The document discusses different types of igneous rocks and their characteristics. It describes how igneous rocks form from the cooling of magma and lava and are classified as intrusive or extrusive. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly below the Earth's surface, forming textures like phaneritic, while extrusive rocks cool rapidly above ground, resulting in aphanitic or glassy textures. The document outlines various igneous rock textures and features like vesicles, phenocrysts and pyroclastic materials.
This document provides information about igneous rocks, including their classification, textures, and mineral compositions. It discusses how igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of magma and can be classified as intrusive or extrusive depending on where they solidify. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly below the Earth's surface, resulting in large crystal sizes, while extrusive rocks cool rapidly after erupting, producing small crystals. The document also examines different igneous rock textures that provide information about cooling rates, and explains how mineral compositions are determined by Bowen's Reaction Series during crystallization.
This document discusses different types of intrusive igneous rocks based on their form and texture. It describes various forms such as dykes, sills, laccoliths, batholiths etc. based on their geometry and relationship to surrounding rocks. It also explains textures of igneous rocks based on grain size, crystallinity and crystal shape. Phaneric and aphanitic textures related to slow and fast cooling of magma respectively are discussed along with porphyritic texture showing mixture of large and small grains.
This document discusses different types of rocks and how they form. It describes the three major rock types as igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, metamorphic rocks form from heat and pressure changing other rocks, and sedimentary rocks form from sediments. The document then discusses the rock cycle, how rocks are transformed between types through geological processes. It provides details on the formation of different igneous rock textures based on cooling rates and crystal sizes. Various igneous rock classifications including their mineralogy and chemistry are also summarized.
It is all about igneous rock. Its description, classification, texture and others are included which is very important for studying Geology and Petrology. It is the overall concept of Igneous Rock.
Nature of Igneous Rocks, Magma, Lava, Textures, Types classification,compositions,Bowen’s Reaction Series, characteristics of magma, Origin of Magmas, Evolution of Magma, Magma Differentiation,Partial Melting,Fractional Crystallization, Plate Tectonic Setting of Igneous Rocks
Igneous rock, Engineering Geology, Semester IV GTUketgold
This document provides information on igneous rocks, including their classification. It discusses igneous rocks being divided into plutonic (coarse-grained intrusive), volcanic (extrusive), and hypabyssal rocks based on cooling conditions. Classification is also based on mineralogy and chemistry, notably the silica content, which divides rocks into felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic compositions. Textural properties like grain size, mineral proportions, and cooling structures are also used to identify and categorize different igneous rock types. Common examples of each rock class are provided.
This document discusses different types of igneous rocks. It begins by explaining that igneous rocks form from lava or magma and can be extrusive or intrusive. Extrusive rocks form from lava at the surface, while intrusive rocks form from magma underground. Intrusive rocks can take various forms depending on factors like the viscosity of the magma and the structure of the surrounding rock layers. Common intrusive rock forms include dykes, sills, laccoliths, lopoliths, and batholiths. Extrusive rocks include lava flows. The document provides detailed descriptions of these different igneous rock types and their characteristic features.
Igneous rock textures are controlled by cooling rate, with rapid cooling resulting in smaller crystals and slower cooling allowing larger crystals to form. Textures provide information about cooling/crystallization rates and phase relations during crystallization. Textures describe grain features like size, shape, orientation, and boundaries, seen in hand samples or microscopically. Common textures include phaneritic (with evident crystals), porphyritic (with larger phenocrysts in fine-grained groundmass), and graphic (with exsolved minerals forming angular shapes). Compositionally zoned crystals also occur.
This document provides information about igneous rocks, including their classification, textures, and mineral compositions. It discusses how igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of magma and can be classified as intrusive or extrusive depending on where they solidify. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly below the Earth's surface, resulting in large crystal sizes, while extrusive rocks cool rapidly after erupting, producing small crystals. The document also examines different igneous rock textures that provide information about cooling rates, and explains how mineral compositions are determined by Bowen's Reaction Series during crystallization.
This document discusses different types of intrusive igneous rocks based on their form and texture. It describes various forms such as dykes, sills, laccoliths, batholiths etc. based on their geometry and relationship to surrounding rocks. It also explains textures of igneous rocks based on grain size, crystallinity and crystal shape. Phaneric and aphanitic textures related to slow and fast cooling of magma respectively are discussed along with porphyritic texture showing mixture of large and small grains.
This document discusses different types of rocks and how they form. It describes the three major rock types as igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, metamorphic rocks form from heat and pressure changing other rocks, and sedimentary rocks form from sediments. The document then discusses the rock cycle, how rocks are transformed between types through geological processes. It provides details on the formation of different igneous rock textures based on cooling rates and crystal sizes. Various igneous rock classifications including their mineralogy and chemistry are also summarized.
It is all about igneous rock. Its description, classification, texture and others are included which is very important for studying Geology and Petrology. It is the overall concept of Igneous Rock.
Nature of Igneous Rocks, Magma, Lava, Textures, Types classification,compositions,Bowen’s Reaction Series, characteristics of magma, Origin of Magmas, Evolution of Magma, Magma Differentiation,Partial Melting,Fractional Crystallization, Plate Tectonic Setting of Igneous Rocks
Igneous rock, Engineering Geology, Semester IV GTUketgold
This document provides information on igneous rocks, including their classification. It discusses igneous rocks being divided into plutonic (coarse-grained intrusive), volcanic (extrusive), and hypabyssal rocks based on cooling conditions. Classification is also based on mineralogy and chemistry, notably the silica content, which divides rocks into felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic compositions. Textural properties like grain size, mineral proportions, and cooling structures are also used to identify and categorize different igneous rock types. Common examples of each rock class are provided.
This document discusses different types of igneous rocks. It begins by explaining that igneous rocks form from lava or magma and can be extrusive or intrusive. Extrusive rocks form from lava at the surface, while intrusive rocks form from magma underground. Intrusive rocks can take various forms depending on factors like the viscosity of the magma and the structure of the surrounding rock layers. Common intrusive rock forms include dykes, sills, laccoliths, lopoliths, and batholiths. Extrusive rocks include lava flows. The document provides detailed descriptions of these different igneous rock types and their characteristic features.
Igneous rock textures are controlled by cooling rate, with rapid cooling resulting in smaller crystals and slower cooling allowing larger crystals to form. Textures provide information about cooling/crystallization rates and phase relations during crystallization. Textures describe grain features like size, shape, orientation, and boundaries, seen in hand samples or microscopically. Common textures include phaneritic (with evident crystals), porphyritic (with larger phenocrysts in fine-grained groundmass), and graphic (with exsolved minerals forming angular shapes). Compositionally zoned crystals also occur.
Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks through the process of metamorphism. Metamorphism involves changes to a rock's mineralogy, texture, and sometimes chemical composition due to changes in temperature, pressure, and exposure to chemically active fluids. The degree of metamorphism can range from slight changes resulting in low-grade metamorphic rocks like slate to more substantial changes producing high-grade metamorphic rocks. Common agents driving metamorphism include heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids.
Metamorphic rocks are formed from existing rocks through heat and pressure within the Earth. This process, called metamorphism, changes the hardness, texture, and layering of the original rocks. There are different types of metamorphism that result in various metamorphic rock formations. Metamorphic rocks exhibit features like foliation, lineation, and different textures depending on the grade of metamorphism experienced. Common metamorphic rocks include slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss, quartzite, and marble.
This document discusses metamorphic textures, which refer to the physical appearance or arrangement of minerals in metamorphic rocks at the microscopic level. There are several types of textures that can form during metamorphism due to factors like heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids. Typomorphic textures are characteristic of metamorphism and include porphyroblastic, mortar, and granoblastic textures. Relict textures are inherited from the original rock, such as ophitic or porphyritic textures. Reaction textures involve chemical reactions between minerals, forming textures like coronas or reaction rims. The document provides examples of different textures and concludes that textures provide information about the metamorphic conditions and original rock type.
This document describes different types of intrusive igneous rocks based on their shape and relationship to existing bedrock structures. It defines dykes as vertically intruded bodies that cut across bedding planes in a discordant manner. Sills are described as intrusions that spread parallel to bedding plans in a concordant way. Laccoliths and lopoliths are both concordant bodies of differing dome or basin shapes that intrude between layers of existing rock.
This document discusses igneous rock textures. It explains that texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock. Cooling rate controls igneous rock texture, with rapid cooling resulting in fine-grained textures and slow cooling producing coarse-grained rocks. Extrusive igneous rocks like lava have fine-grained textures due to rapid surface cooling, while intrusive plutonic rocks exhibit a variety of coarse-grained textures due to slower cooling underground. Examples of different igneous rock textures are described, including aphanitic, porphyritic, vesicular, glassy, phaneritic, and pegmatitic.
The document provides information about sedimentary rocks, including their formation, classification, characteristics, and types. It discusses how sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments. It classifies sedimentary rocks based on the nature of sediments (mechanically, chemically, or organically formed) and transporting agents (aqueous, aeolian, glacial). It provides details on specific sedimentary rock types like sandstones, conglomerates, limestone, and their properties. The document also covers concepts like bedding, stratification, unconformities in sedimentary rocks.
This document summarizes how rocks are classified based on their formation. There are three main classes of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Within each class, rocks can be further classified based on their composition, texture, and grain size. Igneous rocks form from cooled lava or magma, and can be intrusive or extrusive based on where they solidify underground or above ground, affecting their grain size. Sedimentary rocks form from cemented sediments like grains, shells, and fossils. Metamorphic rocks have foliated or non-foliated textures indicating the process that altered the original rock.
Basalt is a common volcanic rock formed from rapidly cooled lava. It most often occurs in lava flows due to its low volatile content. Basalt is composed mainly of plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene. There are three main types - tholeiitic, alkaline, and transitional - which differ in their mineral composition and origin. The massive Deccan Traps basalt deposits in India were formed from volcanic eruptions associated with the Réunion hotspot around 65 million years ago.
Sedimentary rocks form from the compaction and cementation of sediments. There are three main types: detrital (clastic) rocks that form from lithified rock fragments and minerals, chemical rocks that precipitate directly from solution, and organic rocks that accumulate from biological debris. Sedimentary rocks provide clues about past environments and climates based on their composition, structures like cross-bedding and ripples, and any fossil content. Important resources like coal and oil are also found within sedimentary basins.
Petrology is the study of rocks and their composition, texture, and structure. There are three main types of rocks: igneous rocks, which form from cooling magma; metamorphic rocks, which form from existing rocks undergoing changes due to heat, pressure, and chemical reactions; and sedimentary rocks, which form from the compaction and cementation of sediments. Igneous rocks can be categorized as extrusive or intrusive, depending on where they solidify. Common igneous rocks include granite, basalt, and syenite. Sedimentary rocks form through the weathering of existing rocks and the deposition and lithification of sediments. Texture, minerals, and formation processes help classify and identify different
The document discusses the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. It provides details on how each type forms, including that igneous rocks form from cooling magma either underground resulting in large crystals or above ground resulting in small crystals. Sedimentary rocks form from compression or precipitation of minerals at the Earth's surface. Metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks via heat, pressure, and fluids.
IGNEOUS ROCKS AND THEIR PROPERTIES, USES AND DIFFERENT VARITIES OF VOLCANIC INTRUSIONS , MEGASCOPIC PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS IGNEOUS ROCKS
PROPERTIES AND USES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
CHARECTERSTICS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS WITH FIGURES
Petrology is the study of rocks and the conditions in which they form. There are three main branches corresponding to the three rock types - igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. Igneous rocks form from solidification of magma or lava, and can be intrusive (plutonic) or extrusive (volcanic). Classification is based on mineralogy, texture, and chemical composition.
This PowerPoint is one small part of the Geology Topics unit from www.sciencepowerpoint.com. This unit consists of a five part 6000+ slide PowerPoint roadmap, 14 page bundled homework package, modified homework, detailed answer keys, 12 pages of unit notes for students who may require assistance, follow along worksheets, and many review games. The homework and lesson notes chronologically follow the PowerPoint slideshow. The answer keys and unit notes are great for support professionals. The activities and discussion questions in the slideshow are meaningful. The PowerPoint includes built-in instructions, visuals, and review questions. Also included are critical class notes (color coded red), project ideas, video links, and review games. This unit also includes four PowerPoint review games (110+ slides each with Answers), 38+ video links, lab handouts, activity sheets, rubrics, materials list, templates, guides, 6 PowerPoint review Game, and much more. Also included is a 190 slide first day of school PowerPoint presentation.
Areas of Focus within The Geology Topics Unit: -Plate Tectonics, Evidence for Plate Tectonics, Pangea, Energy Waves, Layers of the Earth, Heat Transfer, Types of Crust, Plate Boundaries, Hot Spots, Volcanoes, Positives and Negatives of Volcanoes, Types of Volcanoes, Parts of a Volcano, Magma, Types of Lava, Viscosity, Earthquakes, Faults, Folds, Seismograph, Richter Scale, Seismograph, Tsunami's, Rocks, Minerals, Crystals, Uses of Minerals, Types of Crystals, Physical Properties of Minerals, Rock Cycle, Common Igneous Rocks, Common Sedimentary Rocks, Common Metamorphic Rocks.
This unit aligns with the Next Generation Science Standards and with Common Core Standards for ELA and Literacy for Science and Technical Subjects. See preview for more information
If you have any questions please feel free to contact me. Thanks again and best wishes. Sincerely, Ryan Murphy M.Ed www.sciencepowerpoint@gmail.com
This document discusses igneous rock classifications and Bowen's reaction series. It begins by classifying igneous rocks based on their silica content into felsic, intermediate, mafic and ultramafic compositions. It then explains Bowen's reaction series, which showed that minerals crystallize from magma at different temperatures in a predictable order. Certain minerals tend to form together based on their crystallization temperatures. The document also discusses how igneous intrusive bodies like sills, dikes, batholiths and stocks form underground from crystallizing magma.
This document provides an overview of petrology, the geological classification of rocks, and their structures and textures. It discusses the three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - and how they form. Igneous rocks form from the cooling of magma or lava. Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments. Metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks through heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids. The document also outlines common structures within each rock type, such as vesicles in igneous rocks, stratification in sedimentary rocks, and foliation in metamorphic rocks. Finally, it discusses the importance of petrology for civil
Metamorphic rocks are formed deep within the earth's crust under conditions of high heat and pressure. Sedimentary rock layers sink over time, heating up and experiencing increasing weight as they move closer to the center of the earth, transforming them into metamorphic rocks. These metamorphic rocks can be exposed at the surface through mountain building when tectonic plates collide and push rock upwards, or through erosion of overlying rock over time. Examples of metamorphic rocks include slate, marble, and greenstone.
Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. They can be intrusive or extrusive, depending on where the magma cools. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly underground, resulting in large mineral grains, while extrusive rocks cool rapidly at the surface, resulting in small mineral grains or a glassy texture. The mineral assemblage and texture of an igneous rock provides clues about its composition and conditions of formation. Bowen's reaction series describes the order in which minerals crystallize as magma cools.
Stratified rocks are formed from layers of sediment or volcanic material that build up over time. The layers can range significantly in thickness from millimeters to meters and come in different shapes. Examples of stratified rocks include sedimentary rocks with clear layering as well as some igneous rocks, such as granite, that form distinct layers when they cool and harden on the Earth's surface.
This document discusses sedimentary rocks, including their formation, classification, and characteristic textures and structures. Sedimentary rocks form through the lithification of sediments deposited under water. They are classified based on their composition into clastic rocks (formed from fragments of pre-existing rocks), chemical/evaporite rocks (formed by chemical precipitation), and organic rocks (containing organic matter). Key textures include grain size, shape, packing, and fabric. Common structures include stratification, lamination, cross-bedding, graded bedding, and ripple marks, which provide information about depositional environments.
This document provides information about food and nutrition. It discusses the main nutrients found in food including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water. It explains that a balanced diet must provide these nutrients in adequate proportions to meet our energetic, structural, functional, and regulatory needs. Specific diets are mentioned like the Mediterranean diet, low cholesterol diets, and special diets for conditions like constipation. Food preservation methods are also outlined that help extend the shelf life of foods by preventing microbial growth and decomposition.
Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks through the process of metamorphism. Metamorphism involves changes to a rock's mineralogy, texture, and sometimes chemical composition due to changes in temperature, pressure, and exposure to chemically active fluids. The degree of metamorphism can range from slight changes resulting in low-grade metamorphic rocks like slate to more substantial changes producing high-grade metamorphic rocks. Common agents driving metamorphism include heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids.
Metamorphic rocks are formed from existing rocks through heat and pressure within the Earth. This process, called metamorphism, changes the hardness, texture, and layering of the original rocks. There are different types of metamorphism that result in various metamorphic rock formations. Metamorphic rocks exhibit features like foliation, lineation, and different textures depending on the grade of metamorphism experienced. Common metamorphic rocks include slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss, quartzite, and marble.
This document discusses metamorphic textures, which refer to the physical appearance or arrangement of minerals in metamorphic rocks at the microscopic level. There are several types of textures that can form during metamorphism due to factors like heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids. Typomorphic textures are characteristic of metamorphism and include porphyroblastic, mortar, and granoblastic textures. Relict textures are inherited from the original rock, such as ophitic or porphyritic textures. Reaction textures involve chemical reactions between minerals, forming textures like coronas or reaction rims. The document provides examples of different textures and concludes that textures provide information about the metamorphic conditions and original rock type.
This document describes different types of intrusive igneous rocks based on their shape and relationship to existing bedrock structures. It defines dykes as vertically intruded bodies that cut across bedding planes in a discordant manner. Sills are described as intrusions that spread parallel to bedding plans in a concordant way. Laccoliths and lopoliths are both concordant bodies of differing dome or basin shapes that intrude between layers of existing rock.
This document discusses igneous rock textures. It explains that texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains in a rock. Cooling rate controls igneous rock texture, with rapid cooling resulting in fine-grained textures and slow cooling producing coarse-grained rocks. Extrusive igneous rocks like lava have fine-grained textures due to rapid surface cooling, while intrusive plutonic rocks exhibit a variety of coarse-grained textures due to slower cooling underground. Examples of different igneous rock textures are described, including aphanitic, porphyritic, vesicular, glassy, phaneritic, and pegmatitic.
The document provides information about sedimentary rocks, including their formation, classification, characteristics, and types. It discusses how sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments. It classifies sedimentary rocks based on the nature of sediments (mechanically, chemically, or organically formed) and transporting agents (aqueous, aeolian, glacial). It provides details on specific sedimentary rock types like sandstones, conglomerates, limestone, and their properties. The document also covers concepts like bedding, stratification, unconformities in sedimentary rocks.
This document summarizes how rocks are classified based on their formation. There are three main classes of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Within each class, rocks can be further classified based on their composition, texture, and grain size. Igneous rocks form from cooled lava or magma, and can be intrusive or extrusive based on where they solidify underground or above ground, affecting their grain size. Sedimentary rocks form from cemented sediments like grains, shells, and fossils. Metamorphic rocks have foliated or non-foliated textures indicating the process that altered the original rock.
Basalt is a common volcanic rock formed from rapidly cooled lava. It most often occurs in lava flows due to its low volatile content. Basalt is composed mainly of plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene. There are three main types - tholeiitic, alkaline, and transitional - which differ in their mineral composition and origin. The massive Deccan Traps basalt deposits in India were formed from volcanic eruptions associated with the Réunion hotspot around 65 million years ago.
Sedimentary rocks form from the compaction and cementation of sediments. There are three main types: detrital (clastic) rocks that form from lithified rock fragments and minerals, chemical rocks that precipitate directly from solution, and organic rocks that accumulate from biological debris. Sedimentary rocks provide clues about past environments and climates based on their composition, structures like cross-bedding and ripples, and any fossil content. Important resources like coal and oil are also found within sedimentary basins.
Petrology is the study of rocks and their composition, texture, and structure. There are three main types of rocks: igneous rocks, which form from cooling magma; metamorphic rocks, which form from existing rocks undergoing changes due to heat, pressure, and chemical reactions; and sedimentary rocks, which form from the compaction and cementation of sediments. Igneous rocks can be categorized as extrusive or intrusive, depending on where they solidify. Common igneous rocks include granite, basalt, and syenite. Sedimentary rocks form through the weathering of existing rocks and the deposition and lithification of sediments. Texture, minerals, and formation processes help classify and identify different
The document discusses the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. It provides details on how each type forms, including that igneous rocks form from cooling magma either underground resulting in large crystals or above ground resulting in small crystals. Sedimentary rocks form from compression or precipitation of minerals at the Earth's surface. Metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks via heat, pressure, and fluids.
IGNEOUS ROCKS AND THEIR PROPERTIES, USES AND DIFFERENT VARITIES OF VOLCANIC INTRUSIONS , MEGASCOPIC PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS IGNEOUS ROCKS
PROPERTIES AND USES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
CHARECTERSTICS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS WITH FIGURES
Petrology is the study of rocks and the conditions in which they form. There are three main branches corresponding to the three rock types - igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. Igneous rocks form from solidification of magma or lava, and can be intrusive (plutonic) or extrusive (volcanic). Classification is based on mineralogy, texture, and chemical composition.
This PowerPoint is one small part of the Geology Topics unit from www.sciencepowerpoint.com. This unit consists of a five part 6000+ slide PowerPoint roadmap, 14 page bundled homework package, modified homework, detailed answer keys, 12 pages of unit notes for students who may require assistance, follow along worksheets, and many review games. The homework and lesson notes chronologically follow the PowerPoint slideshow. The answer keys and unit notes are great for support professionals. The activities and discussion questions in the slideshow are meaningful. The PowerPoint includes built-in instructions, visuals, and review questions. Also included are critical class notes (color coded red), project ideas, video links, and review games. This unit also includes four PowerPoint review games (110+ slides each with Answers), 38+ video links, lab handouts, activity sheets, rubrics, materials list, templates, guides, 6 PowerPoint review Game, and much more. Also included is a 190 slide first day of school PowerPoint presentation.
Areas of Focus within The Geology Topics Unit: -Plate Tectonics, Evidence for Plate Tectonics, Pangea, Energy Waves, Layers of the Earth, Heat Transfer, Types of Crust, Plate Boundaries, Hot Spots, Volcanoes, Positives and Negatives of Volcanoes, Types of Volcanoes, Parts of a Volcano, Magma, Types of Lava, Viscosity, Earthquakes, Faults, Folds, Seismograph, Richter Scale, Seismograph, Tsunami's, Rocks, Minerals, Crystals, Uses of Minerals, Types of Crystals, Physical Properties of Minerals, Rock Cycle, Common Igneous Rocks, Common Sedimentary Rocks, Common Metamorphic Rocks.
This unit aligns with the Next Generation Science Standards and with Common Core Standards for ELA and Literacy for Science and Technical Subjects. See preview for more information
If you have any questions please feel free to contact me. Thanks again and best wishes. Sincerely, Ryan Murphy M.Ed www.sciencepowerpoint@gmail.com
This document discusses igneous rock classifications and Bowen's reaction series. It begins by classifying igneous rocks based on their silica content into felsic, intermediate, mafic and ultramafic compositions. It then explains Bowen's reaction series, which showed that minerals crystallize from magma at different temperatures in a predictable order. Certain minerals tend to form together based on their crystallization temperatures. The document also discusses how igneous intrusive bodies like sills, dikes, batholiths and stocks form underground from crystallizing magma.
This document provides an overview of petrology, the geological classification of rocks, and their structures and textures. It discusses the three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - and how they form. Igneous rocks form from the cooling of magma or lava. Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments. Metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks through heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids. The document also outlines common structures within each rock type, such as vesicles in igneous rocks, stratification in sedimentary rocks, and foliation in metamorphic rocks. Finally, it discusses the importance of petrology for civil
Metamorphic rocks are formed deep within the earth's crust under conditions of high heat and pressure. Sedimentary rock layers sink over time, heating up and experiencing increasing weight as they move closer to the center of the earth, transforming them into metamorphic rocks. These metamorphic rocks can be exposed at the surface through mountain building when tectonic plates collide and push rock upwards, or through erosion of overlying rock over time. Examples of metamorphic rocks include slate, marble, and greenstone.
Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. They can be intrusive or extrusive, depending on where the magma cools. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly underground, resulting in large mineral grains, while extrusive rocks cool rapidly at the surface, resulting in small mineral grains or a glassy texture. The mineral assemblage and texture of an igneous rock provides clues about its composition and conditions of formation. Bowen's reaction series describes the order in which minerals crystallize as magma cools.
Stratified rocks are formed from layers of sediment or volcanic material that build up over time. The layers can range significantly in thickness from millimeters to meters and come in different shapes. Examples of stratified rocks include sedimentary rocks with clear layering as well as some igneous rocks, such as granite, that form distinct layers when they cool and harden on the Earth's surface.
This document discusses sedimentary rocks, including their formation, classification, and characteristic textures and structures. Sedimentary rocks form through the lithification of sediments deposited under water. They are classified based on their composition into clastic rocks (formed from fragments of pre-existing rocks), chemical/evaporite rocks (formed by chemical precipitation), and organic rocks (containing organic matter). Key textures include grain size, shape, packing, and fabric. Common structures include stratification, lamination, cross-bedding, graded bedding, and ripple marks, which provide information about depositional environments.
This document provides information about food and nutrition. It discusses the main nutrients found in food including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water. It explains that a balanced diet must provide these nutrients in adequate proportions to meet our energetic, structural, functional, and regulatory needs. Specific diets are mentioned like the Mediterranean diet, low cholesterol diets, and special diets for conditions like constipation. Food preservation methods are also outlined that help extend the shelf life of foods by preventing microbial growth and decomposition.
The document discusses minerals and the criteria for a substance to be considered a mineral. It provides a list of substances to categorize as minerals or not, then shares the five criteria for a mineral: naturally occurring, inorganic, solid, definite chemical composition, and crystalline pattern. It also discusses how minerals form and some common rock-forming and mineral family types.
This document discusses mineral nutrition in plants. It covers the following key points:
1) Plants obtain mineral nutrients from the soil, as they are autotrophic and require inorganic elements for growth. The study of mineral nutrition examines how plants acquire, distribute, metabolize and utilize these nutrients.
2) Mineral nutrients can be classified as macronutrients or micronutrients based on the amount plants require. They also serve various biochemical functions like forming organic compounds or acting as enzyme cofactors.
3) Plants primarily take up mineral nutrients through their roots, though some can be absorbed through leaves. Factors like soil pH and cation exchange influence nutrient availability in the soil and their absorption. Mycorrhiz
This document discusses metamorphic and metamorphosed ore deposits. It explains that metamorphic ore deposits form through the isochemical metamorphic re-equilibration and recrystallization of pre-existing materials. Contact metamorphism near magmatic bodies causes changes to fabric, mineralogy, and chemistry through processes like dewatering. Regional metamorphism can reach temperatures of 1100°C and pressures of 30 kbar, driving off volatiles and causing grain coarsening and foliation. Metamorphic fluids liberate economically valuable metals and elements and can form ore deposits as they circulate through metamorphosing rock.
This document summarizes plant mineral nutrition and the nitrogen cycle. It discusses how plants absorb essential elements and classifies them as macronutrients or micronutrients. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium are identified as important macronutrients. The nitrogen cycle is then described, including nitrogen fixation by nitrogen-fixing bacteria through symbiotic root nodules in legumes. The key steps of nitrogen fixation, nitrification, and denitrification are outlined.
The document describes an experiment using hydroponics to observe the effects of nutrient deficiencies in Zea mays. Five nutrient solutions were used - a complete solution, and solutions missing nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, or nutrients. Deficiency symptoms like chlorosis, necrosis and stunted growth were observed for each missing nutrient and reflected their essential functions in plant growth.
This document summarizes sedimentary ore deposits, specifically banded iron formations (BIF). It discusses the processes that form different types of BIF, including Algoma and Superior types, as well as their geologic time distribution. The document also explains the role of microbial communities in the deposition of iron minerals and formation of BIF layers through anoxic iron redox cycling, including phototrophic Fe(II) oxidation and nitrate-dependent Fe(II) oxidation mediated by bacteria. Overall, the document provides an overview of the genesis and microbial influences on the formation of important economic BIF deposits in sedimentary environments.
The document discusses ore formation systems and processes. It describes how ores were originally thought to form mainly from the cooling and crystallization of magmatic bodies. It then explains that four main ore formation processes are recognized: 1) orthomagmatic processes related to magma evolution and crystallization, 2) hydrothermal processes involving mineralization from magmatic fluids, 3) sedimentary processes concentrating metals through weathering, erosion and sedimentation, and 4) metamorphic processes transforming existing ore deposits. The document provides details on each of these processes and how they concentrate metals to form economic mineral deposits.
This document provides an outline for a lecture series on mining geology. It introduces key concepts related to mining, including definitions of mining, minerals, and ore deposits. It discusses various types of ore deposits and characteristics that determine their economic viability, such as grade, shape, depth, and stability. The document also lists topics that will be covered in each lecture, including ore mineralogy, the mining cycle, resource classification, mining methods, processing, waste management, and environmental issues. The series aims to give students a non-technical overview of the mining and mineral extraction process.
The document discusses the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from cooling lava and can have large or small crystals depending on the cooling rate. Sedimentary rocks form from compressed sediments and contain fossils. Metamorphic rocks form from existing rocks undergoing heat and pressure, and can have banded or non-banded textures.
This document discusses minerals, their economic importance, depletion, and the need for conservation. It notes that minerals are essential resources but non-renewable, as their formation occurs over millions of years. While minerals provide the base for industry and jobs, the large-scale exploitation since the Industrial Revolution has resulted in decreasing supplies and increasing demand. Conservation efforts are needed to use minerals sustainably and reduce waste so they can last for future generations.
1) Calcium is essential for muscle contraction, nerve conduction, hormone release, and blood coagulation. The daily intake is approximately 1000mg, found in foods like milk, cheese, fish, and beans.
2) Calcium is absorbed in the small intestine through both passive diffusion and active transport involving vitamin D. Around 30-80% is absorbed depending on dietary intake.
3) Calcium levels in the body are tightly regulated by parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and calcitonin which act on the intestines, bone, and kidneys to influence absorption, resorption, and excretion.
Sedimentary rocks form from the compaction and cementation of sediments and sometimes contain fossils. Igneous rocks form from the cooling of magma, either underground as intrusive rocks with large crystals or above ground as extrusive rocks with small crystals. Metamorphic rocks form from the alteration of existing rocks by heat, pressure, or chemical changes and may contain interlocking crystals or foliation.
The document provides an overview of biochemistry as a science, discussing its evolution and applications in various life sciences fields like genetics, physiology, immunology, and pathology. It describes the biochemical unity across living organisms in terms of common macromolecules like DNA and proteins, as well as conserved metabolic processes. The document also outlines the three-domain system of classifying organisms into eukaryotes, bacteria, and archaea based on their biochemical characteristics. It concludes by comparing the structures of prokaryotic, plant, and animal cells.
Economic geology is the study of economically valuable resources from the Earth, such as fuels and metals. It has several branches including geochemistry, mineralogy, geophysics, petrology, structural geology. Economic geology is important not only to geologists but also to investment bankers, engineers and others due to the significant impact extractive industries have on society, the economy and the environment.
In this PPT you will know about the what is the texture of igneous rock and what is the Structure of Igneous Rock and their Types.
In this PPT you will know about the what is the texture of igneous rock and what is the Structure of Igneous Rock and their Types.
In this PPT you will know about the what is the texture of igneous rock and what is the Structure of Igneous Rock and their Types.
Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. There are three main types based on formation environment: volcanic, hypabyssal, and plutonic. Volcanic rocks form from lava at the Earth's surface and are typically fine-grained. Plutonic rocks form deep underground and are usually coarse-grained due to slow cooling. Texture depends on factors like cooling rate and mineral composition, ranging from glassy to phaneritic. Igneous rocks are classified based on their mineralogy and chemistry, particularly their silica content.
The document discusses the properties and classification of three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form through accumulation and compaction of sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to pre-existing rocks through heat, pressure, and chemically-active fluids. The document describes the formation processes, typical mineral compositions, and textural characteristics of each rock type. It also discusses classification schemes for igneous and metamorphic rocks based on silica content and foliation, respectively.
Igneous rocks form when magma cools and solidifies either underground or on the Earth's surface. They occur in various forms such as lava flows, domes, and intrusive bodies. Igneous rocks are classified based on their mineralogy, texture, and chemical composition. Mineralogical classification divides rocks into felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic groups based on their mineral content. Textural classification considers features like crystal size. Chemical plots involving elements like silica and alkalis are also used in classification.
Rocks are naturally occurring mixtures of minerals, mineraloids, glass or organic matter that are divided into three main types - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - based on how they were formed. Rocks are continually changed over time by various geological processes through the rock cycle, where one type of rock can be transformed into another through weathering, erosion, melting and other changes. The core, mantle and crust act as a recycling machine that redistributes rocks.
The document discusses the three main types of rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma either underground as intrusive igneous rocks or above ground as extrusive igneous rocks. Metamorphic rocks form from existing rocks being subjected to heat and pressure, altering their mineral composition. Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments over millions of years.
The document discusses different types of rocks:
1. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma and include intrusive granitic rocks, extrusive volcanic rocks like basalt, and hypabyssal rocks.
2. Sedimentary rocks form through the lithification of sediments and include clastic rocks like sandstone, chemical rocks like limestone, and organic rocks like coal.
3. Metamorphic rocks form from the alteration of existing rocks under heat, pressure, and fluids, changing their texture and minerals. Foliated rocks include schist and gneiss, while non-foliated rocks include marble and quartzite.
Rocks form in three main types - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - depending on their formation process. Igneous rocks form when magma cools and hardens, sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments, and metamorphic rocks form through the alteration of existing rocks by heat, pressure, and chemical reactions. The main types of rocks each have distinguishing characteristics and provide clues about Earth's environmental history.
This document provides information about a petrology course for the 2008-2009 semester. The course includes 2 credits of theory and 1 credit of practical work. It is taught by Hill Gendoet Hartono on Mondays from 9:50-10:40 and 10:45-11:35. The document then provides detailed information about sedimentary rocks, including descriptions of different types of clastic rocks like breccias, conglomerates, sandstones and shales. It also discusses carbonate sedimentary rocks, chemical sedimentary rocks, and the environments and processes involved in forming different sedimentary rocks.
The document discusses the rock cycle and how different types of rocks are formed. It describes:
1) The rock cycle is a series of changes where geological forces cause rocks to change from one type to another, such as igneous to sedimentary or metamorphic.
2) Igneous rocks form from the cooling of magma, either below ground (intrusive) or above ground (extrusive). Sedimentary rocks form from the compaction or cementation of sediments.
3) Metamorphic rocks are formed from existing rocks that undergo changes from heat, pressure, and chemical processes deep underground.
This document provides an overview of igneous rocks and their formation. It discusses that igneous rocks form from the cooling of molten magma or lava. The cooling rate affects crystal size - slower cooling produces larger crystals and faster cooling produces smaller crystals. Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly underground and have coarse grains, while extrusive rocks cool quickly at the surface and have fine grains. Texture is determined by crystal size and arrangements. Examples of textures discussed are phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, glassy and pyroclastic.
Stones have been used in construction for thousands of years in buildings all over the world. They are classified geologically based on their mode of formation as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form from compressed sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks. Stones are also classified chemically based on their dominant composition of silica, calcareous, or argillaceous materials. Structurally, stones can occur as massive unstratified rocks, stratified layered rocks, or foliated banded rocks. Many historical structures were constructed of stone and it remains an important building material.
Stones have been used in construction for thousands of years in buildings all over the world. They are classified geologically based on their mode of formation as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form from compressed sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks. Stones are also classified chemically based on their dominant composition of silica, calcareous, or argillaceous minerals. Structurally, stones can occur as massive unstratified rocks, stratified layered rocks, or foliated banded rocks. Many historical structures were constructed of stone and it remains an important building material.
This document summarizes the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma either below the surface (intrusive) or above (extrusive). Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments. Metamorphic rocks were once igneous or sedimentary rocks that were changed by heat, pressure, and chemical fluids within the Earth. Examples of each rock type are provided along with brief descriptions of their characteristics and formation processes.
Rocks are composed of minerals and are classified based on their origin and formation process. The three main types of rocks are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma either deep underground, near the surface, or on the surface. Sedimentary rocks form from the compaction and cementation of sediments. Metamorphic rocks form from the alteration of existing igneous and sedimentary rocks through heat, pressure, and chemical processes usually associated with tectonic activity. Rocks serve many important purposes and understanding their classification provides insight into the geological history of the earth's crust.
Volcanoes form from hot lava where earthquakes occur. Volcanoes are deep and hot, forming lava that explodes out. Rocks make up hills, mountains, plains and valleys. Rocks are mostly made of mineral crystals or pieces of other rocks or shells of living things. Igneous rocks cool slowly underground and form large mineral grains that can be seen.
Volcanoes form from hot lava where earthquakes occur. Volcanoes are deep and hot, forming lava that explodes out. Rocks make up hills, mountains, plains and valleys. Rocks are mostly made of mineral crystals or pieces of other rocks or shells of living things. Igneous rocks cool slowly underground and form large mineral grains that can be seen.
Volcanoes form from hot lava where earthquakes occur. Volcanoes are deep and hot, forming lava that explodes out. Rocks make up hills, mountains, plains and valleys. Rocks are mostly made of mineral crystals or pieces of other rocks or shells of living things. Igneous rocks cool slowly underground and form large mineral grains that can be seen.
ESPP presentation to EU Waste Water Network, 4th June 2024 “EU policies driving nutrient removal and recycling
and the revised UWWTD (Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive)”
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...AbdullaAlAsif1
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intellige...University of Maribor
Slides from talk:
Aleš Zamuda: Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intelligent Systems.
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptx
Lecture 03 igeneous rock
1.
2. Contents
Igneous Rocks
classification on the basis of solidification
Igneous Rock Textures
Igneous Rocks Mineral Composition
Bowens Reaction Series
Ferromagnesian Silicates
Non-Ferromagnesian Silicates
Igneous Rocks: (examples )
3. What are Rocks?
Most rocks are an aggregate of one or more minerals and
a few rocks are composed of non-mineral matter.
There are three major rock types:
1. Igneous
2. Metamorphic
3. Sedimentary
Table of Contents
4. Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of molten rock.
There are two major states of molten rock: Magma and Lava.
Magma is a form of molten rock that exists below the Earth’s
surface.
Lava is the term given to magma once it reaches the Earth’s
surface, usually in the form of a volcanic eruption.
There are two major classifications of igneous rocks:
o Intrusive igneous rocks
o Extrusive igneous rocks
Table of Contents
5. Intrusive igneous rocks are formed by magma that cools
below the Earth’s surface.
Intrusive igneous rocks generally cool very slowly deep
below the earth’s surface or as the magma is rising to
the earth’s surface.
Plutonic rocks .pluton (greek god of underworld)
Intrusive igneous rocks
6. Commonly observed forms of Plutonic (intrusive) rocks
observed in the field are:
Dykes
Sills
Laccoliths
Bysmaliths
Batholiths
Phacoliths
Lopolith
Volcanic necks
Chonoliths
Types of intrusive /plutonic rocks
7. • Based on the attitudes of the associated country
rocks the forms are called either as Concordant
(parallel ) or Discordant (prependiculer).
8. Dykes
• They are discordant
• Cut across the bedding of the rocks in which
they intrude
• Vertical to steeply inclined and sheetlike body
(extensive in lateral dimension)
• Thickness vary widely from an inch upto
hundred of feet
• Injected through fractures, joints, and weak
planes
9. Quartz-Dolerite dykes of Midland
valley of Scotland are about 50-
60 km long and upto 30m thick.
Few places some dykes are very
short upto few meters and as
thin as few cm.
10. Sills are relatively thin tabular sheet like body that penetrates
parallel to the bedding planes
Laterally it may extends for 100s of km and upto 10 km in
width.
Lateral extend mainly depends on the hydrostatic force,
temperature, degree of fluidity or viscosity, weight of
overlying sediment column.
Since basic magma are more fluid then acidic magma-
mostly sills are made up of gabbros, dolerites and basalts.
Sills
11. Spreads parallel to the bedding
planes of the rocks, hence
concordant in nature.
mudstone
sandstone
limestone
12. When viscous magma is
injected rapidly along
the bedding, as it cannot
spreads it pushes up the
overlying layers and
keep on piling up.
It causes folding of the
overlying rock layers.
It is a concordant body, with flat bottom and
convex upward. It is dome shaped.
LACCOLITHS
13. BYSMALITH:
It is cylindrically shaped body.
It is developed when highly viscous magma is injected,
because the lateral spreading along the bedding is less it
acquires to move upwards and form cylindrical shape.
Causes breaking of overlying rock layers.
Department of
14. These are the largest kind of plutons, irregular in shape and
occupies large area.
Their side sloping away from each other which makes them
larger and large downwards extending to greater depth.
Their occurrence is commonly associated with the
mountain-building process
These are either granites or granodiorites in composition
BATHOLITHS
15. Stocks: Are smaller irregular
bodies with 10 km in maximum
dimension, and are associated
with batholiths.
16. These are concordant bodies that occurs along the
crests and troughs of the folded sedimentary strata.
PHACOLITHS
17. These are basin or saucer-shaped concordant bodies with top
nearly flat and convex bottom
LOPOLITHS
18. :
It is cylindrical conduit that fed magma upward to a
volcanic vent or it is a conduit of the ancient volcano.
Vary in diameter from a few 100s of m to a kilometer or
more. These are filled up with crystalline rocks.
Shape-circular, elliptical or irregular.
VOLCANIC NECK or VOLCANIC PLUGS
19. CHONOLITHS
This term is applied to all other intrusive igneous bodies
with irregular shape, i.e. the body with no specific shape.
20. Texture
Texture is a term used to describe the size, shape, and
arrangement of interlocking crystallized mineral grains
in an igneous rock.
Two major factors affect the size of crystal grains in an
igneous rock:
1) Rate at which molten rock cools; slow or fast
2) Amount of dissolved gases or fluids in the magma.
21. Texture
Igneous minerals vary greatly in grain size. Grain-size
classes are similar to the sedimentary scale, but there are
fewer divisions with a greater range of size.
Phenocrysts are grains in an igneous rock that are larger
than the other grains that make up the rest of the rock.
Grain Size
Categories
Grain Size Divisions
fine grained = < 1 mm
medium grained = 1 mm < 5 mm
coarse grained = 5 mm < 3 cm
very coarse-grained = > 3 cm
Phenocrysts Texture
microphenocrysts = 0.03 mm – 0.3 mm
phenocrysts = 0.3 mm – 5 mm
megaphenocrysts = > 5 mm
Table of Contents
25. Aphanitic Texture
Aphanitic rocks are very
fine-grained and contain
crystals that are too small
to distinguish without the
aid of a magnifying lens.
Aphanitic rocks are often
described by how light or
dark the rock appears.
Lighter colored aphanitic
rocks contain mostly non-
ferromagnesian silicate
minerals. Darker colored
aphanitic rocks contain
mostly ferromagnesian
silicate minerals.
26. Porphyritic Texture
Porphyritic rocks contain both
coarse- and fine-grained textures
indicating different environmental
conditions which formed the rock.
The coarse grains in a porphyritic
rock develop as the magma is
cooling below the surface of the
earth.
The fine-grained component of a
porphyriic rocks forms when the
magma or lava cools faster.
The large coarse-grained crystals
are referred to as phenocrysts.
The small fine-grained crystals are
referred to as groundmass.
Rhyolite rock with
porphyritic texture containing
phenocrysts of olivine and pyroxene
and a gabbro groundmass.
27. Vesicular Texture
Aphanitic rocks may also contain vesicles of remnant gas that
give the rock a vesicular texture. Vesicles form when the rock
cools very quickly and preserves the openings formed by the
expansion of trapped gas bubbles.
28. Glassy Texture
Glassy textured rocks are formed by very
rapid cooling of magma.
Glassy rocks often form from magmas
with high silica content that arranges into
long chainlike structures before
crystallization occurs. These silica chains
increase the viscosity of the magma and it
once it eventually cools it forms a glassy
textured rock.
Glassy rocks can be considered
amorphous because they have no
crystalline structure.
Glassy rocks are classified by the amount
of glass contained by the rock:
Glass-bearing: 0-20% glass
Glass-rich: 20-50% glass
Glassy: 50 – 100% glass
Obsidian is a common glassy rock.
Obsidian rock with a glassy
texture and conchoidal fractures
29. Pegmatitic Texture
Pegmatitic (Intrusive)
Pegmatitic rocks contain large interlocking
crystalline grains > 1-2 centimeter in diameter.
Pegmatites are commonly composed of quartz,
feldspar, and mica minerals.
Pegmatities form from a combination of
hydrothermal and igneous processes; and is
dependant on the presence of fluids and
volatiles such as water, chlorine, bromine,
sulfur, and fluorine.
Pegmatites form late in the crystallization
process when there are a lot of fluids present in
the molten rock. The fluids enable individual
ions to move around more freely, ultimately
bonding to form very large and sometimes
exotic crystals.
Pegmatitic dikes form around the margins of
intrusive plutons, or occasionally as veins of
rock which extend into the pluton.
Examples of pegmatitic veins
extending through rock
30. Pyroclastic Materials
Pyroclastic materials form when
individual rock fragments are ejected
during a violent volcanic eruption and
consolidate into larger rock composites
when they deposit on the surface.
Pyroclastic rocks contain at least 75%
pyroclastic fragments with the
remainder consisting of other inorganic
sediments or organic materials.
Pyroclastic rocks contain a mixture of
different types of particles that are not
cohesively joined by interlocking
crystals, but instead are consolidated
masses of multiple rock fragments.
Tephra is the term used to describe
pyroclastic sediments.
Tuff rock with pyroclastic material.
31. Aa Lava
Aa is a basaltic lava flow that has a rough
surface, characterized by sharp, jagged blocks
and protruding spines of volcanic rock.
Aa flows move slowly (5-50 meters per hour)
and are often several meters thick.
As aa lava flows, the outer surface and
advancing edge cools first. The molten material
pushes through the cooled rocks and breaks the
fragments even more. As a result the lava flow
appears more like a mass of advancing rubble
as apposed to a viscous flow.
Aa lava flows are common on the Hawaiian
Islands. The aa flows move so slowly that
tourists can walk up to them and take pictures.
32. Pahoehoe Lava
Pahoehoe (pronounced pah-hoy-hoy) is
a basaltic lava flow that has a smooth
and twisty, rope-like surface.
The characteristic ropy texture forms as
the surface lava cools while the molten
material beneath it is still moving. The
tension formed by the cooling lava
causes it to wrinkle as the subsurface
lava continues to flow. As a result the
surface cools in a series of overlapping,
ropy lobes.
Pahoehoe lava flows move slow enough
(5-50 meters per hour) for observers to
watch the cooling lava as it advances
forward.
Photo Courtesy USGS
Pahoehoe lava flows in Hawaii.
33. What happens to molten rock as it cools?
When the temperature of molten rock begins to drop there is a loss of energy that
causes ions to slow down. As the ions slow down, they group together and arrange
themselves into orderly crystalline structures. This process is referred to as
crystallization.
During crystallization, the silicon and oxygen atoms are the first to link together
forming silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons, which are the building block of all silicate
minerals.
As crystallization continues, these individual silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons join
with one another, and other ions, to form the basic structure of most minerals and
igneous rocks.
Environmental conditions including temperature and the presence of water or
gases during crystallization affect the composition, the size, and the arrangement
of the mineral grains.
The size and arrangement of mineral crystals, also referred to as grains, define the
texture of the rock.
Geologists use mineral and textural classifications to infer information about the
environmental setting in which different igneous rocks are formed.
34. Crystal Size and Cooling Rates
Slower cooling rates produce larger individual crystals in the rock
Intrusive igneous rocks generally cool very slowly and tend to have large
crystals that produce a course-grained rock.
Phaneritic rocks are coarse-grained rocks which contain individual crystals
that are relatively even in size and large enough for scientists to identify the
different mineral grains that compose the rock.
Faster cooling rates produce smaller individual crystals in the rock
Extrusive igneous rocks tend to cool quickly and are characterized by smaller
grains that produce a fine-grained rock.
Aphanitic is the term used to describe very fine grained rocks.
Porphyritic textured rocks contain both a coarse and fine-grained texture.
The coarse grains in a porphyritic rock begin to develop as the magma is
cooling below the surface of the earth. Following eruption or exposure to
lower temperatures, the remaining magma or lava cools very quickly and
forms minerals with fine-grained textures. As a result, porphyritic textures
contain both coarse- and fine–grained minerals.
35. Igneous Rocks Mineral Composition
The chemical composition of the magma during cooling determines the
mineral composition of the crystallized rocks.
98% of all magma is composed primarily of silicate (SiO2) ions joined with
aluminum (Al), calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium
(Mg), and iron (Fe) ions.
Magma may also contain trace amounts of other elements such as titanium
(Ti), manganese (Mn), gold (Au), silver (Ag), and uranium (U).
During crystallization the minerals combine to form two major groups of
silicate minerals, these include the dark-colored ferromagnesian silicates
which crystallize at high temperatures and the light-colored
nonferromagnesian silicates which crystallize at lower temperatures.
36. Bowen’s Reaction Series
In the early 1900’s N.L. Bowen and other geologists conducted a
series of experiments to determine the order at which different
silicate minerals crystallize from magma. Their results produced
a generalized mineral crystallization model that is recognized as
Bowen’s Reaction Series, and it states that mineral
crystallization will occur in a predictable manner.
Bowen’s Reaction Series is a model that describes the formation
of igneous rocks with an emphasis on the effect of temperature
changes, melting points, and cooling rates, on the types of
minerals crystallizing and their resultant rock compositions.
37. Once crystallization begins, the composition of the
liquid magma changes. Minerals with higher
melting points will begin to solidify leaving behind a
liquid from which minerals with lower melting
temperatures will eventually solidify.
An ideal discontinuous crystallizing series
progresses from the minerals olivine - pyroxenes -
amphiboles – biotite.
An ideal continuous series progresses from calcium
to sodium-rich plagioclase feldspar.
Both series merge and are followed by orthoclase
feldspar, muscovite, and quartz, with quartz
exhibiting the lowest crystallization temperature.
38. Bowen’s Reaction Series
Table of Contents
Crystallization
Temperature
1400 ºC
800 ºC
Mafic
Felsic
Intermediate
Olivine
Pyroxene
Amphibole
Biotite
Quartz
Orthoclase Feldspar
Muscovite mica
Calcium rich
Sodium rich
Discontinuous Series Continuous Series
39. Classification of Igneous Rocks by Mineral Composition
and Texture
Chemical Composition Felsic
(Granitic)
Intermediate
(Andesitic)
Mafic
(Basaltic)
Ultramafic
Dominant Minerals
Quartz,
Potassium
Feldspar,
Sodium-rich
plagioclase
feldspar
Amphibole,
Sodium-and
calcium-rich
plagioclase
feldspar
Pyroxene,
Calcium-rich
plagioclase
feldspar
Olivine,
Pyroxene
Accessory Minerals
Amphibole,
Muscovite,
Biotite
Pyroxene,
Biotite
Amphibole,
Olivine
Calcium-rich
plagioclase
feldspar
Rock Color
(% of dark minerals)
0-25 % 25 – 45 % 45 – 85 % 85 – 100 %
Phaneritic (coarse-grained) Granite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite
Aphanitic (fine- grained) Rhyolite Andesite Basalt Komatiite
Porphyritic Porphyritic used to describe abundant presence of
phenocrysts in Granite, Diorite, Gabbro, Peridotite, Rhyolite,
Andesite, and Basalt
Uncommon
Glassy Obsidian (compact) and Pumice (frothy-like)
Pyroclastic Tuff (fine grained) and Volcanic Breccia (coarse grained)
T
e
xt
u
r
e
40. Ferromagnesian Silicates
Ferromagnesian silicates crystallize at higher temperatures than non-
ferromagnesian silicates.
Ferromagnesian silicates contain greater amounts of iron (Fe) and
magnesium (Mg) and less silica (Si O2) than non-ferromagnesian
silicates .
Ferromagnesian minerals are generally dark in color and can be
greenish, black, or dark grey.
Common ferromagnesian silicate minerals include olivine, pyroxene,
amphibole, biotite, hornblende, augite, and peridote.
Gabbro rock with olivine (yellowish crystals) and
Pyroxene (darker crystals) phenocrysts
41. Non-Ferromagnesian Silicates
Non-ferromagnesian silicates crystallize at lower temperatures that ferromagnesian
silicates.
Non-ferromagnesian silicates contain greater amounts of potassium (K), sodium (Na),
and calcium (Ca) in combination with more silica (Si O2) than ferromagnesian silicates.
Non-ferromagnesian minerals are generally light colored, and may be white, pink, or
light grey.
Common non-ferromagnesian silicate minerals include quartz, muscovite, and
feldspars.
Granite composed of non-
ferromagnesian
silicates including feldspar
(pink crystals) and quartz
(white crystals).
42. Igneous Rock Categories:
Felsic to Mafic
Igneous rocks are divided into three broad groups Granitic, Basaltic,
and Andesitic depending on their proportion of felsic (light-colored)
to mafic (dark-colored) minerals.
Granitic rocks contain more light-colored feldspars and silica than
dark- colored minerals. Because of the high feldspar and silica
content of Granitic rocks, geologists refer to them as being felsic (fel
for feldspar and si for silica).
The primary minerals in granitic rocks include quartz, feldspar, biotite,
and amphibole.
Granitic rocks make up about 70% of the Earth’s crust.
Basaltic rocks contain mostly darker silicate minerals and calcium-
rich plagioclase feldspar and little quartz. Because of the high
percentage of ferrromagnesian minerals in basaltic rocks, geologist
refer to them as mafic (ma for magnesium and f for ferrum).
Basaltic rocks are dark colored and tend to be more dense than granitic
rocks.
Andesitic rocks have a composition between granites and basalts.
They generally contain about 25% dark silicate minerals (amphibole,
pyroxene, and biotite mica) with the remaining 75% consisting of
plagioclase feldspar.
Felsic
Mafic
44. Granite
Granite is a felsic intrusive igneous rock and has either a phaneritic or porphyritic texture.
Granite cools very slowly and often forms large masses of rock that are referred to as
plutons or batholiths.
Granite usually contains about 20-50% quartz, 30-60% feldspar, and the remaining 5-10%
darker minerals such as biotite.
The quartz grains are usually spherical in shape and are a white to grayish color.
The feldspars grains are mostly potassium and sodium rich varieties with individual
rectangular shaped grains. The feldspars are often white, grey, or pinkish in color
depending on the chemical composition.
The remaining darker minerals usually consist of muscovite, biotite and amphibole
and are generally black.
Coarse-grained granite Fine-grained granite
Feldspar
Quartz
Biotite
Table of Contents
49. Diorite
Diorite is an intermediate, intrusive igneous rock with a predominantly
coarse-grained phaneritic texture .
Diorite is composed of quartz, sodium-rich plagioclase, and amphibole
or biotite.
The composition of diorite looks similar to granite, except that diorite
contains a greater concentration of darker mafic minerals.
Table of Contents
http://www.mii.org/index.html