This document discusses production and costs in the long run. It covers key concepts such as isoquants, isocost curves, returns to scale, and long-run costs including total, average, and marginal costs. The optimal combination of inputs is where the marginal rate of technical substitution equals the input price ratio. Long-run average cost is U-shaped and reflects economies or diseconomies of scale. Managers aim to minimize costs by choosing the least-cost combination of inputs on the expansion path.
cost of production / Chapter 6(pindyck)RAHUL SINHA
topics covered
•Production and firm
•The production function
•Short run versus Long run
•Production with one variable input(Labour)
•Average product
•Marginal product
•The slopes of the production curve
•Law of diminishing marginal returns
•Production with two variable inputs
•Isoquant
•Isoquant Maps
•Diminishing marginal returns
•Substitution among inputs
•Returns to scale
•Describing returns to scale
cost of production / Chapter 6(pindyck)RAHUL SINHA
topics covered
•Production and firm
•The production function
•Short run versus Long run
•Production with one variable input(Labour)
•Average product
•Marginal product
•The slopes of the production curve
•Law of diminishing marginal returns
•Production with two variable inputs
•Isoquant
•Isoquant Maps
•Diminishing marginal returns
•Substitution among inputs
•Returns to scale
•Describing returns to scale
Production Function is a statement of the relationship between a firm’s scarce resources (inputs) and the output that results from the use of these resources.
In mathematical terms, the PF can be expressed as:
Q= f (X1, X2…………Xk) where
Q=output, X1…………Xk=inputs used in the production process
Production Function is a statement of the relationship between a firm’s scarce resources (inputs) and the output that results from the use of these resources.
In mathematical terms, the PF can be expressed as:
Q= f (X1, X2…………Xk) where
Q=output, X1…………Xk=inputs used in the production process
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BYD SWOT Analysis and In-Depth Insights 2024.pptxmikemetalprod
Indepth analysis of the BYD 2024
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2. Elemental Economics - Mineral demand.pdfNeal Brewster
After this second you should be able to: Explain the main determinants of demand for any mineral product, and their relative importance; recognise and explain how demand for any product is likely to change with economic activity; recognise and explain the roles of technology and relative prices in influencing demand; be able to explain the differences between the rates of growth of demand for different products.
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2. Managerial EconomicsManagerial Economics
9-2
Production Isoquants
• In the long run, all inputs are variable
& isoquants are used to study
production decisions
• An isoquant is a curve showing all possible
input combinations capable of producing a
given level of output
• Isoquants are downward sloping; if
greater amounts of labor are used, less
capital is required to produce a given
output
4. Managerial EconomicsManagerial Economics
9-4
Marginal Rate of Technical
Substitution
• The MRTS is the slope of an isoquant
& measures the rate at which the two
inputs can be substituted for one
another while maintaining a constant
level of output
∆
= −
∆
K
MRTS
L
∆ ∆
MRTS
K L
The minus sign is added to make a positive
number since , the slope of the isoquant, is
negative
5. Managerial EconomicsManagerial Economics
9-5
Marginal Rate of Technical
Substitution
• The MRTS can also be expressed as
the ratio of two marginal products:
= L
K
MP
MRTS
MP
L
K
MP
MP MRTS
As labor is substituted for capital, declines &
rises causing to diminish
∆
= − =
∆
L
K
MPK
MRTS
L MP
6. Managerial EconomicsManagerial Economics
9-6
Isocost Curves
• Represents amount of capital that may be
purchased if zero labor is purchased
(C ) ( w, r )
Show various combinations of inputs that
may be purchased for given level of
expenditure at given input prices
•
• K C r-intercept is
= −
C w
K L
r r
•
−( w r )
Slope of an isocost curve is the negative
of the input price ratio
8. Managerial EconomicsManagerial Economics
9-8
Optimal Combination of Inputs
• Two slopes are equal in equilibrium
• Implies marginal product per dollar spent on last
unit of each input is the same
Q
Q
Minimize total cost of producing by
choosing the input combination on the
isoquant for which is just tangent to an
isocost curve
•
= =L L K
K
MP MP MPw
MP r w r
or
10. Managerial EconomicsManagerial Economics
9-
Optimization & Cost
• Expansion path gives the efficient
(least-cost) input combinations for
every level of output
• Derived for a specific set of input prices
• Along expansion path, input-price ratio is
constant & equal to the marginal rate of
technical substitution
12. Managerial EconomicsManagerial Economics
9-
Returns to Scale
• If all inputs are increased by a factor of c &
output goes up by a factor of z then, in
general, a producer experiences:
• Increasing returns to scale if z > c; output goes up
proportionately more than the increase in input
usage
• Decreasing returns to scale if z < c; output goes up
proportionately less than the increase in input usage
• Constant returns to scale if z = c; output goes up by
the same proportion as the increase in input usage
f(cL, cK) = zQ
13. Managerial EconomicsManagerial Economics
9-
Long-Run Costs
• Long-run total cost (LTC) for a
given level of output is given by:
LTC = wL* + rK*
Where w & r are prices of labor & capital,
respectively, & (L*, K*) is the input combination
on the expansion path that minimizes the total
cost of producing that output
14. Managerial EconomicsManagerial Economics
9-
Long-Run Costs
• Long-run average cost (LAC) measures the
cost per unit of output when production
can be adjusted so that the optimal
amount of each input is employed
• LAC is U-shaped
• Falling LAC indicates economies of scale
• Rising LAC indicates diseconomies of scale
=
LTC
LAC
Q
15. Managerial EconomicsManagerial Economics
9-
Long-Run Costs
• Long-run marginal cost (LMC) measures
the rate of change in long-run total cost as
output changes along expansion path
• LMC is U-shaped
• LMC lies below LAC when LAC is falling
• LMC lies above LAC when LAC is rising
• LMC = LAC at the minimum value of LAC
∆
=
∆
LTC
LMC
Q
20. Managerial EconomicsManagerial Economics
9-
Constant Long-Run Costs
• When constant returns to scale
occur over entire range of output
• Firm experiences constant costs in the
long run
• LAC curve is flat & equal to LMC at all
output levels
22. Managerial EconomicsManagerial Economics
9-
Economies of Scope
• Exist for a multi-product firm when the
joint cost of producing two or more goods
is less than the sum of the separate costs
of producing the two goods
• For two goods, X & Y, economies of scope
exist when:
C(X, Y) < C(X) + C(Y)
• Diseconomies of scope exist when:
C(X, Y) > C(X) + C(Y)
23. Managerial EconomicsManagerial Economics
9-
Relations Between Short-Run &
Long-Run Costs
• LMC intersects LAC when the latter is at its
minimum point
• At each output where a particular ATC is
tangent to LAC, the relevant SMC = LMC
• For all ATC curves, point of tangency with
LAC is at an output less (greater) than the
output of minimum ATC if the tangency is
at an output less (greater) than that
associated with minimum LAC
25. Managerial EconomicsManagerial Economics
9-
Restructuring Short-Run Costs
• Because managers have greatest
flexibility to choose inputs in the long
run, costs are lower in the long run than
in the short run for all output levels
except that for which the fixed input is
at its optimal level
• Short-run costs can be reduced by adjusting
fixed inputs to their optimal long-run levels
when the opportunity arises