in external beam radiotherapy (EBRT).
This document discusses dose-volume histograms (DVHs) which are used to analyze and compare radiation dose distributions in radiotherapy treatment planning. It describes how DVHs are generated by counting the number of voxels receiving different dose levels. DVHs can be displayed cumulatively or differentially and show the volume of structures receiving particular doses. The document outlines some limitations of DVHs including their insensitivity to small hot or cold spots and lack of spatial information. It emphasizes that DVHs should be used along with visual analysis of dose distributions and dose-volume statistics when evaluating treatment plans.
A linear accelerator is a machine that accelerates charged particles along a linear path to deliver radiation therapy for cancer treatment. It consists of an electron gun that produces electrons, an accelerator structure that accelerates the electrons using microwaves, and a treatment head that shapes and monitors the x-ray beam. Key components include the gantry that directs the beam, flattening filters and collimators that shape the beam, and ionization chambers that monitor the dose. The linear accelerator accelerates electrons to produce x-rays that are precisely aimed at the tumor to destroy cancer cells while minimizing damage to healthy tissue.
Linear accelerators (LINACs) are commonly used for external beam radiation therapy. [LINACs] use microwave technology to accelerate electrons which are then directed at a metal target to produce high-energy x-rays. Key LINAC components include an electron gun, accelerator structure in the gantry, and a treatment head housing components like collimators and flattening filters to shape the beam. LINACs have advanced over generations from early isocentric units to today's computer-driven systems that provide wide ranges of energy and precision treatment capabilities like IMRT.
1. The document discusses commissioning parameters for flattening filter free (FFF) photon beams from a linear accelerator, including profile normalization methods, dosimetric field size, penumbra, and slope.
2. Profile normalization can be done using the inflection point or renormalization value to compare FFF and flattened beams. Dosimetric field size is measured as the 50% dose width. Penumbra is defined as the 20-80% distance for FFF beams after normalization.
3. Slope describes the peak shape of FFF profiles, and flatness/unflatness parameters are discussed to characterize beam homogeneity for both FFF and flattened beams.
Electron beam therapy uses accelerated electrons to treat superficial tumors. Electrons interact with matter through inelastic collisions that cause ionization and excitation, and elastic collisions that scatter the electrons. This gives electron beams a characteristically sharp dose drop-off beyond the tumor depth. Key applications of electron beams include treatment of skin cancers, chest wall irradiation for breast cancer, and boost doses to lymph nodes.
Linear accelerators (linacs) are used to generate high energy x-ray and electron beams for radiation therapy. A linac consists of an electron gun, radiofrequency power source, accelerating waveguide, beam transport system, and treatment head. Electrons are generated and accelerated to megavoltage energies using microwave fields in the waveguide. The accelerated electron beam is transported and bent using magnets to strike a target and produce x-rays, or exit directly as an electron beam. The treatment head houses the target, flattening filter, collimators, and monitors to shape the beam for patient treatment. Modern linacs provide flexible photon and electron beams with variable energies for radiation therapy.
This document discusses central axis depth doses in water for both SSD and SAD techniques. For SSD technique:
- Percentage depth dose (PDD) curves measure attenuation at different depths and are affected by beam quality, field size, and SSD.
- Buildup region occurs as secondary electrons deposit energy downstream, increasing dose with depth until maximum.
- Depth dose maximum (zmax) depends on beam energy and field size.
- PDD increases with larger field sizes due to increased scatter radiation.
- PDD increases with longer SSD due to the inverse square law of radiation intensity.
This document discusses the components and workflow of a linear accelerator (LINAC) for radiation therapy. It describes the key components of early LINACs from the 1950s, improvements in second and third generation models in the 1960s-1980s, and the main internal components of current LINACs including the electron gun, accelerating waveguide, treatment head, bending magnet, target, collimators, and monitoring systems. The document also briefly discusses the electron beam mode and auxiliary systems that support LINAC operation.
This document summarizes key aspects of acceptance testing and commissioning for a new radiation therapy machine. It describes the necessary measurement equipment, including radiation survey meters, ionization chambers, and phantoms. Acceptance tests and commissioning involve measuring various beam properties to ensure the machine meets specifications and performs reliably before clinical use. This process establishes the machine's baseline performance values which are then monitored ongoing through periodic quality assurance tests.
The document discusses cobalt-60 and its use in external beam radiation therapy. Cobalt-60 is a radioactive isotope that decays through beta decay, emitting two gamma rays with energies of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV. It is used as a sealed source in teletherapy units, where its gamma rays are aimed at cancerous tumors from multiple angles to destroy cancer cells. The main components of a cobalt-60 machine are the head containing the cobalt-60 source, a collimator to shape the beam, a gantry that rotates around the patient, and a patient support assembly. Cobalt-60 therapy has been used for almost 60 years to treat various cancers throughout the body due its precision and effectiveness.
The document summarizes a medical linear accelerator (LINAC). Key points:
- LINAC uses high-frequency waves to accelerate electrons which are used to treat tumors through electron beams or x-ray beams produced by electron impacts on a target.
- Early LINACs from the 1950s-1980s were large, bulky, and had limited motion. Modern LINACs have improved acceleration, more treatment options, and greater reliability.
- LINAC consists of an electron gun, microwave generator, waveguide, treatment head with collimation/target, monitoring devices, and safety systems. It accelerates electrons to treat cancer through precise x-ray beams.
The document summarizes the structure and function of a medical linear accelerator (LINAC). It describes how a LINAC works by using high-frequency electromagnetic waves to accelerate electrons and produce x-rays or electron beams for radiation therapy. Key components of a LINAC include the electron gun, accelerating waveguide, bending magnet, and treatment head for beam shaping and targeting. Modern LINACs can produce multiple photon and electron beam energies for flexible radiation treatment options.
Vmat technique for Breast, Head and Neck, Brain and Craniospinal irradiation ...Biplab Sarkar
Past, present and future of VMAT technique in different sites: Breast, Head and Neck, Brain and Craniospinal irradiation for medduloblastoma and PNET treatment.
Linear accelerators use microwave technology to accelerate electrons, which are then collided with a heavy metal target to produce high-energy photons. The photons are shaped and directed to the patient's tumor. The main components of a linear accelerator include the injection system to produce electrons, the RF system to accelerate the electrons, auxiliary systems, beam transport to deliver electrons to the target, and beam collimation and monitoring systems to shape and measure the photon beam. Linear accelerators have gone through several generations with improvements like higher photon energies, computer control, dynamic wedges, and intensity modulated radiation therapy.
This document discusses various beam modification devices used in radiation therapy. It describes the purpose of beam modification as altering the spatial distribution of radiation to better protect normal tissues and achieve uniform dose distribution. Common devices discussed include shielding blocks, wedges, compensators, and bolus. Shielding blocks are used to protect critical structures by blocking radiation to certain areas. Wedges are used to tilt isodose curves for improved dose conformity. Compensators are designed to even out irregular tissue surfaces. Bolus is placed on the skin to reduce the depth of maximum dose. The document provides details on the materials, design considerations, and clinical applications of these various beam modification tools.
Electron beam therapy uses electrically charged particles called electrons that are generated by a linear accelerator to treat superficial cancers. It deposits dose uniformly from the surface to a specific depth before rapidly falling off, sparing deeper tissues. Electron energies up to 20 MeV can treat disease within 6 cm of the surface. Accessories like applicators, cutouts, bolus and internal shields are used to shape the beam for treatment fields and protect healthy tissues. Precise dose specification and reporting is important for electron therapy due to the rapid dose fall-off and higher skin doses compared to prescription depth.
The document discusses a medical linear accelerator (LINAC). It begins with an overview and definition, explaining that a LINAC uses high-frequency electromagnetic waves to accelerate charged particles like electrons through a linear tube to produce x-rays for radiation therapy. The document then covers the history, generations, major components, and functioning of LINACs, describing how they have advanced from early bulky machines to today's computer-controlled systems that produce precise radiation beams for cancer treatment. Key components discussed include the electron gun, magnetron/klystron, waveguide system, bending magnet, and treatment head.
The document discusses isotopic teletherapy machines, which use cobalt-60 or cesium-137 radioactive sources to produce gamma rays for external beam radiation therapy. It describes the components and operation of cobalt-60 teletherapy machines, including the radioactive cobalt-60 source, source housing, collimators, gantry, patient support assembly, and control console. Key factors in selecting radioisotopes are high gamma ray energy, long half-life, and ability to produce large quantities for clinical use.
Quality assurance of linear accelerator DHXSohail Qureshi
This document outlines the daily quality assurance procedure for a linear accelerator. It describes turning on the machine, performing mechanical checks like gantry and couch movement tests, warming up the machine using various electron and photon energies, and performing dosimetry measurements to ensure parameters are within tolerance levels. Results are documented in a QA sheet for record keeping. The purpose is to ensure consistent machine quality and patient safety by verifying proper dose delivery and checking for any mechanical or software errors.
1. Electronic Portal Imaging Devices (EPIDs) are imaging devices mounted on linear accelerators opposite the MV x-ray source.
2. EPIDs have a wide variety of applications including real-time patient setup verification during treatment and determining beam blocking shapes and leaf positions.
3. Commercially available EPIDs include scanning liquid-filled ion chamber devices, camera-based devices, and active matrix flat panel detectors. They provide localization quality images with doses less than 3 cGy.
In 2000 IAEA published another International Code of Practice.
“Absorbed Dose Determination in External Beam Radiotherapy” (Technical Report Series No. 398)
Recommending procedures to obtain the absorbed dose in water from measurements made with an ionisation chamber in external beam radiotherapy (EBRT).
This document discusses dose-volume histograms (DVHs) which are used to analyze and compare radiation dose distributions in radiotherapy treatment planning. It describes how DVHs are generated by counting the number of voxels receiving different dose levels. DVHs can be displayed cumulatively or differentially and show the volume of structures receiving particular doses. The document outlines some limitations of DVHs including their insensitivity to small hot or cold spots and lack of spatial information. It emphasizes that DVHs should be used along with visual analysis of dose distributions and dose-volume statistics when evaluating treatment plans.
A linear accelerator is a machine that accelerates charged particles along a linear path to deliver radiation therapy for cancer treatment. It consists of an electron gun that produces electrons, an accelerator structure that accelerates the electrons using microwaves, and a treatment head that shapes and monitors the x-ray beam. Key components include the gantry that directs the beam, flattening filters and collimators that shape the beam, and ionization chambers that monitor the dose. The linear accelerator accelerates electrons to produce x-rays that are precisely aimed at the tumor to destroy cancer cells while minimizing damage to healthy tissue.
Linear accelerators (LINACs) are commonly used for external beam radiation therapy. [LINACs] use microwave technology to accelerate electrons which are then directed at a metal target to produce high-energy x-rays. Key LINAC components include an electron gun, accelerator structure in the gantry, and a treatment head housing components like collimators and flattening filters to shape the beam. LINACs have advanced over generations from early isocentric units to today's computer-driven systems that provide wide ranges of energy and precision treatment capabilities like IMRT.
brief but informative knowledge about what basically LINAC is and what is the phenomenon behind this machine ... easy to understand as well as presenting during lectures and in classes . share it
This document defines a linear accelerator and describes its components and generations. It begins by defining a linear accelerator as a machine that uses electromagnetic waves to accelerate charged particles like electrons to high energies. It then describes the three generations of linear accelerators from early bulky models to current compact highly reliable designs with improved treatment capabilities. The document concludes by describing the major components of a linear accelerator including the modulator cabinet, console, drive stand, klystron, waveguide and others.
Electron beam therapy uses megavoltage electron beams to treat superficial tumors within 6 cm of the skin surface, sparing deeper tissues. The dose distribution of electron beams provides a uniform dose in the target region followed by a rapid dose fall-off. Treatment planning for electron beams requires consideration of electron energy, air gaps, tissue inhomogeneities, and adjacent fields to determine the optimal dose distribution. Electron beams can effectively treat many superficial cancers of the skin, limbs, and surgical beds.
This document discusses brachytherapy, a type of radiation therapy where radioactive material is placed directly inside the body near the tumor being treated. It begins by explaining the two major categories of radiation therapy: external-beam therapy where a machine emits radiation from outside the body, and brachytherapy where radioactive sources are placed inside the body. It then provides details on brachytherapy, including how it works from inside the body compared to external beam therapy, common radiation sources used, and the typical procedure involving planning, applicator insertion, treatment delivery, and removal of sources.
Fluoroscopy is an imaging technique that uses x-rays to obtain real-time moving images of the internal structures of the body. It allows physicians to see how body parts move and to guide placement of instruments or injection of dye. The fluoroscopy machine takes a continuous stream of x-ray images at a rate of approximately 25-30 images per second which are displayed on a monitor. While it is useful for various medical procedures, fluoroscopy does expose patients to radiation, so the benefits must outweigh the small risk of developing cancer or experiencing burns from prolonged exposure. Precise procedures and consideration of radiation exposure help minimize risks.
Beam modification devices are used in radiotherapy to modify the spatial distribution of radiation within the patient. The main types of beam modification are shielding to eliminate dose to some areas, compensation to allow for irregular surfaces and tissues, wedge filtration to modify isodose curves, and flattening filters to modify the natural beam profile. Beam modification devices can alter the dose distribution due to effects of primary radiation attenuation and scattering. Common beam modification devices include shielding blocks, compensators, wedges, and multileaf collimators.
The document provides an overview of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), including how it works, the types of images it can produce, and its applications in various parts of the body. It explains that MRI uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to align hydrogen protons in the body and produce signals used to form images. Key applications mentioned include neuroimaging, musculoskeletal imaging, and evaluating diseases of the abdomen, blood vessels, heart, breast and fetus.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of the internal structures of the body. MRI works by aligning the spin of hydrogen atoms in the body using strong magnetic fields and radio waves. When the radio waves are turned off, the hydrogen atoms send out signals as they relax and return to equilibrium, and these signals can be used to build up a detailed image of tissues and organs in the body. The basic steps of MRI involve applying a magnetic field to align spins, using a radiofrequency pulse to excite the spins and produce a signal, and detecting the signal as spins relax back to equilibrium.
Breast cancer is the second leading cause of death and second most common cancer in women. It occurs when abnormal cells in the breast grow in an uncontrolled way and form tumors. The breasts contain lobes and lobules which produce milk, connected by ducts. The two main types are ductal carcinoma, originating in the ducts, and lobular carcinoma, originating in the lobules. Risk factors include gender, age, family history, obesity, lack of exercise, alcohol consumption, and hormone therapy. Screening methods include breast self-exams, clinical exams by a doctor, and mammography. Treatment options depend on cancer stage and may involve surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, and hormone therapy. With early detection and treatment, the
Cobalt-60 is produced by neutron activation of cobalt-59 in nuclear reactors. It is used as a gamma ray source in radiation therapy. A cobalt-60 therapy machine consists of a cobalt source head that houses the radioactive cobalt-60 source, a treatment table, and a collimator. The cobalt-60 source has a diameter of 1-3 cm and is enclosed in multiple metal layers for shielding. It is used to treat cancers in areas close to the skin like the head, neck, breast, and extremities. Advantages include treating lymph nodes, but disadvantages are the need for source replacement and lower dose rates compared to linear accelerators.
1) 4DCT exams using the VisionRT system and Toshiba scanner provide 10 respiratory phase datasets but require long reconstruction times of over 5 hours.
2) There are issues with mismatches between the breathing signal and couch movement during scans that can impact image reconstruction. Pitch settings, couch speed and decimal precision can also influence monitoring point determination.
3) Additional testing is needed to better understand the effects of respiratory patterns, signal processing methods, image thickness and other factors before 4DCT data can be reliably used for clinical dose calculations.
CHARGE PARTICLE ACCELERATORCharge particle acceleratorSYED SHAHEEN SHAH
A particle accelerator is a device that increases the kinetic energy of electrically charged particles through the use of electric and magnetic fields. The cyclotron, invented in 1931, is an early type of particle accelerator that uses a high frequency oscillator to accelerate positively charged particles in a spiral path between two "D-shaped" electrodes placed in a strong magnetic field. As the particles accelerate, they travel in larger circular paths until they exit and can be used for nuclear reaction experiments or medical treatments like cancer therapy.
1. Fluoroscopy uses x-rays to provide real-time images of internal body structures and motion. Early fluoroscopes consisted of an x-ray tube, table, and faint fluorescent screen viewed in a dark room.
2. The development of the image intensifier in the 1950s allowed for brighter fluoroscopic images. Image intensifiers use a photocathode, electrostatic lens, and output phosphor to amplify the x-ray image thousands of times.
3. Modern fluoroscopy uses cesium iodide and silver screens, along with high voltage electron acceleration, to produce bright, minimally distorted images that can be viewed on monitors or recorded with video cameras.
Magnetic resonance fluoroscopy is a technique that allows for real-time or near real-time imaging using MRI. It involves acquiring images very rapidly, within 500 milliseconds or less, at a rate of 10 or more images per second. Individual images are formed by continuously updating data from the most recently acquired image. This allows MR fluoroscopy to provide guidance for interventional procedures like biopsies in real time, without exposing the patient to radiation. While it does not offer the same level of immediate image feedback as other fluoroscopy methods, MR fluoroscopy provides advantages for interventional guidance through its lack of radiation and ability to image soft tissues.
A klystron is a vacuum tube that can generate or amplify power at microwave frequencies. It consists of an electron beam emitted from a cathode, two metal cavity resonators, and a collector. In the first cavity, an alternating electric field bunches the electrons. In the second cavity, the electron bunches produce an amplified output signal linked to the cavity's magnetic field oscillations. Klystrons are widely used as microwave amplifiers due to their ability to convert much of the electrons' kinetic energy into electromagnetic energy, producing large signal amplification.
A particle accelerator is a device that uses electromagnetic fields to accelerate charged particles to high speeds and contain them in well-defined beams. They can be used for purposes like radiotherapy, ion implantation, and industrial and biomedical research. The largest particle accelerators in the world are the RHIC, the LHC at CERN, and the Tevatron, which are used for experimental particle physics research. Particle accelerators can be divided into low-energy machines like cathode ray tubes and X-ray generators, and high-energy machines capable of nuclear reactions like the LHC, which smashes particles together at high speeds to study the origins of the universe.
The document discusses the history and technology of radiation therapy equipment. It begins by outlining the aims of radiotherapy to deliver maximum dose to the tumor while minimizing dose to surrounding healthy tissue. The success of treatment depends on the capabilities of the radiation generating equipment. The document then provides a detailed overview of the development of radiotherapy technologies over time, from early X-ray machines to modern linear accelerators. It describes the components and operating mechanisms of various radiotherapy devices.
The document summarizes the key components and evolution of linear accelerators (linacs) used for radiation therapy. It describes the major components of linacs including the electron gun, accelerating waveguide, bending magnets, and treatment head. It outlines the process of electron acceleration and production of x-rays. It also discusses the different generations of linacs and modern capabilities like intensity modulated radiation therapy using multileaf collimators.
An accelerator is a device that uses electric fields to impart kinetic energy to charged particles like electrons. Different types of accelerators exist like cyclotrons, synchrotrons, and linear accelerators (linacs). Linacs accelerate electrons using oscillating electric fields in a linear tube containing microwave cavities. Key components of a linac include an electron gun, klystron or magnetron to generate microwaves, an accelerating waveguide, and a target to produce x-rays when struck by electrons. Modern linacs are commonly used in radiation therapy to treat cancer patients.
This document discusses different types of radiation therapy machines from low to high energy units. It provides details about kilovoltage units including Grenz ray therapy, contact therapy, and orthovoltage therapy. It then discusses megavoltage units including linear accelerators (LINACs). The summary describes LINACs using electromagnetic waves to accelerate electrons, which then produce x-rays either directly or by striking a target. It discusses major LINAC components including the electron gun, waveguide, and treatment head for beam shaping and monitoring.
The seminar provided an overview of the LINAC structure and functioning. It began with an introduction by Dr. Sajad Ahmad and was presented by Dr. Musaib Mushtaq. The presentation covered the basic components and functioning of a LINAC including the electron gun, accelerator structure, and treatment head. It discussed the magnetron/klystron and how they generate microwave power used to accelerate electrons. It also explained the traveling wave and standing wave accelerator structures. The presentation provided details on auxiliary systems needed to operate the LINAC as well as advantages over cobalt-60 machines.
This document discusses various microwave sources and semiconductor devices used to generate microwave signals. It describes common microwave tubes like klystrons, magnetrons, and traveling wave tubes which use electron beams and electric/magnetic fields to generate microwaves. It also covers semiconductor microwave devices like tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes, varactor diodes, PIN diodes, LSA diodes, and Schottky barrier diodes which generate microwaves using quantum mechanical effects in semiconductor materials. Each device type is briefly explained along with its operating principles and key applications in microwave generation and amplification.
MICMicrowave Tubes – klystron, reflex klystron, magnetron and TWT.jeronimored
This document discusses various microwave sources and semiconductor devices used to generate microwave signals. It describes common microwave tubes like klystrons, magnetrons, and traveling wave tubes which use electron beams and electric/magnetic fields to generate microwaves. It also covers semiconductor microwave devices like tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes, varactor diodes, PIN diodes, LSA diodes, and Schottky barrier diodes which generate microwaves using quantum mechanical effects in semiconductor materials. Each device type is briefly explained along with its operating principles and key applications in microwave generation and amplification.
Microwave sources use both vacuum tubes and semiconductor devices to generate microwave signals. Vacuum tubes like klystrons, magnetrons, and traveling wave tubes (TWTs) are used for high power applications and function by using electric and magnetic fields to modulate electron beams. Semiconductor devices like tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes, varactor diodes, PIN diodes, and Schottky barrier diodes generate microwaves using quantum mechanical effects and rely on phenomena like electron tunneling and avalanche breakdown. These solid state devices are often preferred for their lower cost and size compared to vacuum tubes.
Witricity is a technology that enables wireless power transfer using coupled resonant magnetic fields between transmitting and receiving coils. It was developed at MIT and allows efficient energy transfer over mid-range distances of several meters. The key aspects are using resonant coils tuned to the same frequency, which improves efficiency compared to non-resonant inductive coupling. Witricity has applications for contactless charging of devices and could enable a world without wires for certain applications. Safety is maintained as the magnetic fields are below exposure limits.
X-RAY GENERATOR CIRCUIT DIAGRAM , PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS AND INTRACTION OF X-RAY WITH MATTER.
THIS PRESENTATION CONSISTS LOT OF ANIMATIONS YOU WOULD LOVE TO WATCHING IT.
JUST DOWNLOAD AND ENJOY
Role of Particle accelerators in Radiotherapysangeethamani26
Particle accelerators use electromagnetic fields to propel charged particles like electrons to high speeds and energies. They are categorized as either electrostatic accelerators, which use static electric fields, or oscillating field accelerators, which use time-varying electric fields to accelerate particles to extremely high energies. Examples of particle accelerators discussed in the document include the Van de Graff generator, cyclotron, betatron, and microtron. The Van de Graff generator uses a moving belt to build up a large electric charge on a hollow metal sphere. Cyclotrons accelerate particles using static magnetic and oscillating electric fields. Betatrons accelerate electrons using the electric field induced by a varying magnetic field. Microtrons also accelerate electrons
A linear accelerator (LINAC) is a device that uses high frequency electromagnetic waves to accelerate electrons to high energies through a linear tube. This high energy electron beam can then be used to treat superficial tumors or produce x-rays to treat deep tumors. A LINAC consists of an electron injection system, RF power generation system, accelerating waveguide, auxiliary systems, beam transport system, and beam collimation/monitoring system. Modern LINACs use techniques like 3D conformal radiotherapy, IMRT, SRT, SRS, DART, and IGRT to precisely deliver radiation doses to tumors.
Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-rays in 1895 while experimenting with a Crookes tube. X-rays are produced when high-voltage electricity is used to accelerate electrons towards a metal target in a vacuum tube. This causes the electrons to slow down rapidly and emit X-ray photons. Modern X-ray generators use transformers to step up lower line voltages to the higher voltages needed in X-ray tubes, and rectifier circuits convert the alternating current to direct current required to accelerate electrons. X-ray tubes produce a spectrum of X-rays including a continuous bremsstrahlung spectrum and superimposed characteristic line spectra from the target material.
UNIT V RADAR TRANSMITTERS AND RECEIVERS 14.11.23.pdfdevicaf983
This document summarizes different components of radar transmitter and receivers. It discusses linear beam power tubes like klystrons and traveling wave tubes that are used as RF power sources. It also discusses solid state power sources like transistors. Other RF power sources discussed are magnetrons and crossed field tubes. The document provides details on the working and components of klystrons, traveling wave tubes, coaxial magnetrons and solid state power sources. It discusses the advantages and applications of different RF power sources in radar systems.
Clinical Generators in Radiotherapy by Dr.Avilash.pptxAbhilashBanerjee3
This document discusses different types of clinical generators used in radiation therapy. It describes low and high energy generators, including van de Graff generators, betatrons, cyclotrons, microtrons, and linear accelerators. It provides details on the operating principles, components, and historical development of various particle accelerators such as cyclotrons, synchrocyclotrons, and linear accelerators. It also discusses the different parts of linear accelerators including electron injection systems, radio frequency power generators, waveguides, and safety features.
Short wave diathermy provides deep heat through the use of high frequency electromagnetic waves between 107-108 Hz. It works by generating an alternating electric field between electrodes placed on the skin that causes oscillation of ions and molecules in body tissues, producing heat. Precise electrode placement and selection of frequency are important for effective treatment while minimizing risk of burns. Short wave diathermy increases blood flow, metabolism and helps reduce pain and inflammation.
The copper in a stationary anode plays a dual role:
1. It supports the tungsten target.
2. It efficiently removes heat from the tungsten target.
Copper acts as a heat sink, drawing heat away from the tungsten target to prevent it from overheating due to the energy deposited by bombarding electrons.
The document discusses various types of microwave tubes used to generate or amplify microwave signals. It describes the limitations of conventional tubes at microwave frequencies due to factors like inter-electrode capacitance, lead inductance, and transit time effect. It then discusses different microwave tube designs including klystrons, traveling wave tubes (TWTs), and magnetrons. Klystrons and TWTs are used for amplification and oscillation applications. Magnetrons are commonly used to generate microwaves in applications like radar and microwave ovens.
international workshop accelerator based neutron sources for medical industrial and scientific applications torino eurosea international workshop accelerator based neutron sources for medical industrial and scientific applications torino eurosea
Microwave sources produce electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from one meter to one millimeter. Common microwave sources include circuits in devices like radar and microwave ovens. Microwave ovens use a device called a magnetron to generate microwaves that heat food by causing water molecules to vibrate. Microwave tubes like klystrons, magnetrons, and traveling wave tubes are used to generate and amplify microwaves. Klystrons function by using cavities to modulate electron beams, forming bunches that amplify microwave signals as they pass through subsequent cavities. Reflex klystrons use a single cavity and repeller electrode to reflect electron beams and sustain oscillations.
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Here is the updated list of Top Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and Indigestion and those are Gas-O-Go Syp for Dyspepsia | Lavizyme Syrup for Acidity | Yumzyme Hepatoprotective Capsules etc
ABDOMINAL TRAUMA in pediatrics part one.drhasanrajab
Abdominal trauma in pediatrics refers to injuries or damage to the abdominal organs in children. It can occur due to various causes such as falls, motor vehicle accidents, sports-related injuries, and physical abuse. Children are more vulnerable to abdominal trauma due to their unique anatomical and physiological characteristics. Signs and symptoms include abdominal pain, tenderness, distension, vomiting, and signs of shock. Diagnosis involves physical examination, imaging studies, and laboratory tests. Management depends on the severity and may involve conservative treatment or surgical intervention. Prevention is crucial in reducing the incidence of abdominal trauma in children.
Integrating Ayurveda into Parkinson’s Management: A Holistic ApproachAyurveda ForAll
Explore the benefits of combining Ayurveda with conventional Parkinson's treatments. Learn how a holistic approach can manage symptoms, enhance well-being, and balance body energies. Discover the steps to safely integrate Ayurvedic practices into your Parkinson’s care plan, including expert guidance on diet, herbal remedies, and lifestyle modifications.
Rasamanikya is a excellent preparation in the field of Rasashastra, it is used in various Kushtha Roga, Shwasa, Vicharchika, Bhagandara, Vatarakta, and Phiranga Roga. In this article Preparation& Comparative analytical profile for both Formulationon i.e Rasamanikya prepared by Kushmanda swarasa & Churnodhaka Shodita Haratala. The study aims to provide insights into the comparative efficacy and analytical aspects of these formulations for enhanced therapeutic outcomes.
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
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23. They are used to treat patients with beams of electrons or X- rays
following interactions of electrons in a suitable target.
The term MV is typically used to describe photon beams (e.g., 6
MV) whereas the term MeV is typically used to describe an
electron beam (e.g., 6 MeV).
Irrespective of the accelerator type, two basic conditions must
be met for particle acceleration:
● The particle to be accelerated must be charged;
● An electric field must be provided in the direction of particle
acceleration.
LINEAR ACCELERATOR ● Medium energy photons (10–15 MV)
● Low energy photons (4–8 MV)
● High energy photons (18–25 MV)
24. ACCELERATOR : ELECTROSTATIC AND CYCLIC
ELECTROSTATIC
ACCELERATOR
the particles are accelerated by applying an
electrostatic electric field through a voltage
difference, constant in time, whose value fixes
the value of the final kinetic energy of the
particle.
The energy that an electrostatic accelerator
can reach is limited by the discharges that
occur between the high voltage terminal and
the walls of the accelerator chamber when
the voltage drop exceeds a certain critical
value (typically 1 MV).
e.g: orthovoltage X ray tubes.
25. Electric fields used in cyclic accelerators are
variable and associated with a variable magnetic
field and resulting in some close paths along
which the kinetic energy gained by the particle
differs from zero.
If the particle is made to follow such a closed path
many times over, one obtains a process of gradual
acceleration that is not limited to the maximum
voltage drop existing in the accelerator.
Thus the final kinetic energy of the particle is obtained
by submitting the charged particle to the same,
relatively small, potential difference a large number of
times, each cycle adding a small amount of energy to
the kinetic energy of the particle.
example of a cyclic accelerator is the linac
CYCLIC
ACCELERATOR :
26. Accelerator Building Blocks
• Power source
• Electron source
• Accelerator structure
• Beam bending system
• Beam Conditioning
• Collimation system
• Control system
• Support structure
27. POWER SOURCE
Before discussing about power source or details of LINAC
Some basic principles of X-ray production
Why??? Crook’s tube can not produce high energy electrons for medical purpose.
28. Cockcroft-Walton Generator 665 kV
Early Challenges
• High voltage breakdown
• Reliable vacuum systems
• Low beam currents
• Zero diagnostics
• Small industrial base
• Scale – big science emerges
All accelerators are based on the same
principle. A charged particle
accelerates between a gap between
two electrodes when there is a
potential difference between them.
E= QV
30. RESONANT ACCELERATOR CONCEPT
THE ACCELERATION OCCURS IN THE ELECTRIC FIELD BETWEEN
CYLINDRICAL DRIFT TUBES.
THE RF POWER MUST BE SYNCHRONISED WITH THE MOTION OF THE
ELECTRONS, SO THAT ACCELERATION OCCURS IN EVERY CAVITY.
THIS NATURALLY PRODUCES BUNCHES OF ELECTRONS
ELECTRON SOURCE
DRIFT TUBES
31. When the first electrode is oppositely charged to the entering charged
particle (i.e. an electron or proton ), the particle accelerates towards it.
There is no electric field inside the tubes as they are hollow conductors.
When the particle enters the first tube , the voltage is switched so that
the next tube is oppositely charged, therefore it accelerates to next
electrode.
Each time the same magnitude of voltage is applied and so the energy
of the Particle E=n Q V , is built up in steps without the needing to
increase the voltage.
32. When the first electrode is oppositely charged to the entering charged
particle (i.e. an electron or proton ), the particle accelerates towards it.
There is no electric field inside the tubes as they are hollow conductors.
When the particle enters the first tube , the voltage is switched so that
the next tube is oppositely charged, therefore it accelerates to next
electrode.
Each time the same magnitude of voltage is applied and so the energy
of the Particle E=n Q V , is built up in steps without the needing to
increase the voltage.
33. When the first electrode is oppositely charged to the entering charged
particle (i.e. an electron or proton ), the particle accelerates towards it.
There is no electric field inside the tubes as they are hollow conductors.
When the particle enters the first tube , the voltage is switched so that
the next tube is oppositely charged, therefore it accelerates to next
electrode.
Each time the same magnitude of voltage is applied and so the energy
of the Particle E=n Q V , is built up in steps without the needing to
increase the voltage.
34. POWER SOURCE
● An RF power source;
● A pulsed modulator.
—A magnetron is a source of high power RF required for
electron acceleration, while a klystron is an RF power amplifier
that amplifies the low power RF generated by an RF oscillator
commonly called the RF driver.
35. Microwaves
Microwaves are sometimes considered to be very short radio waves
(high frequency and high-energy radio waves).
Some important properties of microwaves are:
They are reflected by metal surfaces.
They heat materials if they can make atoms or molecules in the
material vibrate. The amount of heating depends on the intensity of
the microwave radiation, and the time that the material is exposed to
the radiation.
They pass through glass and plastics.
They pass through the atmosphere.
They pass through the ionosphere without being reflected.
They are absorbed by water molecules, how well depends on the
frequency (energy) of the microwaves.
MAGNETRON Produces Microwaves also called RF waves.
36. The magnetron is a high-powered vacuum
tube, that works as self-excited microwave
oscillator. Crossed electron and magnetic fields
are used in the magnetron to produce the
high-power output required in radar
equipment. These multi-cavity devices works
at frequencies ranging from approximately 600
to 30,000 megahertz. The relatively simple
construction has the disadvantage that the
Magnetron usually can work only on a
constructively fixed frequency.
Microwaves are produced by vacuum tubes devices that operate
on the ballistic motion of electron controlled by magnetic or
electric fields. Some different kinds of microwave emitters are
the cavity magnetron, the klystron, the traveling-wave
tube(TWT), the gyrotron.
38. ELECTRON SOURCE
It is essentially a simple electrostatic accelerator
called an electron gun.
Two types of electron gun are in use as sources of electrons in
medical linacs
— Diode type;
— Triode type.
Both electron gun types contain a heated filament cathode and a
perforated grounded anode; in addition, the triode electron gun
also incorporates a grid.
Anode
Cathode
ELECTRON GUN
Electrons are thermionically emitted from
the heated cathode, focused into a pencil
beam by a curved focusing electrode and
accelerated towards the perforated anode
through which they drift to enter the
accelerating waveguide.
39. ACCELERATOR STRUCTURE
The simplest kind of accelerating waveguide is obtained from a
cylindrical uniform waveguide by adding a series of discs (irises) with
circular holes at the centre, placed at equal distances along the tube.
These discs divide the waveguide into a series of cylindrical cavities
that form the basic structure of the accelerating waveguide in a linac.
The accelerating waveguide is evacuated to allow free propagation of
electrons.
The cavities of the accelerating waveguide serve two purposes:
- To couple and distribute microwave power between adjacent cavities;
- To provide a suitable electric field pattern for the acceleration of
electrons.
Two types of accelerating waveguide have been developed for the
acceleration of electrons:
(i) Travelling wave structure (ii) Standing wave structure.
40. Electron gun RF in
Accelerating cavity
Accelerating wave guide
RF out
Electron gun
RF in Coupling cavity
Travelling wave structure
Standing wave structure
41. Electron gun RF in
Accelerating cavity
Accelerating wave guide
RF out
Electron gun
RF in Coupling cavity
λ
λ'
λ‘=λ/2
42. In the travelling wave structure the microwaves enter the
accelerating waveguide on the gun side and propagate towards the
high energy end of the waveguide
where they either are absorbed without any reflection or exit the waveguide to
be absorbed in a resistive load or to be fed back to the input end of the
accelerating waveguide.
In the standing wave structure each end of the accelerating
waveguide is terminated with a conducting disc to reflect the
microwave power ,resulting in a buildup of standing waves in the
waveguide.
These cavities therefore serve only as coupling cavities and can be moved out to the
side of the waveguide structure, effectively shortening the accelerating waveguide
by 50%.
43. Bending magnets are used in linacs operating at energies above 6
MeV, where the accelerating waveguides are too long for straight-
through mounting.
The accelerating waveguide is usually mounted parallel to the gantry
rotation axis and the electron beam must be bent to make it strike the
X - ray target or be able to exit through the beam exit window.
BEAM BENDING SYSTEM
In low energy linacs the target is embedded in the accelerating waveguide and no
beam transport between the accelerating waveguide and target is required
44. COLLIMATION SYSTEM
The important components found in a typical head of linac include:
—Retractable X ray targets;
—Flattening filters and electron scattering foils (also called scattering
filters);
—Primary and adjustable secondary collimators;
—Dual transmission ionization chambers;
—A field defining light and a range finder;
—retractable wedges;
— MLC.
45.
46. The photon beam collimation is achieved with two or three
collimator devices:
1. A primary collimator;
2. Secondary movable beam defining collimators;
3. An MLC (optional).
The primary collimator defines the
largest available circular field size and is
a conical opening machined into a
tungsten shielding block, with the sides
of the conical opening projecting on to
edges of the target on one end of the
block and on to the flattening filter on
the other end
47. The secondary beam defining collimators consist of four blocks,
two forming the upper and two forming the lower jaws of the
collimator. They can provide rectangular or square fields at the
linac isocentre, with sides of the order of few mm up to 40 cm.
48. The secondary beam defining collimators consist of four blocks,
two forming the upper and two forming the lower jaws of the
collimator. They can provide rectangular or square fields at the
linac isocentre, with sides of the order of few mm up to 40 cm.
49. A multileaf collimator (MLC) for photon beams consists of a large
number of collimating blocks or leaves that can be driven
automatically, independent of each other, to generate a field of any
shape
The individual leaf has a width of 1 cm or less as projected at the
isocenter. The leaves are made of tungsten alloy (r = 17.0 to 18.5
g/cm3) and have thickness along the beam direction ranging from
6 cm to 7.5 cm, depending on the type of accelerator. The leaf
thickness is sufficient to provide primary x-ray transmission
through the leaves of less than 2%
50. A multileaf collimator (MLC) for photon beams consists of a large
number of collimating blocks or leaves that can be driven
automatically, independent of each other, to generate a field of any
shape
The individual leaf has a width of 1 cm or less as projected at the
isocenter. The leaves are made of tungsten alloy (r = 17.0 to 18.5
g/cm3) and have thickness along the beam direction ranging from
6 cm to 7.5 cm, depending on the type of accelerator. The leaf
thickness is sufficient to provide primary x-ray transmission
through the leaves of less than 2%
51. BEAM CONDITIONING
Flattening filter
X-Ray
The photon dose distribution produced
by a linac is strongly forward peaked.
To make beam intensity uniform across a
field , a flattening filter is inserted in the beam.
The filter is usually made of Pb , although tungsten,
steel, Al or combination has also been suggested.
52. BEAM CONDITIONING
Flattening filter
The photon dose distribution produced
by a linac is strongly forward peaked.
To make beam intensity uniform across a
field , a flattening filter is inserted in the beam.
The filter is usually made of Pb , although tungsten,
steel, Al or combination has also been suggested.
X-Ray
53. Scattering foil
Electron Beam
The electron pencil beam exits the
evacuated beam transport system
through a thin window usually
made of beryllium, which, with its
low atomic number Z, minimizes
the pencil beam scattering and X-
ray production
The scattering of the electron pencil beam over the relatively large
area used in radiotherapy (up to 25 × 25 cm2) is achieved by placing
thin foils of high Z material (copper or lead) into the pencil beam at
the level of the flattening filter in the X -ray mode.
54. Scattering foil
The electron pencil beam exits the
evacuated beam transport system
through a thin window usually
made of beryllium, which, with its
low atomic number Z, minimizes
the pencil beam scattering and X-
ray production
The scattering of the electron pencil beam over the relatively large
area used in radiotherapy (up to 25 × 25 cm2) is achieved by placing
thin foils of high Z material (copper or lead) into the pencil beam .
Electron Beam
61. Termination of irradiation
Most common dose monitors in linacs
are transmission ionization chambers
permanently imbedded in the linac
clinical photon and electron beams to
monitor the beam output continuously
during patient treatment
Dual ionisation chamber
62. Properties of the ionization chamber monitors
Chambers must have a minimal effect on clinical photon and
electron radiation beams;
Chamber response should be independent of ambient
temperature and pressure (most linacs use sealed ionization
chambers to satisfy this condition);
Chambers should be operated under saturation conditions.
63. The primary ionization chamber measures MUs. Typically, the
sensitivity of the chamber electrometer circuitry is adjusted in
such a way that 1 MU corresponds to a dose of 1 cGy delivered in
a water phantom at the depth of dose maximum on the central
beam axis when irradiated with a 10 × 10 cm2 field at a source to
surface distance (SSD) of 100 cm.
Once the operator preset number of MUs has been
reached, the primary ionization chamber circuitry shuts the
linac down and terminates the dose delivery to the patient.
Before a new irradiation can be initiated, it is necessary to
reset the MU displays to zero.
Furthermore, irradiation is not possible until a new
selection of MUs has been made.
The dose monitoring system also monitors other operating
parameters such as the beam energy, flatness and symmetry.
64. Field lights and lasers
It is a field localizing device.
Used to display the position of the radiation field on the patient
skin.
The accuracy of lasers guides in determining isocentre
position.
A combination of mirror and a light source located in the space
between the chambers and the jaws projects a light beam as if
emitting from the x-ray focal spot.
65. Pulse modulator
A power supply provides direct current (DC) power to the
modulator, which includes the pulse-forming network and a switch
tube known as hydrogen thyratron. High-voltage pulses from the
modulator section are flat-topped DC pulses of a few microseconds
in duration. These pulses are delivered to the magnetron or
klystron and simultaneously to the electron gun.
Control console
For monitoring and controlling linac
All interlocks checks to allow beam started.
To provide digital display of monitor units
Mechanical beam parameters.