This document provides an overview of enzymes and their properties. It discusses:
- The history of enzyme discovery and early debates about fermentation
- That enzymes are proteins that catalyze metabolic reactions in cells
- Key properties of enzymes including that they are catalysts, require small amounts, and are not consumed in reactions
- The importance of enzymes in cellular processes and their medical applications such as diagnosing disease
- How enzymes accelerate reactions by reducing activation energy without changing reaction thermodynamics or products
- General properties of enzymes like substrate specificity, effect of temperature and pH on activity, and being proteinaceous
.Enzymes are proteins that catalyze or speed up chemical reactions. They also help digest the foods we eat food and heal our wounds. They play major roles in respiration, making proteins, and DNA replication..
This power-point presentation will give a complete overview about enzymes, nomenclature of enzymes. Enzymes inhibition is also covered in this ppt. Along with some basin introduction to G- protein coupled receptors is also provided.
"Bacterial metabolism: Fueling life's processes in tiny powerhouses."
Use of bacterial metabolism in biotechnology, biofuels, and other industries
Examples of how bacterial metabolism is harnessed for beneficial purposes
"Metabolism: the sum of chemical reactions in an organism, supporting growth, energy production, and vital functions."
"Bacterial Metabolism and Life: Pervading every aspect of life, shaping ecosystems, and influencing our world."
Bacterial metabolism refers to the collective chemical reactions and processes that occur within bacterial cells, enabling them to maintain life, grow, and reproduce. These metabolic activities involve a complex network of biochemical pathways that facilitate the conversion of nutrients into energy, biomolecules, and essential compounds necessary for bacterial survival.
Metabolic processes in bacteria include catabolic pathways that break down complex molecules (such as sugars) to release energy and anabolic pathways that build complex molecules (such as proteins, nucleic acids) using energy. Bacteria utilize various metabolic strategies based on their energy and carbon sources, including aerobic and anaerobic respiration, fermentation, and photosynthesis in photosynthetic bacteria.
The primary goals of bacterial metabolism are to obtain energy, synthesize necessary cellular components, regulate chemical processes, and adapt to changing environmental conditions. The understanding of bacterial metabolism is crucial for various fields, including medicine, agriculture, biotechnology, and environmental science, as it allows us to develop strategies to combat harmful bacteria, harness their metabolic capabilities for beneficial applications, and study their role in ecological systems.
.Enzymes are proteins that catalyze or speed up chemical reactions. They also help digest the foods we eat food and heal our wounds. They play major roles in respiration, making proteins, and DNA replication..
This power-point presentation will give a complete overview about enzymes, nomenclature of enzymes. Enzymes inhibition is also covered in this ppt. Along with some basin introduction to G- protein coupled receptors is also provided.
"Bacterial metabolism: Fueling life's processes in tiny powerhouses."
Use of bacterial metabolism in biotechnology, biofuels, and other industries
Examples of how bacterial metabolism is harnessed for beneficial purposes
"Metabolism: the sum of chemical reactions in an organism, supporting growth, energy production, and vital functions."
"Bacterial Metabolism and Life: Pervading every aspect of life, shaping ecosystems, and influencing our world."
Bacterial metabolism refers to the collective chemical reactions and processes that occur within bacterial cells, enabling them to maintain life, grow, and reproduce. These metabolic activities involve a complex network of biochemical pathways that facilitate the conversion of nutrients into energy, biomolecules, and essential compounds necessary for bacterial survival.
Metabolic processes in bacteria include catabolic pathways that break down complex molecules (such as sugars) to release energy and anabolic pathways that build complex molecules (such as proteins, nucleic acids) using energy. Bacteria utilize various metabolic strategies based on their energy and carbon sources, including aerobic and anaerobic respiration, fermentation, and photosynthesis in photosynthetic bacteria.
The primary goals of bacterial metabolism are to obtain energy, synthesize necessary cellular components, regulate chemical processes, and adapt to changing environmental conditions. The understanding of bacterial metabolism is crucial for various fields, including medicine, agriculture, biotechnology, and environmental science, as it allows us to develop strategies to combat harmful bacteria, harness their metabolic capabilities for beneficial applications, and study their role in ecological systems.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
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2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
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Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
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2. At the end of the nineteenth century, a debate was raging as to whether the
process of ethanol formation required the presence of intact yeast cells.
In 1897, Eduard Büchner, discovered that fermentation was producing ethanol and
bubbles of carbon dioxide. Büchner had shown that fermentation did not require
the presence of intact cells.
It was soon found, however, that fermentation was very
different from the types of reactions carried out by
organic chemists.
Fermentation required the presence of a unique set of
catalysts that had no counterpart in the nonliving
world. These catalysts were called enzymes (after the
Greek for “in yeast”).
Introduction
2
3. Enzymes are the mediators of metabolism, responsible for virtually every reaction
that occurs in a cell.
Without enzymes, metabolic reactions would proceed so slowly as to be
imperceptible.
The first evidence that enzymes are proteins was obtained in 1926 by James
Sumner of Cornell University, when he crystallized the enzyme urease from jack
beans and determined its composition.
Eventually, it became evident that certain biological reactions are catalyzed by RNA
molecules. For the sake of clarity, the term enzyme is still generally reserved for
protein catalysts, while the term ribozyme is used for RNA catalysts.
Introduction
3
4. The Properties of Enzymes
o As is true of all catalysts, enzymes exhibit the following properties:
(1) They are required only in small amounts;
(2) They are not altered irreversibly during the course of the reaction, and therefore
each enzyme molecule can participate repeatedly in individual reactions.
(3) They have no effect on the thermodynamics of the reaction.
This last point is particularly important. Enzymes do not supply energy for a chemical
reaction and therefore do not determine whether a reaction is thermodynamically
favorable or unfavorable.
Similarly, enzymes do not determine the ratio of products to reactants at equilibrium.
These are inherent properties of the reacting chemicals.
As catalysts, enzymes can only accelerate the rate at which a favorable chemical
reaction proceeds.
Introduction
4
5. Enzymes are critical for every aspect of cellular life:
Cell shape and motility
Surface receptor
Cell cycle
Metabolism
Transcription
Hormone release
Muscle contraction
Protein synthesis
Importance of enzymes
5
6. The study of enzymes has immense practical importance. In some
diseases, especially inheritable genetic disorders, there may be a
deficiency or even a total absence of one or more enzymes.
For other disease conditions, excessive activity of an enzyme may be the
cause.
Measurements of the activities of enzymes in blood plasma,
erythrocytes, or tissue samples are important in diagnosing certain
illnesses.
Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is normally not found in high levels in
blood, as it is produced in cells
– Increased levels of LDH in the blood indicate
myocardial infarction (MI) (Heart attack)
Medical Uses of Enzymes
6
7. Many drugs exert their biological effects through interactions with enzymes.
• There is no direct test to measure urea in the blood
– Urease converts urea into ammonia, which is easily measured
& is used as urea indicator
• Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) is used to measure kidney function
– High urea levels in the blood indicate kidney malfunction
– Tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) activates the enzyme plasminogen that
dissolves blood clots
• Used in the treatment of MI (myocardial infarction).
Medical Uses of Enzymes
7
8. The ability to detect and to quantify the activity of specific enzymes in
blood, other tissue fluids, or cell extracts provides information that
complements the physician’s ability to diagnose and predict the prognosis
of many diseases.
Further medical applications include changes in the quantity or in the
catalytic activity of key enzymes that can result from genetic defects,
nutritional deficits, tissue damage, toxins, or infection by viral or bacterial
pathogens (eg, Vibrio cholerae).
Medical scientists address imbalances in enzyme activity by using
pharmacologic agents to inhibit specific enzymes and are investigating
gene therapy as a means to remedy deficits in enzyme level or function
8
Medical Uses of Enzymes
11. Enzymes are important practical tools, not only in medicine but in the
chemical industry, food processing, and agriculture.
Proteases and amylases augment the capacity of detergents to remove dirt
and stains, and enzymes play important roles in producing or enhancing the
nutrient value of food products for both humans and animals.
The protease rennin, for example, is utilized in the production of cheeses
while lactase is employed to remove lactose from milk for the benefit of
lactose-intolerant persons deficient in this hydrolytic enzyme.
Finally, stereospecific enzyme catalysts can be of particular value in the
biosynthesis of complex drugs or antibiotics.
11
12. Enzymes act like a functional biocatalyst that only cause catalysis of distinct
substrates into particular products and allow the reaction to occur at an
increased rate without being consumed.
Thus, the enzyme’s primary function is to accelerate the reaction rate.
Enzymes neither affect the nature of products formed nor undergo any
changes by the reaction catalyzed.
Only the active site of an enzyme goes through certain conformational changes
during the substrate binding
General Properties of Enzyme
12
13. Enzymes are biomolecules that are highly specific.
All metabolic processes in our body need enzymes to catalyze reaction at a faster
rate.
Enzymes are naturally produced by living cells, unlike catalysts
Enzymes are larger than substrates.
Enzymes reside within the protoplasm as hydrophilic colloids.
Enzymes are present in all body cells, and each function in a specific reaction.
Enzymes catalyze all essential reactions (oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis,
esterification, synthesis, molecular interconversion) that supply the energy and/or
chemical changes necessary for vital activates (muscle contraction, nerve conduction,
respiration, digestion, growth, reproduction, maintain of the body temperature).
General Properties of Enzyme
13
14. General Properties of Enzyme
The general properties of enzyme include the following characteristics:
•Enzymes initiate and accelerate the reaction.
•The activity of an enzyme is pH-specific.
•Enzymes can catalyze reactions in a forward and reverse manner, but do not decide the
direction of the biochemical pathway.
•An enzyme possesses a specialized region (active site), to which substrate specifically
interacts to form desired products.
•Under high heat, temperature and varying pH, an enzyme becomes unstable.
•Enzymes are proteinaceous possessing properties characteristic to proteins.
14
15. General Properties of Enzyme
A small amount of enzyme is required to bring catalysis of substrates.
Some enzymes are regulatory in function.
Its primary function is to minimize the activation energy.
The enzymes remain unaltered during and after the product formation, or
they can be reconsumed.
An enzyme may possess an allosteric site besides an active site, to which
cofactors or regulators interact.
Enzymes are soluble in water and NaCl
15
16. Enzymes as Biocatalysts
Reasons that why enzymes are regarded as “Biocatalysts” are as follows:
Like catalysts, enzymes speed up the reaction rate by reducing the transition time
between the substrate and product.
As catalysts, enzymes also regulate reaction-specificity, in which only specific
substrate adhere to an enzyme’s active site to bring product formation.
Similar to the function of catalysts, enzymes only take part in the biochemical
reaction without being consumed or altering the equilibrium state.
Like catalysts, enzymes influence or initiate the biochemical reaction by lowering
the activation energy and increase the transition energy of substrate into product.
16
18. Biocatalyst Nature
Enzymes serve as a biocatalyst, and the reasons we have discussed earlier
in this lecture.
Physical Properties of Enzyme
Enzyme Activity
The mechanism of enzyme action strongly depends upon the factors like
temperature, pH, and concentration of enzyme and substrate.
A higher concentration of enzyme will result in faster enzymatic activity,
as more substrates will interact with the enzyme’s active site to bring
product formation.
Once the reaction velocity reaches a maximum value, there would not be
any changes in the enzymatic reaction even after the addition of enzyme
and substrate.
18
19. Colloidal Nature
Enzymes behave as colloids due to their large size or high molecular weight. As a
result, the enzymes have a little or no tendency to dialyze or cross the semi-
permeable membrane.
)A colloid is a mixture in which one substance consisting of microscopically dispersed
insoluble particles is suspended throughout another substance(.
Enzyme Precipitation
Acidic and alkaline solution can cause enzyme precipitation, as the enzymes
are amphoteric (possess amino and carboxylic acid group towards the end of the
chain). Ethanol and a high concentration of inorganic salts like ammonium
sulphate facilitate enzyme precipitation.
19
Physical Properties of Enzyme
20. Molecular Weight
Enzymes are large protein biomolecules possessing a polypeptide chain of various
amino acid sequence. Nearly 200 to 300 peptide bonds hold the amino acids together.
Therefore, enzymes have a high molecular weight.
Enzyme Solubility
Enzymes are soluble in water, NaCl, diluted glycerol and alcohol.
Enzyme Denaturation
High heat (above 40 degrees Celsius) and alternations in the pH (too low and too
high), heavy metals, and high salt concentration etc., denatures the enzyme by
breaking the intra and inter-molecular noncovalent bonds. It distorts the enzyme’s
shape and active site and finally results in the loss of enzyme activity 20
Physical Properties of Enzyme