This document provides information about the classification and characteristics of limestone and sandstone. It begins by defining limestone as a sedimentary rock composed mainly of calcium carbonate in the form of calcite and aragonite. It describes the microscopic components of limestone including skeletal fragments, ooids, peloids, and lime mud. It explains that limestone forms most readily in warm, shallow marine environments. The document then discusses various types of limestone based on composition and texture. It concludes by outlining some of the major uses of limestone, particularly in construction as a crushed stone for concrete, cement production, and road base. The document also provides definitions of quartz arenites, feldspathic arenites, and lith
Graywacke, also known as wacke, is a type of sandstone that is composed of sand mixed with mud. It forms in deep ocean waters through turbidity currents and submarine landslides that rapidly transport sediment short distances. Graywacke contains a higher percentage of clay and less rounded grains than typical sandstone. It displays graded bedding from larger grains settling out first during deposition from turbidity events. Fossils can occasionally be found that provide clues about the depositional environment.
Paired metamorphic belts occur where zones of high-pressure low-temperature metamorphism are parallel to zones of low-pressure high-temperature metamorphism. They were first recognized in Japan and form due to subduction of oceanic crust beneath continental crust. Paired metamorphic belts support the theory of plate tectonics, as the contrasting pressure-temperature conditions in the two parallel belts can be explained by ocean-continent convergence. Examples of paired metamorphic belts are found throughout the basement rocks of the former Gondwanaland supercontinent.
Role of trace elements in rare earth elementsPramoda Raj
ย
Trace elements play an important role in igneous petrogenesis and can be used to understand magmatic processes. Trace elements are classified based on their behavior into incompatible and compatible elements. Rare earth elements (REE) are especially useful as their near-parallel patterns can indicate crystal fractionation. REE and other trace element analyses help determine the source depth of primary magmas and identify fractionating phases. Trace element discrimination diagrams also allow determination of paleotectonic settings. Overall, trace element studies provide insights into magma differentiation, source characterization, and petrogenetic modeling.
Stratigraphy establishes relationships between rock layers by classifying them into mappable units called formations, which can be subdivided into members and grouped into units called groups. Correlating rocks means establishing their equivalency using physical stratigraphy techniques like lithostratigraphy (comparing rock types), magnetostratigraphy (comparing magnetic polarity sequences), and sequence stratigraphy (using sea level curves), or biostratigraphy techniques like comparing fossil zones, evolutionary lineages, and index fossils to determine the relative or absolute ages of rock layers.
This document provides a detailed classification system for sedimentary rocks. It divides sedimentary rocks into siliciclastic rocks such as rudites, arenites and lutites. It also covers biogenic/biochemical rocks like carbonates and organic deposits, as well as chemical rocks including evaporites and iron deposits. Volcaniclastic rocks derived from volcanic eruptions are also discussed. Each category contains numerous subdivisions based on composition, texture and depositional environment. Examples are given throughout to illustrate different rock types.
Sedimentary facies refer to rock or sediment bodies that are distinguished by their composition, texture, structures and other features related to the depositional environment. Key aspects of facies include grain size, sorting, fossils and bedding. Individual facies represent specific depositional conditions. Multiple genetically-related facies comprise a facies association representing a depositional system. Facies successions occur at different scales from individual systems to basin-scale sequences reflecting changes in sea level over time.
The document discusses the geology of island arcs. An island arc is formed at a subduction zone, where one tectonic plate is pushed underneath another. Magma is generated from the melting of the subducted plate and rises to form volcanoes along the overriding plate. As the plate subducts at an angle, the volcanoes form in a curved chain shape. Island arcs are characterized by andesitic volcanic rocks and occur in settings with a deep ocean trench on one side and a back-arc basin on the other.
Sedimentology application in petroleum industryAndi Anriansyah
ย
This document provides an overview of sedimentology and its applications in the petroleum industry. It discusses key concepts in sedimentology including sedimentary rocks, depositional environments, sediment transport processes, and sedimentary structures. These concepts are important for understanding reservoir heterogeneity, predicting texture, and informing exploration and production strategies. The document cautions against oversimplifying depositional environments and stresses the importance of analyzing sediment transport and depositional processes to avoid misinterpretation.
Graywacke, also known as wacke, is a type of sandstone that is composed of sand mixed with mud. It forms in deep ocean waters through turbidity currents and submarine landslides that rapidly transport sediment short distances. Graywacke contains a higher percentage of clay and less rounded grains than typical sandstone. It displays graded bedding from larger grains settling out first during deposition from turbidity events. Fossils can occasionally be found that provide clues about the depositional environment.
Paired metamorphic belts occur where zones of high-pressure low-temperature metamorphism are parallel to zones of low-pressure high-temperature metamorphism. They were first recognized in Japan and form due to subduction of oceanic crust beneath continental crust. Paired metamorphic belts support the theory of plate tectonics, as the contrasting pressure-temperature conditions in the two parallel belts can be explained by ocean-continent convergence. Examples of paired metamorphic belts are found throughout the basement rocks of the former Gondwanaland supercontinent.
Role of trace elements in rare earth elementsPramoda Raj
ย
Trace elements play an important role in igneous petrogenesis and can be used to understand magmatic processes. Trace elements are classified based on their behavior into incompatible and compatible elements. Rare earth elements (REE) are especially useful as their near-parallel patterns can indicate crystal fractionation. REE and other trace element analyses help determine the source depth of primary magmas and identify fractionating phases. Trace element discrimination diagrams also allow determination of paleotectonic settings. Overall, trace element studies provide insights into magma differentiation, source characterization, and petrogenetic modeling.
Stratigraphy establishes relationships between rock layers by classifying them into mappable units called formations, which can be subdivided into members and grouped into units called groups. Correlating rocks means establishing their equivalency using physical stratigraphy techniques like lithostratigraphy (comparing rock types), magnetostratigraphy (comparing magnetic polarity sequences), and sequence stratigraphy (using sea level curves), or biostratigraphy techniques like comparing fossil zones, evolutionary lineages, and index fossils to determine the relative or absolute ages of rock layers.
This document provides a detailed classification system for sedimentary rocks. It divides sedimentary rocks into siliciclastic rocks such as rudites, arenites and lutites. It also covers biogenic/biochemical rocks like carbonates and organic deposits, as well as chemical rocks including evaporites and iron deposits. Volcaniclastic rocks derived from volcanic eruptions are also discussed. Each category contains numerous subdivisions based on composition, texture and depositional environment. Examples are given throughout to illustrate different rock types.
Sedimentary facies refer to rock or sediment bodies that are distinguished by their composition, texture, structures and other features related to the depositional environment. Key aspects of facies include grain size, sorting, fossils and bedding. Individual facies represent specific depositional conditions. Multiple genetically-related facies comprise a facies association representing a depositional system. Facies successions occur at different scales from individual systems to basin-scale sequences reflecting changes in sea level over time.
The document discusses the geology of island arcs. An island arc is formed at a subduction zone, where one tectonic plate is pushed underneath another. Magma is generated from the melting of the subducted plate and rises to form volcanoes along the overriding plate. As the plate subducts at an angle, the volcanoes form in a curved chain shape. Island arcs are characterized by andesitic volcanic rocks and occur in settings with a deep ocean trench on one side and a back-arc basin on the other.
Sedimentology application in petroleum industryAndi Anriansyah
ย
This document provides an overview of sedimentology and its applications in the petroleum industry. It discusses key concepts in sedimentology including sedimentary rocks, depositional environments, sediment transport processes, and sedimentary structures. These concepts are important for understanding reservoir heterogeneity, predicting texture, and informing exploration and production strategies. The document cautions against oversimplifying depositional environments and stresses the importance of analyzing sediment transport and depositional processes to avoid misinterpretation.
Sedimentary facies are distinguished based on features like lithology, grain size, texture, sedimentary structures, fossils, and colour. These characteristics indicate the depositional environment. Facies represent sediments deposited in particular environments due to processes like wind, streams, waves, or biological activity. Depositional environments can be determined by examining sediment textures, structures, fossils, and bedding. Facies sequences reflect changes in depositional conditions over time.
This is my presentation on the tectonic control of sediments.
It includes the effects of tectonics either direct or indirect on sediments and sedimentation.
Sedimentation along various plate boundaries.
Few examples as evidence from Pakistan (the Siwalik Group) and Argentina (Fiambala Basin)
This document provides an outline for a course on sequence stratigraphy. It covers key concepts in stratigraphy including sedimentary depositional environments, facies analysis, sequence stratigraphy principles, and causes of sea level change. Common siliciclastic and carbonate stratigraphic successions are examined. The role of base level and relative sea level changes in controlling sediment accumulation and sequence boundaries is discussed.
Kutch is an East-west Oriented pericraton Rift basin Situated between Nagar Parkar Fault in North and Kathiawar Uplift in South.
Here we will discuss Geology and its Sequence Stratigraphy.
This document provides an introduction to sequence stratigraphy, which attempts to subdivide and explain sedimentary deposits in terms of variations in sediment supply and accommodation space associated with sea level changes. It defines key terms like parasequence, progradation, retrogradation, transgression, and regression. It also describes the accommodation space equation and causes of changes in sea level and tectonic subsidence. Finally, it discusses sequence stratigraphic concepts like depositional sequences, system tracts, stacking patterns, and sequence boundaries.
Komattite
Named after the Komati River in South Africa.
first described by Morris and Richard (twins) for ultramafic units in the Barberton Greenstone belt of South Africa.
Mostly of komatiite are Archean age
distributed in the Archaean shield areas.
Also a few are Proterozoic and Phanerozoic.
In all ages komatiites are highly magnesium.
Mostly a volcanic rock; occasionally intrusive.
Mafic rocks were identified as extrusive because of their volcanic textures and structures, and they seem to have been accepted as a normal component of Archean volcanic successions, Abitibi in Canada.
The ultramafic rocks were interpreted as intrusive which are founded as sills and dykes, Barberton in South Africa.
Spinifex texture-typical of Komatiites:
This document provides an overview of sedimentary rocks, including their classification and common types. It discusses how sedimentary rocks form from sediments produced by weathering and are later cemented. The document classifies sedimentary rocks into detrital rocks (formed from rock fragments), chemically formed rocks like limestone, and residual deposits like laterite and soils. Detrital rocks like sandstone and shale are the most abundant sedimentary rocks, comprising around 95% of sedimentary layers and 4% and 0.75% of the Earth's crust, respectively.
Role of Trace Elements In Petrogenesis Gokul Anand
ย
Trace elements occur in very low concentrations in rocks and provide important information about magmatic processes. They can be classified as compatible or incompatible based on whether they fit easily into mantle mineral crystal structures. Geochemical analysis of trace elements using techniques like XRF and ICP-MS allows determination of magma source and depth, identification of fractionating phases, and testing of models of magmatic differentiation. Trace elements are especially useful for rare earth elements, which indicate the type of basalt and can identify fractionating phases from REE patterns.
The document provides information about the self potential (SP) method of geophysical surveying. It discusses the background of SP surveying and its applications in mineral exploration, groundwater mapping, and engineering. It describes the various types of potentials that can generate SP anomalies, including electrokinetic, diffusion, Nernst, mineral, and electrochemical potentials. The document outlines how SP is measured in the field using fixed-base and gradient methods. It also discusses interpreting SP data qualitatively based on anomaly shape, amplitude, and polarity and quantitatively by modeling anomaly sources as simple geometric shapes.
The document describes a petrographic study of rocks in the Vallanadu area of Tamil Nadu, India. It finds that the main rock types in the area are charnockites, khondalites, cordierite gneisses, calc-silicate rocks, and grey and pink granites. Two sets of conjugate shear systems are observed, including a NW-SE dextral shear zone conjugating with a NE-SW sinistral zone. Granites in the area formed syntectonically. The Vallanadu area experienced initial ductile deformation followed by brittle-ductile deformation during the Neoproterozoic to Cambrian period.
The document summarizes several classification schemes for sandstone, focusing on the ternary QFL scheme that divides sandstones based on their quartz, feldspar, and lithic fragment composition as determined through point counting of thin sections. The document also describes various sandstone compositions including quartz arenite, feldspathic arenite/wacke, lithic wacke, and others; and discusses framework grains, matrix, cement, porosity, and the influence of provenance on sandstone composition.
This document discusses hydrothermal fluids and hydrothermal ore deposits. It begins by describing the different types of fluids found in the Earth's crust, including sea water, meteoric water, connate water, metamorphic water, and mixtures. For hydrothermal deposits to form, these fluids need to circulate through the crust to dissolve and transport metals. Common hydrothermal deposit types include veins and cavity fillings. Veins can be fissure, ladder, or gash veins and cavity fillings include saddle reefs. Metal solubility in hydrothermal fluids is controlled by factors like temperature, pH, and ligand complexes. Precipitation occurs when solubility decreases, such as due to changes in fluid composition or physical properties like
This document provides an overview of sedimentary rocks and the process of diagenesis. It discusses how sediments are deposited and buried over time, undergoing physical and chemical changes through compaction, cementation, and other diagenetic processes. These changes occur due to increasing pressure and temperature with depth and alter the sediments' properties, converting them into consolidated sedimentary rocks. The document also examines factors that control diagenesis like composition, porosity, and permeability, and it outlines the major diagenetic processes and their effects on the physical, mineralogical, and chemical characteristics of sediments.
The document discusses lead and zinc deposits found in India. It describes the chief ores of lead (galena, cerussite, anglesite) and zinc (sphalerite, smithsonite). It then discusses several major lead-zinc deposits in India, including Rampura-Agucha and Zawar belts, characterized by stratabound sedimentary hosted deposits. Other deposits mentioned include Sargipalli and Mamandur, which also feature sedimentary hosted lead-zinc mineralization. The document provides details on the geology, mineralization, and genesis of these important deposits.
"Granites" Classification, Petrogenesis and Tectonic DescriminationSamir Kumar Barik
ย
This document discusses the classification, petrogenesis, and tectonic discrimination of granites. It begins with definitions of granite and descriptions of its typical mineralogical and textural characteristics. It then outlines several common classification schemes for granites based on mineralogy, chemistry, and tectonic setting. These include QAPF, alumina saturation, S-I-A-M, and discriminations based on plate tectonic setting. The document also discusses models for the petrogenesis of granites involving magmatic differentiation and metasomatic processes. Geochemical discrimination diagrams are presented and the multiple possible origins of granites are noted. Future work on the geochemistry and uranium mineralization of granites in specific
1. The document discusses ore textures and paragenetic sequences, beginning with definitions and requirements for studying ore textures.
2. It describes various ore textures including single grain textures, magmatic ore textures, open space filling textures, and replacement textures.
3. The document concludes with a discussion on developing paragenetic sequences by analyzing features like cross-cutting relationships and exsolution textures.
The document discusses anorthosite, an intrusive igneous rock composed of 90-100% plagioclase feldspar. It describes the mineralogy, texture, and classification of anorthosite. Proteroic anorthosite formed during the Proterozoic era while Archean anorthosite formed during the Archean and are characterized by calcic plagioclase. Anorthosite is also found on the moon and classified as lunar anorthosite. Some anorthosite deposits are mined for titanium, iron, gemstones, and aluminum.
Biogeochemical anomalies occur where vegetation contains abnormally high concentrations of metals. Different plant species take up different amounts of inorganic materials from the soil based on factors like their root depth and water source. Plants with deep roots directly over an ore deposit can show biogeochemical anomalies from taking up mobile elements in soil solutions. Biogeochemical surveys first determine the optimal plant species, plant part, and elements to sample through an orientation survey. They then involve systematically collecting and analyzing plant samples according to a grid or vegetation distribution to identify anomalies.
Dott's classification scheme for sandstones is based on the relative proportions of matrix, quartz, feldspar, and rock fragments. Point counting under a microscope is used to determine the composition by identifying materials beneath cross hairs. Sandstones with 5-15% clay matrix are called arenites and can be further classified as arkose, litharenite, or other based on quartz, feldspar, and lithic percentages. Rocks with 15-75% clay matrix are called wackes and those over 75% are mudstones. This classification provides a consistent terminology for describing sandstone compositions.
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed of sand-sized grains of minerals and rock fragments bound together by a cement, such as silica or calcium carbonate. It forms under both marine and terrestrial environments. Sandstone has been widely used as a building material in structures like temples, homes, and monuments due to its hardness yet ability to be carved. It is also used for grindstones, statues, and filtering pollutants from water due to its porous nature. Major deposits of sandstone can be found around the world, including in the United States, South Africa, and Europe.
Sedimentary facies are distinguished based on features like lithology, grain size, texture, sedimentary structures, fossils, and colour. These characteristics indicate the depositional environment. Facies represent sediments deposited in particular environments due to processes like wind, streams, waves, or biological activity. Depositional environments can be determined by examining sediment textures, structures, fossils, and bedding. Facies sequences reflect changes in depositional conditions over time.
This is my presentation on the tectonic control of sediments.
It includes the effects of tectonics either direct or indirect on sediments and sedimentation.
Sedimentation along various plate boundaries.
Few examples as evidence from Pakistan (the Siwalik Group) and Argentina (Fiambala Basin)
This document provides an outline for a course on sequence stratigraphy. It covers key concepts in stratigraphy including sedimentary depositional environments, facies analysis, sequence stratigraphy principles, and causes of sea level change. Common siliciclastic and carbonate stratigraphic successions are examined. The role of base level and relative sea level changes in controlling sediment accumulation and sequence boundaries is discussed.
Kutch is an East-west Oriented pericraton Rift basin Situated between Nagar Parkar Fault in North and Kathiawar Uplift in South.
Here we will discuss Geology and its Sequence Stratigraphy.
This document provides an introduction to sequence stratigraphy, which attempts to subdivide and explain sedimentary deposits in terms of variations in sediment supply and accommodation space associated with sea level changes. It defines key terms like parasequence, progradation, retrogradation, transgression, and regression. It also describes the accommodation space equation and causes of changes in sea level and tectonic subsidence. Finally, it discusses sequence stratigraphic concepts like depositional sequences, system tracts, stacking patterns, and sequence boundaries.
Komattite
Named after the Komati River in South Africa.
first described by Morris and Richard (twins) for ultramafic units in the Barberton Greenstone belt of South Africa.
Mostly of komatiite are Archean age
distributed in the Archaean shield areas.
Also a few are Proterozoic and Phanerozoic.
In all ages komatiites are highly magnesium.
Mostly a volcanic rock; occasionally intrusive.
Mafic rocks were identified as extrusive because of their volcanic textures and structures, and they seem to have been accepted as a normal component of Archean volcanic successions, Abitibi in Canada.
The ultramafic rocks were interpreted as intrusive which are founded as sills and dykes, Barberton in South Africa.
Spinifex texture-typical of Komatiites:
This document provides an overview of sedimentary rocks, including their classification and common types. It discusses how sedimentary rocks form from sediments produced by weathering and are later cemented. The document classifies sedimentary rocks into detrital rocks (formed from rock fragments), chemically formed rocks like limestone, and residual deposits like laterite and soils. Detrital rocks like sandstone and shale are the most abundant sedimentary rocks, comprising around 95% of sedimentary layers and 4% and 0.75% of the Earth's crust, respectively.
Role of Trace Elements In Petrogenesis Gokul Anand
ย
Trace elements occur in very low concentrations in rocks and provide important information about magmatic processes. They can be classified as compatible or incompatible based on whether they fit easily into mantle mineral crystal structures. Geochemical analysis of trace elements using techniques like XRF and ICP-MS allows determination of magma source and depth, identification of fractionating phases, and testing of models of magmatic differentiation. Trace elements are especially useful for rare earth elements, which indicate the type of basalt and can identify fractionating phases from REE patterns.
The document provides information about the self potential (SP) method of geophysical surveying. It discusses the background of SP surveying and its applications in mineral exploration, groundwater mapping, and engineering. It describes the various types of potentials that can generate SP anomalies, including electrokinetic, diffusion, Nernst, mineral, and electrochemical potentials. The document outlines how SP is measured in the field using fixed-base and gradient methods. It also discusses interpreting SP data qualitatively based on anomaly shape, amplitude, and polarity and quantitatively by modeling anomaly sources as simple geometric shapes.
The document describes a petrographic study of rocks in the Vallanadu area of Tamil Nadu, India. It finds that the main rock types in the area are charnockites, khondalites, cordierite gneisses, calc-silicate rocks, and grey and pink granites. Two sets of conjugate shear systems are observed, including a NW-SE dextral shear zone conjugating with a NE-SW sinistral zone. Granites in the area formed syntectonically. The Vallanadu area experienced initial ductile deformation followed by brittle-ductile deformation during the Neoproterozoic to Cambrian period.
The document summarizes several classification schemes for sandstone, focusing on the ternary QFL scheme that divides sandstones based on their quartz, feldspar, and lithic fragment composition as determined through point counting of thin sections. The document also describes various sandstone compositions including quartz arenite, feldspathic arenite/wacke, lithic wacke, and others; and discusses framework grains, matrix, cement, porosity, and the influence of provenance on sandstone composition.
This document discusses hydrothermal fluids and hydrothermal ore deposits. It begins by describing the different types of fluids found in the Earth's crust, including sea water, meteoric water, connate water, metamorphic water, and mixtures. For hydrothermal deposits to form, these fluids need to circulate through the crust to dissolve and transport metals. Common hydrothermal deposit types include veins and cavity fillings. Veins can be fissure, ladder, or gash veins and cavity fillings include saddle reefs. Metal solubility in hydrothermal fluids is controlled by factors like temperature, pH, and ligand complexes. Precipitation occurs when solubility decreases, such as due to changes in fluid composition or physical properties like
This document provides an overview of sedimentary rocks and the process of diagenesis. It discusses how sediments are deposited and buried over time, undergoing physical and chemical changes through compaction, cementation, and other diagenetic processes. These changes occur due to increasing pressure and temperature with depth and alter the sediments' properties, converting them into consolidated sedimentary rocks. The document also examines factors that control diagenesis like composition, porosity, and permeability, and it outlines the major diagenetic processes and their effects on the physical, mineralogical, and chemical characteristics of sediments.
The document discusses lead and zinc deposits found in India. It describes the chief ores of lead (galena, cerussite, anglesite) and zinc (sphalerite, smithsonite). It then discusses several major lead-zinc deposits in India, including Rampura-Agucha and Zawar belts, characterized by stratabound sedimentary hosted deposits. Other deposits mentioned include Sargipalli and Mamandur, which also feature sedimentary hosted lead-zinc mineralization. The document provides details on the geology, mineralization, and genesis of these important deposits.
"Granites" Classification, Petrogenesis and Tectonic DescriminationSamir Kumar Barik
ย
This document discusses the classification, petrogenesis, and tectonic discrimination of granites. It begins with definitions of granite and descriptions of its typical mineralogical and textural characteristics. It then outlines several common classification schemes for granites based on mineralogy, chemistry, and tectonic setting. These include QAPF, alumina saturation, S-I-A-M, and discriminations based on plate tectonic setting. The document also discusses models for the petrogenesis of granites involving magmatic differentiation and metasomatic processes. Geochemical discrimination diagrams are presented and the multiple possible origins of granites are noted. Future work on the geochemistry and uranium mineralization of granites in specific
1. The document discusses ore textures and paragenetic sequences, beginning with definitions and requirements for studying ore textures.
2. It describes various ore textures including single grain textures, magmatic ore textures, open space filling textures, and replacement textures.
3. The document concludes with a discussion on developing paragenetic sequences by analyzing features like cross-cutting relationships and exsolution textures.
The document discusses anorthosite, an intrusive igneous rock composed of 90-100% plagioclase feldspar. It describes the mineralogy, texture, and classification of anorthosite. Proteroic anorthosite formed during the Proterozoic era while Archean anorthosite formed during the Archean and are characterized by calcic plagioclase. Anorthosite is also found on the moon and classified as lunar anorthosite. Some anorthosite deposits are mined for titanium, iron, gemstones, and aluminum.
Biogeochemical anomalies occur where vegetation contains abnormally high concentrations of metals. Different plant species take up different amounts of inorganic materials from the soil based on factors like their root depth and water source. Plants with deep roots directly over an ore deposit can show biogeochemical anomalies from taking up mobile elements in soil solutions. Biogeochemical surveys first determine the optimal plant species, plant part, and elements to sample through an orientation survey. They then involve systematically collecting and analyzing plant samples according to a grid or vegetation distribution to identify anomalies.
Dott's classification scheme for sandstones is based on the relative proportions of matrix, quartz, feldspar, and rock fragments. Point counting under a microscope is used to determine the composition by identifying materials beneath cross hairs. Sandstones with 5-15% clay matrix are called arenites and can be further classified as arkose, litharenite, or other based on quartz, feldspar, and lithic percentages. Rocks with 15-75% clay matrix are called wackes and those over 75% are mudstones. This classification provides a consistent terminology for describing sandstone compositions.
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed of sand-sized grains of minerals and rock fragments bound together by a cement, such as silica or calcium carbonate. It forms under both marine and terrestrial environments. Sandstone has been widely used as a building material in structures like temples, homes, and monuments due to its hardness yet ability to be carved. It is also used for grindstones, statues, and filtering pollutants from water due to its porous nature. Major deposits of sandstone can be found around the world, including in the United States, South Africa, and Europe.
Geological criteria for ore prospecting.pptxMasroor4
ย
This document discusses various geological criteria that can be used for mineral prospecting, including stratigraphic, lithological, structural, magmatogenic, and geomorphological criteria. Stratigraphic criteria involve examining rock formations and horizons where desired mineral resources are known to occur. Lithological criteria consider the composition of wall rocks and surrounding sediments. Structural criteria analyze rock structures and faults that may have channeled mineral-bearing fluids. Magmatogenic criteria focus on the lithology of rocks intruded by mineral-bearing magma. Geomorphological criteria examine landforms like river beds that can concentrate minerals. Understanding these criteria can help delimit areas for more efficient mineral exploration.
This document provides information on classifying clastic sedimentary rocks based on their grain size and composition. It discusses classifying rocks as arenites, wackes, or mudstones based on their proportion of matrix. Further classification of arenites and graywackes is done by point counting to determine the proportion of quartz, feldspar, and rock fragments. This allows plotting the data on a ternary diagram to classify the rock. The composition and grain size of sedimentary rocks provides information on their maturity and provenance.
This document discusses various approaches to classifying igneous rocks. It describes classifications based on fabric (grain size, presence of glass), field relations (intrusive vs extrusive), mineralogical and modal compositions, and the 1973 IUGS modal classification system. It also addresses issues with using rock analyses to determine original magma compositions, noting that degassing can cause the volatile content of erupted rocks to be lower than the magma. Analyzing volatile content in melt inclusions in phenocrysts is presented as a way to determine a rock's pre-eruption magmatic volatile contents more accurately.
The document summarizes the geology of the Lambeth Group in the London Basin based on borehole data.
The environment of deposition was a barrier island lagoon or bar-built estuaries based on evidence of burrows, shells, and plant roots indicating alternating marine and terrestrial conditions.
The rock types change from east to west, with the westernmost borehole containing structureless sandstone and mudstone deposited by a river, becoming more marine and structured to the east where shells and burrows indicate a lagoon/estuary environment, and the easternmost boreholes containing coastal beach deposits.
Potential reservoir sandstones exist but are not sufficiently thick, with the thickest being only 7m
Mantle melting occurs when heat and pressure cause partial melting of the mantle, producing basaltic magma. Basalt is the most common volcanic rock on Earth and can be further differentiated to form other igneous rock types. Evidence for the composition and processes of the mantle comes from ophiolites, dredged samples from ocean floors, nodules contained in basalts, and xenoliths brought up from deep in the mantle via kimberlite eruptions. Together this evidence indicates that the upper mantle is composed predominantly of the minerals olivine, orthopyroxene, and clinopyroxene which make up the rocks dunite, harzburgite, and lherzol
The document discusses different types of igneous rocks and their characteristics. It describes how igneous rocks form from the cooling of magma and lava and are classified as intrusive or extrusive. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly below the Earth's surface, forming textures like phaneritic, while extrusive rocks cool rapidly above ground, resulting in aphanitic or glassy textures. The document outlines various igneous rock textures and features like vesicles, phenocrysts and pyroclastic materials.
Igneous rocks form when magma cools and solidifies either underground or on the Earth's surface. They occur in various forms such as lava flows, domes, and intrusive bodies. Igneous rocks are classified based on their mineralogy, texture, and chemical composition. Mineralogical classification divides rocks into felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic groups based on their mineral content. Textural classification considers features like crystal size. Chemical plots involving elements like silica and alkalis are also used in classification.
This document provides an overview of the classification of igneous rocks. It discusses several key criteria used for classification, including texture, mode of occurrence (intrusive vs extrusive), and chemical composition based on silica and alumina content. Texture types include phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, glassy, and pyroclastic. Mode of occurrence divides rocks into plutonic (intrusive) and volcanic (extrusive) types. Chemical classification schemes analyze silica content to categorize rocks as felsic, intermediate, or mafic, and also consider silica and alumina saturation states. Diagrams are provided illustrating these classification approaches. Examples of different rock types are also briefly described,
This document provides a classification of metamorphic rocks based on their texture and composition. It discusses foliated metamorphic rocks such as slate, phyllite, schist and gneiss which are classified according to their cleavage, schistosity or gneissose structure. Non-foliated rocks include granofels and hornfels. Specific metamorphic rock types described include marble, quartzite, greenschist, amphibolite, serpentinite and eclogite. Additional modifiers note porphyroblastic textures or augen structure. High strain rocks formed in shear zones are also discussed.
Sediment and sedimentary rocksssssssssssssssssssssss begin hereDr Robert Craig PhD
ย
This document provides an overview of sedimentary rocks and the processes involved in their formation. It discusses the four main types of sedimentary rocks: clastic, chemical, biochemical, and organic. For clastic sedimentary rocks specifically, it outlines the five stages of formation - weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, and lithification. It also describes common sedimentary structures like stratification, cross-bedding and ripple marks that provide clues about depositional environments. Finally, it lists some examples of terrestrial and marine sedimentary environments.
Clastic sedimentary rocks are classified based on grain size into conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, shale and mudstone.
Conglomerates contain rounded gravel size clasts (>2mm) in a finer matrix. They form from erosion of other rocks. Sandstones contain quartz and feldspar grains between 0.06-2mm. Shales and mudstones have the finest grains (<0.06mm) composed of clay minerals and quartz silt. Shales are fissile while mudstones are non-fissile. Clastic rocks form from weathering and erosion of older rocks transported by rivers, glaciers, wind or ocean currents.
The document summarizes key information about shales, argillite, and siltstone. It discusses the rock cycle and how these sedimentary rocks form. Shales form through compaction of fine particles in slow-moving water. Their composition includes clay minerals, quartz, and feldspar. Shales exhibit fissility and laminations. Argillite is a metamorphosed shale or siltstone with increased induration. Siltstone contains silt-sized particles cemented together. These mudrocks are economically important raw materials.
Basalt is a common volcanic rock that forms from the rapid cooling of lava at or near the Earth's surface. It is dark in color and composed mainly of plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene. Basalt commonly occurs as lava flows and covers much of the ocean floor. Large volcanic eruptions of basalt form extensive lava flows called flood basalts, such as the Deccan Traps in India. Basalt weathers to a brown or rust color due to oxidation of iron-rich minerals.
1) Ore deposits can form from the crystallization of magma in magma chambers (magmatic segregation deposits). Some major examples include deposits associated with layered igneous intrusions like the Bushveld Complex in South Africa, the Great Dyke of Zimbabwe, and the Sudbury Igneous Complex in Canada.
2) Skarn deposits form at the contact between intrusive igneous rocks and carbonate country rocks, where the carbonates are metamorphosed into marble, hornfels, and skarn minerals. Skarn deposits are a source for metals like copper, iron, tungsten, lead, and zinc.
3) Porphyry deposits are associated with porphy
This document discusses different textures in igneous rocks that are determined by cooling rates. Rapid cooling of lava at the surface results in fine-grained extrusive rocks like obsidian, while slower cooling of magma underground forms larger crystals in intrusive rocks like granites. Specific textures include aphanitic, porphyritic, vesicular, glassy, and phaneritic. Pegmatites have exceptionally large crystals due to late-stage concentration of volatiles in the magma.
The document discusses different types of rocks:
1) Gneissic rock is a common type of metamorphic rock that forms from heat and pressure. It has a banded appearance due to light and dark minerals.
2) Quartz is a very hard metamorphic rock that forms from sandstone under high heat and pressure. It has a non-foliated texture of fused quartz grains.
3) Sandstone is a common sedimentary rock formed from compressed grains of sand. It accounts for 20% of sedimentary rocks and records clues about the environment in which it was formed.
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
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(๐๐๐ ๐๐๐) (๐๐๐ฌ๐ฌ๐จ๐ง ๐)-๐๐ซ๐๐ฅ๐ข๐ฆ๐ฌ
๐๐ข๐ฌ๐๐ฎ๐ฌ๐ฌ ๐ญ๐ก๐ ๐๐๐ ๐๐ฎ๐ซ๐ซ๐ข๐๐ฎ๐ฅ๐ฎ๐ฆ ๐ข๐ง ๐ญ๐ก๐ ๐๐ก๐ข๐ฅ๐ข๐ฉ๐ฉ๐ข๐ง๐๐ฌ:
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๐๐ฑ๐ฉ๐ฅ๐๐ข๐ง ๐ญ๐ก๐ ๐๐๐ญ๐ฎ๐ซ๐ ๐๐ง๐ ๐๐๐จ๐ฉ๐ ๐จ๐ ๐๐ง ๐๐ง๐ญ๐ซ๐๐ฉ๐ซ๐๐ง๐๐ฎ๐ซ:
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2. Classification of limestone and sandstone
Sandstone.
Sandstones make up 20-25 percent of all
sedimentary rocks. They are common rocks in
geologic systems of all ages, and they are
distributed throughout the continents of Earth.
Sandstones consist mainly of silicate grains
ranging in size from 1/16 to 2 mm. These particles
make up the framework fraction of the sandstones.
Sandstones may also contain various amounts of
cement and very fine size ( < -0.03 mm) material
called matrix, which are present within interstitial
pore space among the framework grains. Because
of their coarse size ,the framework milleralogy of
sandstones can generally be determined with
reasonable accuracy with a standard petrographic
microscope or by backscattered electron
microscopy .Bulk chemical composition can be
measured by instrumental techniques such as X-
3. ray fluorescence and inductively coupled argon
plasma emission spectrometry . The chemistry of
individual mineral grains is commonly determined
by use of an electron probe microanalyzer or an
energy dispersive X-ray detector attached to a
scanning electron microscope. In this section, we
discuss the classification of sandstones on the
basis of mineral composition, and evaluate the
usefulness of particle and chemical composition in
interpreting the genesis of sandstones.
Descriptive classification of sandstones is based
fundamentally on framework mineralogy, although
the relative abundance of matrix plays a role in
some classifications. Although mineralogy is the
principal basis for classifying sandstones, finding a
classification that is suitable for all types of
sandstones and acceptable to most geologists has
proven to be an elusive goaL In fact, more than
fifty different classifications for sandstones have
been proposed (Friedman and Sanders, 1978), but
none has received widespread acceptance.
Classifications that are all-inclusive tend to be too
complicated and unwieldy for general use Most
sandstones are made up of mixtures of a very
small number of dominant framework components.
Quartz, feldspars, and rock fragments such as
chert and volcanic clasts are the only framework
constituents that are commonly abundant enough
to be important in sandstone classification. In
4. addition to framework grains, matrix may be
present in interstitial spaces among these grains.
In spite of the very simple composition of
sandstones, geologists have not been able to
agree on a single, acceptable sandstone
classification. Published classifications range from
those that have a strong genetic orientation to
those based strictly on observable, descriptive
properties of sandstones. sandstones that are
effectively free of matrix ( <5 percent) are
classified as quartz arenites, feldspathic arenites,
or lithic arenites depending upon the relative
abundance of QFL constituents. If matrix can be
recognized (at least 5 percent), the terms quartz
wacke, feldspathic wacke, and lithic wacke are
used instead .
General Characteristics of Major Classes of
Sandstones The preceding discussion indicates
that sandstones can be divided on the basis of
framework mineralogy into three major groups:
quartz arenites, feldspathic arenites, and lithic
arenites
Quartz Arenites Quartz arenites are composed of
more than 90 percent siliceous grains that may
include quartz, chert, and quartzose rock
fragments .They are commonly white or light gray
but may be stained red, pink, yellow, or brown by
iron oxides. They are generally well lithified and
well cemented with silica or carbonate cement;
5. however, some are porous and friable. Quartz
arenites typically occur in association with
assemblages of rocks deposited in stable cratonic
environments such as eolian, beach, and shelf
environments. Thus, they tend to be interbedded
with shallow-water carbonates and, in some
cases, with feldspathic sandstones. Most quartz
arenites are texturally mature to supermature ,
quartz wackes are uncommon. Cross-bedding is
particularly characteristic of these sandstones, and
ripple marks are moderately common. Fossils are
rarely abundant, possibly owing to poor
preservation or to the eolian origin of some quartz
arenites, but fossils may be present. Also, trace
fossils such as burrows of the Skolithos facies may
be locally abundant in some shallow-marine quartz
arenites. Quartz arenites are common in the
geologic record. Pettijohn estimates that they
make up about one-third of all sandstones. Quartz
arenites can originate as first-cycle deposits
derived from primary crystalline or metamorphic
rocks.
Feldspathic Arenites Feldspathic arenites contain
less than 90 percent quartz, more feldspar than
unstable rock fragments, and minor amounts of
other minerals such as micas and heavy minerals.
Some feldspathic arenites are colored pink or red
because of the presence of potassium feldspars or
iron oxides; others are light gray to white. They are
6. typically medium to coarse grained and may
contain high percentages of subangular to angular
grains. Matrix content may range from trace
amounts to more than 15 percent, and sorting of
framework grains can range from moderately well
sorted to poorly sorted. Thus, feldspathic
sandstones are commonly texturally immature or
submature. Feldspathic arenites are not
characterized by any particular kinds of
sedimentary structures. Bedding may range from
essentially structureless to parallel laminated or
cross laminated. Fossils may be present,
especially in marine beds. Feldspathic arenites
typically occur in cratonic or stable shelf settings,
where they may be associatedwith
conglomerates, shallow-water quartz arenites or
lithic arenites, carbonate rocks, or evaporites. Less
typically, they occur in sedimentary successions
that were deposited in unstable basins or other
deeper water, mobilebelt settings. Feldspathic
arenites of the latter types, which are commonly
matrix rich and well indurated owing to deep burial,
are often called feldspathic graywackes. The
abundance of feldspathic arenites in the geologic
record is not well established. Pettijohn (1963)
estimates that arkoses make up about 15 percent
of all sandstones. If feldspathic graywackes are
included, feldspathic arenites are probably more
abundant than 15 percent. Some arkoses originate
essentially in situ when granite and related rocks
7. disintegrate to produce a granular sediment called
grus. These residual arkosic materials may be
shifted a short distance downslope and deposited
as fans or aprons of waste material, commonly
referred to as clastic wedges. These fans may
extend into basins and become intercalated or
interbedded with better stratified and better sorted
sediments. Other feldspathic arenites undergo
considerable transport and reworking by rivers or
the sea before they are deposited. These
reworked sandstones commonly contain less
feldspar than do residual arkoses, and they are
better sorted and grains are better rounded. Most
feldspathic sandstones are derived from granitic-
type primary crystalline rocks, such as coarse
granite or metasomatic rocks containing abundant
potassium feldspar. Feldspathic arenites
containing feldspars that are dominantly
plagioclase, derived from igneous rocks such as
quartz diorites or from volcanic rocks, are also
known. The preservation of large quantities of
feldspars during weathering appears to require
that feldspathic arenites originate either in very
cold or very arid climates, where chemical
weathering processes are inhibited, in warmer,
more humid climates where marked relief of local
uplifts allows rapid erosion of feldspars before they
can be decomposed. Although some feldspars
may survive recycling from a sedimentary source,
it appears unlikely that sedimentary source rocks
8. can furnish enough feldspar to produce a
feldspathic arenite or arkose. Feldspathic arenites
occur in sedimentary successions of all ages,
although they appear to be particularly abundant in
Mesozoic and Paleozoic strata. Some common
examples include the Old Red Sandstone in
Scotland, the Triassic Newark Group in the New
Jersey area, the Pennsylvanian Fountain and
Lyons formations of the Colorado Front Range,
and the Paleocene Swauk Formation of
Washington. The Swauk Formation is particularly
interesting because it is a plagioclase arkose.
Lithic Arenites Lithic arenites are an extremely
diverse group of rocks that are characterized by
generally high content of unstable rock fragments
such as volcanic and metamorphic
CONGLOMERATES
The term 'Conglomerates is used in this book as a
general class name for sedimentary rocks that
contain a substantial fraction (at least 30 percent)
of gravel-size (>2 mm) particles which are
composed of very angular, gravel-size fragments,
are not distinguished from conglomerates in the
succeeding discussion. Conglomerates are
common in stratigraphic successions of all ages
but probably make up less than l percent by weight
9. of the total sedimentary rock mass . They are
closely related to sandstones in terms of origin and
depositional mechanisms, and they contain some
of the same kinds of sedimentary
Particle Composition Conglomerates. may contain
gravel-size pieces of individual minerals such as
quartz; however, most of the gravel-size
framework grains are rock fragments (clasts).
Individual sand- or mud-size mineral grains are
commonly present as Clast-supported
conglomerate underlying laminated sands. Any
kind of igneous, metamorphic, or sedimentary rock
may be present in a conglomerate, depending
upon source rocks and depositional conditions.
Some conglomerates are composed of only the
most stable and durable kinds of clasts (quartzite,
chert, vein-quartz). Stable conglomerates
composed mainly of a single clast type are
referred to by Pettijohn (1975) as oligomict
conglomerates. Most oligomict conglomerates
were probably derived from mixed parent-rock
sources that included less stable rock types.
Continued recycling of mixed ultrastable and
unstable clasts through several generations of
conglomerates ultimately led to selective
destruction of the less stable clasts and
concentration of stable clasts. Conglomerates that
contain an assortment of many kinds of clasts are
polymict conglomerates. Polymict conglomerates
10. that are made up of a mixture of largely unstable
or metastable clasts such as basalt, limestone,
shale, and metamorphic phyllite are commonly
called petromict conglomerates (Pettijohn, 1975).
Almost any combination of these clast types is
possible in a petromict conglomerate. The matrix
of conglomerates commonly consists of various
kinds of clay minerals and fine micas and/ or silt-
or sand-size quartz, feldspars, rock fragments, and
heavy minerals. The matrix may be cemented with
quartz, calcite, hematite, clay, or other cements.
Classification Conglomerates can originate by
several processes, We are interested most in
epiclastic conglomerates, which form by
breakdown of older rocks through the processes of
weathering and erosion. Epiclastic conglomerates
that are so rich in gravel-size framework grains
that the gravel-size grains touch lfundamental
types
Major types -Epiclastic conglomerate and breccia
,Volcanic breccia ,Cataclastic breccia ,Solution
breccia,Meteorite impact breccia .
Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of
skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral,
forams and molluscs. Its major materials are the
minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different
crystal forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).calcite is
11. one the mineral and its crystal system is rhombohedral
and aragonite crystal system is orthorhombic.Most
limestones are simply the cemented remains of marine
shells.lime stone anatmy is grains
skeletal particals,ooids
15. Inorganically precipitated CaCO3 crystals and where do
the limestone from Because CaCO3 precipitates most
readily in warm, well lit, agitated water of normal
marine salinityโฆ..mostlimestones form in shallow,
tropical depositionalenvironment
e.g Bahamas, central America, Persian Gulf, NW
shelf of Australia, Great Barrier Reef, Malaysia,
Indonesia, whole rock *Crushed limestone
* Dolomitic limestone
Burned lime (calcium oxide) *High calcium lime
*Dolomitic lime
16. Hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide) manufactured
of limestone; quicklime and slaked lime are all
used to neutralise excess acidity - which may
be caused by acid rain - in lakes and in
soils. Limestone is used as a building
material, and to purify iron in blast furnaces.
It's also used in the manufacture of glass, and
of cement (one of the components of
concrete). The texture of the limestone is a
sedimentary rock composed mainly of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3), usually calcite,
sometimes aragonite. It may also contain
considerable amounts of magnesium
carbonate (dolomite, (CaMg)(CO3)2).
Most limestones have a granulartexture,
but limestone can also be massive, crystalline
or clastic.
Varieties of Limestone here are many different
names used for limestone. These names are
based upon how the rock formed, its appearance
or its composition, and other factors. Here are
some of the more commonly used varieties.
Chalk: A soft limestone with a very fine texture
that is usually white or light gray in color. It is
formed mainly from the calcareous shell remains
of microscopic marine organisms such as
17. foraminifers, or the calcareous remains from
numerous types of marine algae.
Coquina: A poorly-cemented limestone that is
composed mainly of broken shell debris. It often
forms on beaches where wave action segregates
shell fragments of similar size.
Fossiliferous Limestone: A limestone that
contains obvious and abundant fossils. These are
normally shell and skeletal fossils of the organisms
that produced the limestone.
Lithographic Limestone: A dense limestone with
a very fine and very uniform grain size that occurs
in thin beds which separate easily to form a very
smooth surface. In the late 1700s, a printing
process (lithography) was developed to reproduce
images by drawing them on the stone with an oil-
based ink and then using that stone to press
multiple copies of the image.
Oolitic Limestone: A limestone composed mainly
of calcium carbonate "oolites," small spheres
formed by the concentric precipitationof calcium
carbonate on a sand grain or shell fragment.
Travertine: A limestone that forms by evaporative
precipitation, often in a cave, to produce
formations such as stalactites, stalagmites, and
18. flowstone.
Tufa: A limestone produced by precipitation of
calcium-laden waters at a hot spring, lake shore,
or other location
Uses of Limestone is a rock with an
enormous diversity of uses. It could be the one
rock that is used in more ways than any other.
Most limestone is made into crushed stone and
used as a construction material. It is used as a
crushed stone for road base and railroad ballast. It
is used as an aggregate in concrete. It is fired in a
kiln with crushed shale to make cement.Some
varieties of limestone perform well in these uses
because they are strong, dense rocks with few
pore spaces. These properties enable them to
stand up well to abrasion and freeze-thaw.
Although limestone does not perform as well in
these uses as some of the harder silicate rocks, it
is much easier to mine and does not exert the
same level of wear on mining equipment,
crushers, screens, and the beds of the vehicles
that transport it.