"Bacterial metabolism: Fueling life's processes in tiny powerhouses."
Use of bacterial metabolism in biotechnology, biofuels, and other industries
Examples of how bacterial metabolism is harnessed for beneficial purposes
"Metabolism: the sum of chemical reactions in an organism, supporting growth, energy production, and vital functions."
"Bacterial Metabolism and Life: Pervading every aspect of life, shaping ecosystems, and influencing our world."
Bacterial metabolism refers to the collective chemical reactions and processes that occur within bacterial cells, enabling them to maintain life, grow, and reproduce. These metabolic activities involve a complex network of biochemical pathways that facilitate the conversion of nutrients into energy, biomolecules, and essential compounds necessary for bacterial survival.
Metabolic processes in bacteria include catabolic pathways that break down complex molecules (such as sugars) to release energy and anabolic pathways that build complex molecules (such as proteins, nucleic acids) using energy. Bacteria utilize various metabolic strategies based on their energy and carbon sources, including aerobic and anaerobic respiration, fermentation, and photosynthesis in photosynthetic bacteria.
The primary goals of bacterial metabolism are to obtain energy, synthesize necessary cellular components, regulate chemical processes, and adapt to changing environmental conditions. The understanding of bacterial metabolism is crucial for various fields, including medicine, agriculture, biotechnology, and environmental science, as it allows us to develop strategies to combat harmful bacteria, harness their metabolic capabilities for beneficial applications, and study their role in ecological systems.
An enzyme is a biological catalyst and is almost always a protein. It speeds up the rate of a specific chemical reaction in the cell. The enzyme is not destroyed during the reaction and is used over and over.
An enzyme is a biological catalyst and is almost always a protein. It speeds up the rate of a specific chemical reaction in the cell. The enzyme is not destroyed during the reaction and is used over and over.
unit-4 enzymes by poonam9 Pgdiploma.pptxpoonam869505
enzymes-
-definition,types and classification of enzymes.
-coenzymes,specificity of enzymes ,isoenzymes,enzyme kinetics including factors affecting velocity of enzymes catalysed reaction.enzyme inhibition
Bacteria are tiny, single-celled living organisms. There are millions of diff...AyushiSharma843565
Bacteria are tiny, single-celled living organisms. There are millions of different types of bacteria. Many can be found in and on your body and are beneficial to you. These bacteria make up your microbiome, which keeps your body healthy
WIPO.WIPO administers 26 international treaties that concern a wide variety o...AyushiSharma843565
The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is the global forum for intellectual property (IP) services, policy, information and cooperation. We are a self-funding agency of the United Nations, with 193 member states
unit-4 enzymes by poonam9 Pgdiploma.pptxpoonam869505
enzymes-
-definition,types and classification of enzymes.
-coenzymes,specificity of enzymes ,isoenzymes,enzyme kinetics including factors affecting velocity of enzymes catalysed reaction.enzyme inhibition
Bacteria are tiny, single-celled living organisms. There are millions of diff...AyushiSharma843565
Bacteria are tiny, single-celled living organisms. There are millions of different types of bacteria. Many can be found in and on your body and are beneficial to you. These bacteria make up your microbiome, which keeps your body healthy
WIPO.WIPO administers 26 international treaties that concern a wide variety o...AyushiSharma843565
The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is the global forum for intellectual property (IP) services, policy, information and cooperation. We are a self-funding agency of the United Nations, with 193 member states
STAINSStains and dyes are frequently used in histology, in cytology, and in t...AyushiSharma843565
Staining is a technique used to enhance contrast in samples, generally at the microscopic level. Stains and dyes are frequently used in histology, in cytology, and in the medical fields of histopathology, hematology, and cytopathology that focus on the study and diagnoses of diseases at the microscopic level
BIOTECHNOLOGYBiotechnology is technology that utilizes biological systems, li...AyushiSharma843565
Biotechnology is technology that utilizes biological systems, living organisms, or parts of them to develop or create different products. Brewing and baking bread are examples of processes that fall within the concept of biotechnology (the use of yeast (a living organism) to produce the desired product).
A centrifuge is a device used to separate components of a mixture on the basis of their size, density, the viscosity of the medium, and the rotor speed.
The centrifuge is commonly used in laboratories for the separation of biological molecules from a crude extract.
In a centrifuge, the sample is kept in a rotor that is rotated about a fixed point (axis), resulting in strong force perpendicular to the axis.
There are different types of centrifuge used for the separation of different molecules, but they all work on the principle of sedimentation.
Laminar Air Flow provides a work area with Aseptic/Sterile conditions for th...AyushiSharma843565
Laminar Air Flow is an enclosed bench designed to prevent contaminations like biological particles or any particle sensitive device.
This closed cabinet is usually made up of stainless steel without any gap or joints where spores might collect.
Laminar Hoods are equipped with a shortwave ultraviolet germicidal lamp to sterilize the shell
Food preservation ,any number of methods by which food is kept from spoilage after harvest. Such practices date to prehistoric times .
Among the oldest methods of preservations are drying ,refrigeration , & fermentation.
Modern methods inclues canning, pasteurization ,freezing, irradiation, & the addition of chemicals.
Advances in packaging marterials have played an important role in modern food preservation .
Prebiotics are the part of food microbiome and food microbiologyAyushiSharma843565
Prebiotics are food substances that promote the growth of certain bacteria (generally beneficial) in the intestines.
Prebiotics are non digestible food ingredients that selectively stimulate the growth and activity of beneficial microorganisms already in people colons.
Food spoilage is the process leading to a product becoming either undesirable...AyushiSharma843565
Food spoilage is the process where a food product becomes unsuitable to ingest by the consumer. The cause of such a process is due to many outside factors as a side-effect of the type of product it is, as well as how the product is packaged and stored.
Silage is defined as a material produced by controlled fermantation of crops under anaerobic condition.
Green fodder can be conserved assilage after fermantation
term mycotoxin is derived from the Greek word – ‘mykes’ meaning ‘fungus’ and ...AyushiSharma843565
Mycotoxins are group of compounds produced by some strains of certain fungi that cause illness or death when ingested by man or animals.
They are low molecular weight, non-antigenic, heat stable secondary fungal metabolites.
A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source.
Mushroom belongs in the kingdom Fungi.
Systematic bacteriology is a branch of microbiology that focuses on the classification, identification, and nomenclature of bacteria. It involves the systematic organization of bacteria into taxonomic groups based on their morphological, physiological, biochemical, and genetic characteristics. The goal is to create a comprehensive and structured framework for understanding the diversity of bacterial species.
Microscopy is the technique of using microscopes to observe and analyze objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Microscopes are instruments that magnify and resolve the details of objects, allowing scientists and researchers to study the structure, composition, and behavior of materials and specimens at a microscopic level
Autoimmunity refers to a condition in which the immune system, which is designed to protect the body from foreign invaders such as bacteria and viruses, mistakenly attacks the body's own cells. In a healthy immune system, the body can distinguish between its own cells and foreign substances. However, in autoimmune diseases, this ability is compromised, leading to immune responses against normal, healthy tissues.
There are over 80 known autoimmune diseases, and they can affect almost any part of the body. Some common autoimmune diseases include rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis, and inflammatory bowel disease.
A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that can carry out the fundamental processes necessary for an organism's survival. Cells can vary widely in size, shape, and function, but they share common features and principles.
There are two main types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells, found in bacteria and archaea, lack a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotic cells, present in plants, animals, fungi, and protists, have a defined nucleus and various membrane-bound organelles that compartmentalize cellular functions.
Systematic bacteriology, also known as bacterial taxonomy or bacterial systematics, is a branch of microbiology that focuses on the classification, identification, and naming of bacteria. It plays a crucial role in organizing and understanding the diversity of bacteria, which are a diverse group of microorganisms with a wide range of shapes, sizes, and metabolic capabilities
Pathogenic bacteria are microorganisms that have the capability to cause various diseases in their host organisms. They can harm their host by releasing toxins, invading tissues, and disrupting normal physiological processes. Pathogenic bacteria can cause a wide range of illnesses, from mild to severe.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
3. INTRODUCTION
• The human body is composed of different types of cells, tissues and other complex organs.
For efficient functioning, our body releases some chemicals to accelerate biological processes
such as respiration, digestion, excretion and a few other metabolic activities to sustain a
healthy life. Hence, enzymes are pivotal in all living entities which govern all the biological
processes.
• Enzymes are proteins that help speed up metabolism, or the chemical reactions in our
bodies. They build some substances and break others down. All living things have enzymes.
Our bodies naturally produce enzymes. But enzymes are also in manufactured products and
food.
• STRUCTURE OF ENZYMES -Enzymes are a linear chain of amino acids, which give rise
to a three-dimensional structure. The sequence of amino acids specifies the structure, which in
turn identifies the catalytic activity of the enzyme. Upon heating, the enzyme’s structure
denatures, resulting in a loss of enzyme activity, which typically is associated with
temperature.
• It is compared to its substrates, enzymes are typically large with varying sizes, ranging from
62 amino acid residues to an average of 2500 residues found in fatty acid synthase.
• Only a small section of the structure is involved in catalysis and is situated next to the
binding sites. The catalytic site and binding site together constitute the enzyme’s active site.
• A small number of ribozymes exist which serve as an RNA-based biological catalyst. It reacts
in complex with proteins.
4.
5.
6. • “Enzymes can be defined as biological polymers that catalyze biochemical reactions.”
• The majority of enzymes are proteins with catalytic capabilities crucial to perform
different processes. Metabolic processes and other chemical reactions in the cell are
carried out by a set of enzymes that are necessary to sustain life.
• The initial stage of metabolic process depends upon the enzymes, which react with
a molecule and is called the substrate. Enzymes convert the substrates into other
distinct molecules, which are known as products.
• The regulation of enzymes has been a key element in clinical diagnosis because of
their role in maintaining life processes. The macromolecular components of all
enzymes consist of protein, except in the class of RNA catalysts called ribozymes.
The word ribozyme is derived from the ribonucleic acid enzyme. Many ribozymes
are molecules of ribonucleic acid, which catalyze reactions in one of their own
bonds or among other RNAs.
• Enzymes are found in all tissues and fluids of the body. Catalysis of all reactions
taking place in metabolic pathways is carried out by intracellular enzymes. The
enzymes in the plasma membrane govern the catalysis in the cells as a response to
cellular signals and enzymes in the circulatory System regulate the clotting of
blood. Most of the critical life processes are established on the functions of
enzymes.
7.
8.
9. Classification of Enzymes
• Oxidoreductases
• These catalyze oxidation and reduction reactions, e.g. pyruvate dehydrogenase, catalysing
the oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A.
• Transferases
• These catalyze transferring of the chemical group from one to another compound. An
example is a transaminase, which transfers an amino group from one molecule to another.
• Hydrolases
• They catalyze the hydrolysis of a bond. For example, the enzyme pepsin hydrolyzes peptide
bonds in proteins.
• Lyases
• These catalyze the breakage of bonds without catalysis, e.g. aldolase (an enzyme in glycolysis)
catalyzes the splitting of fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and
dihydroxyacetone phosphate.
• Isomerases
• They catalyze the formation of an isomer of a compound. Example: phosphoglucomutase
catalyzes the conversion of glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate (phosphate group is
transferred from one to another position in the same compound) in glycogenolysis (glycogen
is converted to glucose for energy to be released quickly).
10. • Ligases
• Ligases catalyze the association of two molecules. For example, DNA ligase
catalyzes the joining of two fragments of DNA by forming a
phosphodiester bond.
• Cofactors
• Cofactors are non-proteinous substances that associate with enzymes. A
cofactor is essential for the functioning of an enzyme. An enzyme without
a cofactor is called an apoenzyme. An enzyme and its cofactor together
constitute the holoenzyme.
• There are three kinds of cofactors present in enzymes:
• Prosthetic groups: These are cofactors tightly bound to an enzyme at all
times. FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) is a prosthetic group present in
many enzymes.
• Coenzyme: A coenzyme binds to an enzyme only during catalysis. At all
other times, it is detached from the enzyme. NAD+ is a common
coenzyme.
• Metal ions: For the catalysis of certain enzymes, a metal ion is required at
the active site to form coordinate bonds. Zn2+ is a metal ion cofactor used
by a number of enzymes.
11. • Examples of Enzymes :-
• Following are some of the examples of enzymes:
• Beverages
• Alcoholic beverages generated by fermentation vary a lot based on many factors.
Based on the type of the plant’s product, which is to be used and the type of enzyme
applied, the fermented product varies.
• For example, grapes, honey, hops, wheat, cassava roots, and potatoes depending
upon the materials available. Beer, wines and other drinks are produced from plant
fermentation.
• Food Products
• Bread can be considered as the finest example of fermentation in our everyday life.
• A small proportion of yeast and sugar is mixed with the batter for making bread. Then
one can observe that the bread gets puffed up as a result of fermentation of the sugar
by the enzyme action in yeast, which leads to the formation of carbon dioxide gas.
This process gives the texture to the bread, which would be missing in the absence of
the fermentation process.
• Drug Action
• Enzyme action can be inhibited or promoted by the use of drugs which tend to work
around the active sites of enzymes.
12. Mechanism of Enzyme Reaction
• Any two molecules have to collide for the reaction to
occur along with the right orientation and a sufficient
amount of energy.
• The energy between these molecules needs to overcome
the barrier in the reaction. This energy is called activation
energy.
• Enzymes are said to possess an active site. The active site
is a part of the molecule that has a definite shape and the
functional group for the binding of reactant molecules.
• The molecule that binds to the enzyme is referred to as
the substrate group. The substrate and the enzyme form
an intermediate reaction with low activation energy
without any catalysts.
13. BIOLOGICAL CATALYST
• Catalysts are the substances which play a significant role in the chemical
reaction. Catalysis is the phenomenon by which the rate of a chemical
reaction is altered/ enhanced without changing themselves. During a
chemical reaction, a catalyst remains unchanged, both in terms of quantity
and chemical properties.
• An enzyme is one such catalyst which is commonly known as the
biological catalyst. Enzymes present in the living organisms enhance the
rate of reactions which take place within the body.
• Biological catalysts, enzymes, are extremely specific that catalyze a single
chemical reaction or some closely associated reactions. An enzyme’s exact
structure and its active site decide an enzyme’s specificity. Substrate
molecules attach themselves at the active site of an enzyme.
• Initially, substrates associate themselves by interactions to the enzymes
which include ionic, hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions.
Enzymes reduce the reactions and activation energy to progress towards
equilibrium quicker than the reactions that are not catalyzed. Both
eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells usually make use of regulation to respond
to fluctuations in the state inside the cells.
• The nature of enzyme action and factors affecting the enzyme activity are
discussed below.
14. CO FACTORS
• Cofactors can be metals or small organic molecules, and their primary function is
to assist in enzyme activity. They are able to assist in performing certain,
necessary, reactions the enzyme cannot perform alone. They are divided into
coenzymes and prosthetic groups.
•
Cofactor-dependent enzymes exhibit extremely useful synthetic utility. However,
the high cost and low availability of enzyme cofactors preclude their use in
amounts.
• As a result, various cofactor regeneration strategies have been developed that
serve to regenerate the required cofactor, while simultaneously driving the
reaction equilibrium toward the desired products. Cofactor regeneration systems
have been demonstrated using chemical, electrochemical, and photochemical
methods.
• However, enzymatic methods continue to dominate regeneration processes due
to stringent requirements for selectivity and compatibility with the reaction of
interest. The most notable recent developments in cofactor regeneration have
been the use of multienzyme regeneration systems and enzyme immobilization.
• These recent developments have enabled the increasingly widespread use of
cofactor-dependent enzymes at industrial scale.
15. TRACE ELEMENTS
• A trace element, also called minor element, is a chemical
element whose concentration is very low. They are
classified into two groups: essential and non-essential.
• Essential trace elements are needed for many physiological
and biochemical processes in both plants and animals.
• Trace elements (or trace metals) are minerals present in
living tissues in small amounts.
• Some of them are known to be nutritionally essential, others
may be essential (although the evidence is only suggestive
or incomplete), and the remainder are considered to be
nonessential.
16.
17. BIOCHEMISTRY OF
METHANOGENES
• The biochemistry of methanogenesis involves the following coenzymes and cofactors:
F420, coenzyme B, coenzyme M, methanofuran, and methanopterin. . Coupling of the
coenzyme M thiyl radical (RS) with HS coenzyme B releases a proton and re-reduces Ni(II)
by one-electron, regenerating Ni(I).
• Since fossil sources for fuel and platform chemicals will become limited in the near future, it
is important to develop new concepts for energy supply and production of basic reagents for
chemical industry.
• One alternative to crude oil and fossil natural gas could be the biological conversion of CO2
or small organic molecules to methane via methanogenic archaea.
• This process has been known from biogas plants, but recently, new insights into the
methanogenic metabolism, technical optimizations and new technology combinations were
gained, which would allow moving beyond the mere conversion of biomass. In biogas plants,
steps have been undertaken to increase yield and purity of the biogas, such as addition of
hydrogen or metal granulate.
• Furthermore, the integration of electrodes led to the development of microbial
electrosynthesis (MES). The idea behind this technique is to use CO2 and electrical power to
generate methane via the microbial metabolism. This review summarizes the biochemical and
metabolic background of methanogenesis as well as the latest technical applications of
methanogens.
• As a result, it shall give a sufficient overview over the topic to both, biologists and engineers
handling biological or bioelectrochemical methanogenesis.
18. • Methanogens are spherical or rod shaped archaebacteria that
produce methane as metabolic byproduct in low oxygen
environment. Methanogens are especially common in marshlands or
wetlands and even in the intestine of humans and ruminant
mammals
• Methanogenes are present as endosymbionts in many free-living
marine and freshwater anaerobic protozoa, where they are often
closely associated with hydrogenosomes, organelles that produce
H2, CO2, and acetate from the fermentation of polymeric substrates.
The products of the hydrogenosomes are substrates
for mthanogenesis.
• It is conceivable that the methanogens have a synergistic role by
lowering the H2 partial pressure to create a favorable
thermodynamic shift in the protozoan’s fermentation reaction. Also,
evidence suggests that excretion of undefined organic compounds
by the methagen provides an advantage to the protist host.
• Endosymbiont are also found in flagellates and ciliates that occur in
the hindgut of insects, such as termites, cockroaches, and tropical .
Although rumen ciliates do not harbor endosymbionic methanogens,
many have ectosymbionic methanogens that may have an analogous
function.
19.
20. NUCLEOTIDE SYNTHESIS
• Nucleotides are the fundamental building blocks essential for the synthesis of DNA and
RNA. Each nucleotide contains three functional groups: a sugar, a base, and phosphate.
• Nucleotides can be divided into two groups: pyrimidines and purines. The family of
pyrimidines includes thymine (T), cytosine (C), and uracil (U), which is only
incorporated into RNA. These compounds contain a single-ringed nitrogenous base that
pairs with a purine nucleotide counterpart.
• Thymine pairs with adenine forming two hydrogen bonds, in contrast to cytosine, which
pairs with guanine to form three hydrogen bonds. Purines, both guanine (G) and adenine
(A), are double-ringed structures and more difficult to break down in the body. As such,
the salvage pathway for purine metabolism is of importance.
• Nucleotide synthesis will be described below, but one of the fundamental requirements
of the synthesis of either purines or pyrimidines is the need for a five-carbon sugar
(ribose). This sugar is generated through glucose oxidation via the pentose phosphate
pathway.
• For purines synthesis, the base is synthesized and attached to the sugar, while for
pyrimidine synthesis, the sugar group is added after the base is produced. In either case,
ribose is the added sugar, and this must be converted to the deoxyribose form before the
bases can be used for DNA synthesis.
21. • Synthesis of purines
• Purines are composed of a bicyclic structure that is synthesized from carbon and nitrogen
donated from various compounds such as carbon dioxide, glycine, glutamine, aspartate, and
tetrahydrofolate (TH4). The synthesis of purines starts with the synthesis of
5ʼphosphoribosylamine from PRPP and glutamine.
• The enzyme glutamine phosphoribosylpyrophate amidotransferase (GPAT) catalyzes this
reaction and is the committed step in purine synthesis Synthesis continues for nine additional
steps culminating in the synthesis of inosine monophosphate (IMP), which contains the base
hypoxanthine.
• IMP is used to generate both AMP and GMP. The synthesis of both AMP and GMP requires
energy in the form of the alternative base (i.e., the synthesis of GMP requires ATP while AMP
synthesis requires energy in the form of GTP). The synthesis of AMP and GMP is regulated by
feedback inhibition This allows for the maintenance of nucleotides in a relative ratio that is
required for cellular processes.
• The generated nucleotide monophosphates can be converted to the di and triphosphate
forms by nucleotide specific kinases, which will transfer phosphate groups to maintain a
balance of the mono,di and triphosphate forms.
• Regulation of pyrimidine synthesis
• The reaction catalyzed by CSPII is the regulatory step in the pathway and is activated by PRPP
and ATP and inhibited by UTP.
•
22.
23. NUCLEOTIDE DEGRADATION
• Normal nucleic acid degradation leads to an accumulation of purine nucleotides
that are broken down into adenosine (Ado) and deoxyadenosine (dAdo), and
guanosine (Guo) and deoxyguanosine (dGuo).
• ADA is present in all cells and converts Ado and 2′-dAdo molecules into inosine
(Ino) and 2′-deoxyinosine), respectively. PNP converts Ino and 2′-dIno to
hypoxanthine, to guanine.
• These molecules can enter the purine salvage pathway (shown in green in the
figure below) and are converted back to ATP and GTP that can be recycled into
new purines in preparation for cell division.
• Thus, are crucial for the recycling of elements of old purines into new purines,
particularly in tissues in which cell division occurs at a rapid pace (such as the bone
marrow, thymus, and lymph nodes).
• Without ADA/PNP function (red pathway in the figure), high levels of accumulate
and are metabolized to These molecules are toxic and induce breaks in DNA, block
normal DNA methylation, and interfere with de novo DNA synthesis such that cell
death is triggered. Rapidly proliferating cells such as T and B lymphocytes and NK
cells are most affected by dATP and dGTP accumulation, and ADA and PNP
mutations therefore result in a variable loss of these cell types and clinical
symptoms of SCID.