Conjugate vaccines work by chemically linking a polysaccharide antigen from bacteria to a carrier protein or peptide. This elicits a stronger immune response compared to polysaccharide antigens alone. The first conjugate vaccine for Hib was developed in 1987 and significantly reduced Hib infection rates in children. Conjugate vaccines promote immunological memory by allowing the polysaccharide to be presented by MHC on antigen presenting cells to T cells. While more complex to produce, conjugate vaccines provide effective protection against encapsulated bacteria that ordinary vaccines cannot.
SYNTHETIC PEPTIDE VACCINES AND RECOMBINANT ANTIGEN VACCINED.R. Chandravanshi
This document discusses synthetic peptide vaccines and recombinant antigen vaccines. It begins with definitions of vaccines and how they work to induce an immune response. It then describes two types of modern vaccines: synthetic peptide vaccines and recombinant antigen vaccines. Synthetic peptide vaccines use short fragments of viral or bacterial proteins that contain epitopes to induce an immune response, while recombinant antigen vaccines produce antigens through DNA technology by inserting viral or bacterial DNA into cells that then express the antigen protein. Both types of modern vaccines offer advantages over traditional vaccines like easier production and stability without refrigeration.
DNA vaccines work by injecting DNA encoding antigens from pathogens. The host cells use this DNA to produce antigens, which are then displayed on the cell surface and trigger both humoral and cellular immune responses. DNA vaccines offer advantages over traditional vaccines like avoiding infectious organisms, not requiring refrigeration, and stimulating both arms of the immune system. They have shown protection against diseases in animal studies and have potential applications for influenza, hepatitis B, HIV, and malaria vaccines. However, DNA vaccines also have disadvantages like weak immune responses in humans.
Central tolerance refers to deletion of self-reactive T and B cells in the thymus and bone marrow during maturation. T cells that recognize self antigens undergo apoptosis in the thymus. Peripheral tolerance uses backup mechanisms like clonal deletion through activation-induced cell death, clonal anergy from lack of co-stimulation, and suppression by regulatory T cells. These mechanisms help prevent autoimmune disease by silencing self-reactive cells that escape central tolerance.
Vaccines work by exposing the immune system to weakened or killed forms of pathogens to stimulate antibody production against them. There are several types of vaccines including live attenuated vaccines using weakened live pathogens, inactivated vaccines using killed pathogens, subunit vaccines using pathogen proteins, DNA vaccines using genetic material, synthetic peptide vaccines, and toxoid vaccines using inactivated bacterial toxins. Vaccines provide active immunity and are the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases.
This document discusses subunit and peptide vaccines. Subunit vaccines contain purified antigens from pathogens rather than whole pathogens. They often require adjuvants and multiple doses to provide long-lasting immunity. Peptide vaccines use short amino acid sequences from pathogens to stimulate immune responses. While they are stable and inexpensive to produce, peptides may not stimulate T-cells on their own and require carriers or adjuvants. The document outlines advantages and disadvantages of both subunit and peptide vaccines.
This document discusses different types of vaccines and how they work. It describes passive immunization which transfers preformed antibodies, and active immunization which induces the immune system to produce its own antibodies. The main types of vaccines are listed as live-attenuated, inactivated, recombinant subunit, toxoid, conjugate polysaccharide-protein, and DNA vaccines. Each works in a different way, such as using live but weakened pathogens, killed pathogens, isolated proteins or toxins, or plasmid DNA, to elicit protective immunity against diseases.
Conjugate vaccines work by chemically linking a polysaccharide antigen from bacteria to a carrier protein or peptide. This elicits a stronger immune response compared to polysaccharide antigens alone. The first conjugate vaccine for Hib was developed in 1987 and significantly reduced Hib infection rates in children. Conjugate vaccines promote immunological memory by allowing the polysaccharide to be presented by MHC on antigen presenting cells to T cells. While more complex to produce, conjugate vaccines provide effective protection against encapsulated bacteria that ordinary vaccines cannot.
SYNTHETIC PEPTIDE VACCINES AND RECOMBINANT ANTIGEN VACCINED.R. Chandravanshi
This document discusses synthetic peptide vaccines and recombinant antigen vaccines. It begins with definitions of vaccines and how they work to induce an immune response. It then describes two types of modern vaccines: synthetic peptide vaccines and recombinant antigen vaccines. Synthetic peptide vaccines use short fragments of viral or bacterial proteins that contain epitopes to induce an immune response, while recombinant antigen vaccines produce antigens through DNA technology by inserting viral or bacterial DNA into cells that then express the antigen protein. Both types of modern vaccines offer advantages over traditional vaccines like easier production and stability without refrigeration.
DNA vaccines work by injecting DNA encoding antigens from pathogens. The host cells use this DNA to produce antigens, which are then displayed on the cell surface and trigger both humoral and cellular immune responses. DNA vaccines offer advantages over traditional vaccines like avoiding infectious organisms, not requiring refrigeration, and stimulating both arms of the immune system. They have shown protection against diseases in animal studies and have potential applications for influenza, hepatitis B, HIV, and malaria vaccines. However, DNA vaccines also have disadvantages like weak immune responses in humans.
Central tolerance refers to deletion of self-reactive T and B cells in the thymus and bone marrow during maturation. T cells that recognize self antigens undergo apoptosis in the thymus. Peripheral tolerance uses backup mechanisms like clonal deletion through activation-induced cell death, clonal anergy from lack of co-stimulation, and suppression by regulatory T cells. These mechanisms help prevent autoimmune disease by silencing self-reactive cells that escape central tolerance.
Vaccines work by exposing the immune system to weakened or killed forms of pathogens to stimulate antibody production against them. There are several types of vaccines including live attenuated vaccines using weakened live pathogens, inactivated vaccines using killed pathogens, subunit vaccines using pathogen proteins, DNA vaccines using genetic material, synthetic peptide vaccines, and toxoid vaccines using inactivated bacterial toxins. Vaccines provide active immunity and are the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases.
This document discusses subunit and peptide vaccines. Subunit vaccines contain purified antigens from pathogens rather than whole pathogens. They often require adjuvants and multiple doses to provide long-lasting immunity. Peptide vaccines use short amino acid sequences from pathogens to stimulate immune responses. While they are stable and inexpensive to produce, peptides may not stimulate T-cells on their own and require carriers or adjuvants. The document outlines advantages and disadvantages of both subunit and peptide vaccines.
This document discusses different types of vaccines and how they work. It describes passive immunization which transfers preformed antibodies, and active immunization which induces the immune system to produce its own antibodies. The main types of vaccines are listed as live-attenuated, inactivated, recombinant subunit, toxoid, conjugate polysaccharide-protein, and DNA vaccines. Each works in a different way, such as using live but weakened pathogens, killed pathogens, isolated proteins or toxins, or plasmid DNA, to elicit protective immunity against diseases.
Viruses are obligatory intracellular pathogens that infect cells by utilizing cell surface receptors. The innate immune system responds to viruses through induction of type I interferons like IFN-α and IFN-β, which are produced by infected cells and activate natural killer cells. The adaptive immune system mounts both humoral and cell-mediated responses against viruses. However, viruses have evolved multiple mechanisms to evade the host immune response, such as inhibiting interferon activity, blocking antigen presentation, and inhibiting apoptosis of infected cells.
A introduction on Viral vaccine for medical students.Although most attenuated vaccines are viral, some are bacterial in nature. Examples include the viral diseases yellow fever, measles, rubella, and mumps, and the bacterial disease typhoid.
T cells can be categorized into several subsets including helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells, memory T cells, and regulatory T cells. Helper T cells assist other immune cells, cytotoxic T cells destroy infected and tumor cells, memory T cells provide faster responses upon reexposure to pathogens, and regulatory T cells suppress immune activation and prevent autoimmunity. Understanding regulatory T cells in HIV-1 could lead to new immunotherapy or vaccine strategies, but their exact role in HIV-1 pathogenesis requires further study.
History
Introduction
Classification of grafts
The Immunology of Allogeneic Transplantation
Genetics of graft rejection
Types of rejection
Recognition of Alloantigens
Effector Mechanisms of Allograft Rejection
Prevention of graft rejection
Graft versus host reaction
This document discusses cell culture based vaccine production. It begins by introducing different types of vaccines and traditional egg-based vaccine production methods and their limitations. It then describes the importance and advantages of cell culture based methods, including types of cells used. The key steps of the cell culture based production process are outlined, including strain selection, bulk production, purification, virus inactivation, formulation, quality control testing, and lot release. Specific cell culture based vaccines for influenza, rabies, dengue, and Ebola are discussed. The conclusion emphasizes the potential for cell culture to replace egg-based methods by producing vaccines faster and in larger quantities to meet global demand.
Adjuvant is an immunological agent which enhances the body's immune response to an antigen.
Adjuvants may be added to a vaccine to boost the immune response to produce more antibodies and longer-lasting immunity, thus minimizing the dose of antigen needed to the vaccine.
Adjuvants are used in combination with a specific antigen that produced a more robust immune response than the antigen can do alone.
This document discusses monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies, including their production and uses. Monoclonal antibodies are produced from a single clone and recognize a single epitope, while polyclonal antibodies recognize multiple epitopes of an antigen. Monoclonal antibodies are produced via cell fusion and screening of hybridomas, while polyclonal antibodies are produced by injecting animals with antigens to elicit an immune response. Both have advantages and disadvantages for diagnostic and therapeutic applications.
This document summarizes cellular immune response (CMI) mediated by sensitized T cells. It describes how CMI is induced through antigen presentation and T cell receptor binding, leading to T cell proliferation and differentiation. The two main effector mechanisms of CMI are the release of cytokines like interleukin-2 and tumor necrosis factor, and the generation of cytotoxic T cells. Cytokines regulate immune cells and have various metabolic and inflammatory effects. Cytotoxic T cells directly kill target cells like virus-infected cells. Tests to detect CMI include skin tests and lymphocyte transformation assays in vitro. CMI plays an important role in immunity against intracellular pathogens and transplants.
Haptens are small molecules that are antigenic but not immunogenic on their own. They are unable to induce an immune response because they cannot activate helper T cells due to their inability to bind MHC proteins or activate B cells directly as they are univalent. However, when haptens are covalently bound to a carrier protein, they form immunogenic conjugates that can induce an immune response by activating helper T cells and B cells. Pioneering work by Karl Landsteiner demonstrated that antibodies produced against hapten-carrier conjugates were specific for the hapten and carrier epitopes. Common examples of haptens include drug molecules, peptides, and steroids. Hapten-protein conjugates can cause drug
The document discusses the history and development of vaccines. It begins with early discoveries in the 18th-19th centuries relating to smallpox and rabies vaccines. It then outlines major vaccine discoveries from the 1890s-1990s for diseases such as diphtheria, polio, measles, and hepatitis B. The document also describes different types of traditional and modern vaccines, including how they are prepared and the microorganisms they contain. It provides details on live attenuated, inactivated, subunit, and viral vector vaccines.
This document discusses different types of vaccines including synthetic peptide vaccines, recombinant antigen vaccines, and vector vaccines. Synthetic peptide vaccines use short peptide fragments to induce an immune response. Recombinant antigen vaccines produce antigens using DNA technology by inserting genes into host cells. Vector vaccines use non-pathogenic viruses or bacteria as vectors to deliver genes encoding antigens to stimulate immunity. Examples of extensively used viral vectors include vaccinia virus and adenovirus. Two vector vaccines are being developed against coronaviruses by using different viral vectors to deliver spike and nucleocapsid proteins.
Herd immunity occurs when a high percentage of a population is vaccinated, providing indirect protection to unvaccinated individuals. When enough people are vaccinated against a contagious disease, its spread is halted, thereby protecting even those who are not vaccinated such as newborns or the immunocompromised. The threshold for herd immunity varies by disease, depending on its transmissibility. Maintaining high vaccination rates is important for protecting vulnerable groups who cannot receive vaccines and eliminating diseases.
This document discusses immunosuppression and immune tolerance. It defines immunosuppression as a state of temporary or permanent dysfunction of the immune response, and describes some causes as diseases or drugs used before organ transplants. It also discusses immune tolerance, including the concept of self-tolerance and how the immune system distinguishes self from foreign antigens. Theories of tolerance include clonal deletion and anergy. Mechanisms of tolerance include central tolerance in the thymus and bone marrow for T and B cells, and peripheral tolerance for self-reactive cells that escape central tolerance checks. Failure of tolerance can lead to autoimmune diseases.
Cytokines are low molecular weight polypeptides or glycoproteins that are secreted by cells and have various functions including mediating and regulating immune responses and inflammatory reactions. Cytokines are produced by lymphocytes, monocytes, macrophages, mast cells, glial cells and other cells. They act through autocrine, paracrine or endocrine mechanisms and initiate their actions by binding to specific membrane receptors. Cytokines have pleiotropic, redundant, synergistic and antagonistic effects and form a cytokine network. The major classes of cytokines include interleukins, tumor necrosis factors, interferons, colony stimulating factors, transforming growth factors and chemokines. Cytokines play important roles in various diseases and their therapeutic uses include treatment
This document summarizes the baculovirus expression system. Baculoviruses can be used as expression vectors by replacing a non-essential viral gene with a gene of interest. The recombinant baculovirus is produced through homologous recombination or using the Bac-to-Bac system. Insect cells are infected with the recombinant baculovirus, which drives high-level expression of the foreign gene. The baculovirus expression system allows safe, scalable production of recombinant proteins for research applications.
This document provides an introduction to animal cell culture by Dr. Anu P. Abhimannue. It discusses the history and development of animal cell culture from the early 20th century. It describes different types of animal cell culture such as primary versus secondary culture and finite versus continuous cell lines. It also discusses various cell culture methods like monolayer, suspension, types of culture vessels used and morphology of cultured cells. The document provides advantages and limitations of animal cell culture techniques.
Recombinant vaccines use genetic engineering techniques to produce antigens that induce protective immunity. They offer advantages over conventional vaccines like improved safety and defined composition. Recombinant vaccines work by inserting genes for antigens into vectors like viruses. This allows the vector to produce the antigen and elicit an immune response. They can target specific cells and induce immunity through multiple routes of administration. While live recombinant vaccines carry a risk of reversion, they elicit strong immune responses from just one or a few doses. Future areas of development include improved delivery methods and use of immunomodulators and plant expression systems.
The complement system is part of the innate immune system and consists of over 30 proteins. It was originally identified in the 1890s by Jules Bordet and Paul Ehrlich as a heat-labile component of serum that enhanced the ability of antibodies to kill bacteria. There are three complement activation pathways: the classical pathway which is initiated by antibody-antigen complexes, the lectin pathway which is activated by mannose-binding lectin, and the alternative pathway which is spontaneously activated by microbial surfaces. Complement activation results in opsonization, inflammation, and formation of the membrane attack complex to kill microbes. Deficiencies in specific complement components can increase susceptibility to certain infections.
Immune responses to infectious diseases Hadia Azhar
The document summarizes resistance and immune responses to infectious diseases. It discusses the four main types of pathogens (viruses, bacteria, protozoa, helminths) and provides details on immune responses to specific pathogens like influenza virus, diphtheria bacteria, malaria protozoa (Plasmodium), and parasitic worms. It also notes that microbes have evolved ways to evade the immune system, such as antigenic variation, hiding in protected niches, and suppressing immune responses.
These slides are based on the notes provided by the K V Sangathan. For the revision of thermodynamics the notes are pretty awseome. I f only want submit the home work they will do so.I am sure they will help.
THANK YOU
Vector vaccines use weakened live viruses or bacteria to transport antigen genes from pathogenic organisms and stimulate an immune response. They are derived from attenuated pathogens that are too weak to cause disease but strong enough to produce an immune response. Common vector vaccines include those using vaccinia virus, Salmonella bacteria, and adenoviruses to deliver antigens from pathogens like malaria, cholera, and HIV. While vector vaccines aim to induce mucosal immunity and have advantages over other vaccines, their development faces challenges in safety, production costs, and inducing effective immunity against diseases.
Viruses are obligatory intracellular pathogens that infect cells by utilizing cell surface receptors. The innate immune system responds to viruses through induction of type I interferons like IFN-α and IFN-β, which are produced by infected cells and activate natural killer cells. The adaptive immune system mounts both humoral and cell-mediated responses against viruses. However, viruses have evolved multiple mechanisms to evade the host immune response, such as inhibiting interferon activity, blocking antigen presentation, and inhibiting apoptosis of infected cells.
A introduction on Viral vaccine for medical students.Although most attenuated vaccines are viral, some are bacterial in nature. Examples include the viral diseases yellow fever, measles, rubella, and mumps, and the bacterial disease typhoid.
T cells can be categorized into several subsets including helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells, memory T cells, and regulatory T cells. Helper T cells assist other immune cells, cytotoxic T cells destroy infected and tumor cells, memory T cells provide faster responses upon reexposure to pathogens, and regulatory T cells suppress immune activation and prevent autoimmunity. Understanding regulatory T cells in HIV-1 could lead to new immunotherapy or vaccine strategies, but their exact role in HIV-1 pathogenesis requires further study.
History
Introduction
Classification of grafts
The Immunology of Allogeneic Transplantation
Genetics of graft rejection
Types of rejection
Recognition of Alloantigens
Effector Mechanisms of Allograft Rejection
Prevention of graft rejection
Graft versus host reaction
This document discusses cell culture based vaccine production. It begins by introducing different types of vaccines and traditional egg-based vaccine production methods and their limitations. It then describes the importance and advantages of cell culture based methods, including types of cells used. The key steps of the cell culture based production process are outlined, including strain selection, bulk production, purification, virus inactivation, formulation, quality control testing, and lot release. Specific cell culture based vaccines for influenza, rabies, dengue, and Ebola are discussed. The conclusion emphasizes the potential for cell culture to replace egg-based methods by producing vaccines faster and in larger quantities to meet global demand.
Adjuvant is an immunological agent which enhances the body's immune response to an antigen.
Adjuvants may be added to a vaccine to boost the immune response to produce more antibodies and longer-lasting immunity, thus minimizing the dose of antigen needed to the vaccine.
Adjuvants are used in combination with a specific antigen that produced a more robust immune response than the antigen can do alone.
This document discusses monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies, including their production and uses. Monoclonal antibodies are produced from a single clone and recognize a single epitope, while polyclonal antibodies recognize multiple epitopes of an antigen. Monoclonal antibodies are produced via cell fusion and screening of hybridomas, while polyclonal antibodies are produced by injecting animals with antigens to elicit an immune response. Both have advantages and disadvantages for diagnostic and therapeutic applications.
This document summarizes cellular immune response (CMI) mediated by sensitized T cells. It describes how CMI is induced through antigen presentation and T cell receptor binding, leading to T cell proliferation and differentiation. The two main effector mechanisms of CMI are the release of cytokines like interleukin-2 and tumor necrosis factor, and the generation of cytotoxic T cells. Cytokines regulate immune cells and have various metabolic and inflammatory effects. Cytotoxic T cells directly kill target cells like virus-infected cells. Tests to detect CMI include skin tests and lymphocyte transformation assays in vitro. CMI plays an important role in immunity against intracellular pathogens and transplants.
Haptens are small molecules that are antigenic but not immunogenic on their own. They are unable to induce an immune response because they cannot activate helper T cells due to their inability to bind MHC proteins or activate B cells directly as they are univalent. However, when haptens are covalently bound to a carrier protein, they form immunogenic conjugates that can induce an immune response by activating helper T cells and B cells. Pioneering work by Karl Landsteiner demonstrated that antibodies produced against hapten-carrier conjugates were specific for the hapten and carrier epitopes. Common examples of haptens include drug molecules, peptides, and steroids. Hapten-protein conjugates can cause drug
The document discusses the history and development of vaccines. It begins with early discoveries in the 18th-19th centuries relating to smallpox and rabies vaccines. It then outlines major vaccine discoveries from the 1890s-1990s for diseases such as diphtheria, polio, measles, and hepatitis B. The document also describes different types of traditional and modern vaccines, including how they are prepared and the microorganisms they contain. It provides details on live attenuated, inactivated, subunit, and viral vector vaccines.
This document discusses different types of vaccines including synthetic peptide vaccines, recombinant antigen vaccines, and vector vaccines. Synthetic peptide vaccines use short peptide fragments to induce an immune response. Recombinant antigen vaccines produce antigens using DNA technology by inserting genes into host cells. Vector vaccines use non-pathogenic viruses or bacteria as vectors to deliver genes encoding antigens to stimulate immunity. Examples of extensively used viral vectors include vaccinia virus and adenovirus. Two vector vaccines are being developed against coronaviruses by using different viral vectors to deliver spike and nucleocapsid proteins.
Herd immunity occurs when a high percentage of a population is vaccinated, providing indirect protection to unvaccinated individuals. When enough people are vaccinated against a contagious disease, its spread is halted, thereby protecting even those who are not vaccinated such as newborns or the immunocompromised. The threshold for herd immunity varies by disease, depending on its transmissibility. Maintaining high vaccination rates is important for protecting vulnerable groups who cannot receive vaccines and eliminating diseases.
This document discusses immunosuppression and immune tolerance. It defines immunosuppression as a state of temporary or permanent dysfunction of the immune response, and describes some causes as diseases or drugs used before organ transplants. It also discusses immune tolerance, including the concept of self-tolerance and how the immune system distinguishes self from foreign antigens. Theories of tolerance include clonal deletion and anergy. Mechanisms of tolerance include central tolerance in the thymus and bone marrow for T and B cells, and peripheral tolerance for self-reactive cells that escape central tolerance checks. Failure of tolerance can lead to autoimmune diseases.
Cytokines are low molecular weight polypeptides or glycoproteins that are secreted by cells and have various functions including mediating and regulating immune responses and inflammatory reactions. Cytokines are produced by lymphocytes, monocytes, macrophages, mast cells, glial cells and other cells. They act through autocrine, paracrine or endocrine mechanisms and initiate their actions by binding to specific membrane receptors. Cytokines have pleiotropic, redundant, synergistic and antagonistic effects and form a cytokine network. The major classes of cytokines include interleukins, tumor necrosis factors, interferons, colony stimulating factors, transforming growth factors and chemokines. Cytokines play important roles in various diseases and their therapeutic uses include treatment
This document summarizes the baculovirus expression system. Baculoviruses can be used as expression vectors by replacing a non-essential viral gene with a gene of interest. The recombinant baculovirus is produced through homologous recombination or using the Bac-to-Bac system. Insect cells are infected with the recombinant baculovirus, which drives high-level expression of the foreign gene. The baculovirus expression system allows safe, scalable production of recombinant proteins for research applications.
This document provides an introduction to animal cell culture by Dr. Anu P. Abhimannue. It discusses the history and development of animal cell culture from the early 20th century. It describes different types of animal cell culture such as primary versus secondary culture and finite versus continuous cell lines. It also discusses various cell culture methods like monolayer, suspension, types of culture vessels used and morphology of cultured cells. The document provides advantages and limitations of animal cell culture techniques.
Recombinant vaccines use genetic engineering techniques to produce antigens that induce protective immunity. They offer advantages over conventional vaccines like improved safety and defined composition. Recombinant vaccines work by inserting genes for antigens into vectors like viruses. This allows the vector to produce the antigen and elicit an immune response. They can target specific cells and induce immunity through multiple routes of administration. While live recombinant vaccines carry a risk of reversion, they elicit strong immune responses from just one or a few doses. Future areas of development include improved delivery methods and use of immunomodulators and plant expression systems.
The complement system is part of the innate immune system and consists of over 30 proteins. It was originally identified in the 1890s by Jules Bordet and Paul Ehrlich as a heat-labile component of serum that enhanced the ability of antibodies to kill bacteria. There are three complement activation pathways: the classical pathway which is initiated by antibody-antigen complexes, the lectin pathway which is activated by mannose-binding lectin, and the alternative pathway which is spontaneously activated by microbial surfaces. Complement activation results in opsonization, inflammation, and formation of the membrane attack complex to kill microbes. Deficiencies in specific complement components can increase susceptibility to certain infections.
Immune responses to infectious diseases Hadia Azhar
The document summarizes resistance and immune responses to infectious diseases. It discusses the four main types of pathogens (viruses, bacteria, protozoa, helminths) and provides details on immune responses to specific pathogens like influenza virus, diphtheria bacteria, malaria protozoa (Plasmodium), and parasitic worms. It also notes that microbes have evolved ways to evade the immune system, such as antigenic variation, hiding in protected niches, and suppressing immune responses.
These slides are based on the notes provided by the K V Sangathan. For the revision of thermodynamics the notes are pretty awseome. I f only want submit the home work they will do so.I am sure they will help.
THANK YOU
Vector vaccines use weakened live viruses or bacteria to transport antigen genes from pathogenic organisms and stimulate an immune response. They are derived from attenuated pathogens that are too weak to cause disease but strong enough to produce an immune response. Common vector vaccines include those using vaccinia virus, Salmonella bacteria, and adenoviruses to deliver antigens from pathogens like malaria, cholera, and HIV. While vector vaccines aim to induce mucosal immunity and have advantages over other vaccines, their development faces challenges in safety, production costs, and inducing effective immunity against diseases.
This document discusses the challenges of developing an effective HIV vaccine and different vaccine approaches that have been attempted. The first attempts used recombinant viral proteins to generate antibodies but had limited effectiveness. A combination vaccine trial in Thailand saw partial effectiveness by generating antibodies to a variable loop on the HIV gp120 protein. Subsequent trials used adenovirus vectors carrying HIV genes to also boost T cell responses, but early results from a major trial were a stunning failure, leading researchers to re-evaluate their vaccine strategies and focus more on understanding immune responses.
This document discusses protection against viral infections through vaccines and antiviral drugs. It begins by defining key terms like vaccines, vaccinations, and immunizations. It then discusses the history of vaccines, why they are important, and how they work to trigger an immune response. The rest of the document details different types of vaccines, common virus vaccines, vaccines still under research, recommended vaccination schedules by age, potential side effects, and types of antiviral drugs that work at different stages of the viral lifecycle.
Viral vaccines work by stimulating the production of antibodies to produce immunity against diseases. There are several types including live attenuated, killed/inactivated, purified subunit, recombinant vector, and DNA vaccines. Common viral vaccines include MMR, polio, hepatitis A and B, rabies, zoster, Japanese encephalitis, HPV, and seasonal influenza. Developing effective vaccines for HIV and dengue faces challenges due to viral diversity and difficulty generating cross-protective antibodies. Ongoing research continues for vaccines against emerging viruses.
The document discusses anti-viral chemotherapy and considerations for developing effective anti-viral drugs. It notes that ideal drugs are selectively toxic to virus-infected cells, inhibit specific viral enzymes or functions, and have a high therapeutic index. Several classes of anti-viral drugs are described including nucleoside analogs that target viral polymerases, protease inhibitors for HIV, and neuraminidase inhibitors for influenza. Developing drugs that can interfere with viral replication without harming host cells remains an ongoing challenge.
The document provides an overview of basic thermodynamics concepts and the three laws of thermodynamics. It then discusses several thermodynamic processes including reversible and irreversible processes. It concludes with an explanation of the Rankine vapor power cycle, including its thermal efficiency calculation using the first law of thermodynamics.
La onomatopeya se refiere a palabras que imitan o reproducen sonidos, como los emitidos por animales. Se pide a los estudiantes que repitan los sonidos de animales y pinten las imágenes correspondientes.
Un leñador pierde su hacha en un río mientras regresa a casa de trabajar. Una ninfa emerge del agua y le ofrece primero un hacha de oro y luego una de plata, pero el leñador rechaza ambas porque no son su hacha original. La ninfa finalmente recupera su hacha de hierro, y como recompensa por su honestidad, también le da las otras hachas de oro y plata.
El elefante Bernardo lastimaba y se burlaba de sus compañeros. Un día, lanzó una piedra que hirió al burro Cándido. Más tarde, arrojó agua a unos ciervos, haciendo que Gilberto cayera al río y se enfermara. Luego, Bernardo se lastimó con espinas pero nadie quería ayudarlo debido a su comportamiento anterior. Finalmente, el mono Justino lo ayudó y le enseñó las reglas de no lastimar a otros y ayudar a los demás.
El documento trata sobre las expresiones faciales. Instruye a los niños a dibujar las expresiones alegre, triste, molesta y sorprendida en cada niño y luego unir con líneas las expresiones iguales.
Marta la mosca volaba apresuradamente hacia su casa cuando se detuvo a descansar en la orilla de un río. Dos grandes ojos la miraban: eran de un sapo que quería comerla. Marta le rogó que no lo hiciera y en su lugar comiera la luna, y aunque el sapo intentó atraparla con su lengua, sólo logró tragar agua hasta saciarse.
FOCUS is a time management mobile app designed for students, families, and businesses to help them stay organized. It offers a calendar, planner, document sharing, study guide creation, and a competitive feature allowing users to challenge each other. The app will be available on multiple devices at a cost of $1.99. Marketing will include social media, school websites, and targeted promotions. Projections estimate $15,000 net income the first year and becoming profitable in year 3 with $60,000 net income. The goals are to pay off startup loans, gain users, and become a trusted leader in the time management app category.
El documento trata sobre completar figuras. Habla de un tema sobre completar figuras en una unidad. Proporciona instrucciones sobre cómo completar diferentes figuras.
Don José de San Martín se quedó dormido bajo una palmera en la bahía de Paracas mientras se preparaba para la marcha del ejército libertador. Soñó que la bahía se había convertido en un gran puerto con buques de diferentes nacionalidades y una población próspera con edificios y banderas de diferentes países, sobresaliendo una en particular por su belleza. Al despertar, solo vio el mar y arenales solitarios, pero avistó aves marinas con pecho blanco y alas rojas que le hicieron recordar la
El documento trata sobre el tema de la creación y contiene instrucciones para decorar el tercer día de la creación con diferentes materiales. Se repite la unidad y el tema de la creación en 7 secciones y también incluye información sobre decorar el tercer día de la creación con materiales varios.
El documento repite varias veces la unidad y el tema sobre el Señor de los Milagros y da la instrucción de delinear y pintar una imagen del Señor de los Milagros usando diferentes materiales.
Vaccines provide long-term protection by teaching the immune system to recognize pathogens without having to experience an active infection. While vaccines have proven very safe and effective through rigorous testing, possible side effects include mild fever or fatigue. Getting vaccinated protects both individuals and communities by helping to establish herd immunity and slow the spread of disease. The best vaccine is the one that is available, as all approved vaccines help reduce hospitalizations and end the pandemic.
This document discusses various topics related to vaccinology and vaccine development. It begins with a brief history of vaccinology, mentioning key figures like Louis Pasteur and Edward Jenner. It then discusses different types of vaccines including live attenuated, inactivated/killed, subunit, recombinant, DNA, plant-based, peptide-based, conjugate, and T-cell vaccines. For each type, it provides examples and discusses advantages and disadvantages. The document concludes by mentioning therapeutic HPV vaccines that target the E6 and E7 oncoproteins.
This document discusses vaccines and antiviral drugs. It provides details on the history of vaccines including Edward Jenner's pioneering work developing the smallpox vaccine in 1796. It describes the various types of vaccines such as live attenuated vaccines, inactivated vaccines, toxoid vaccines, and conjugate vaccines. The document also discusses the vaccine production process and gives examples of commonly used antiviral drugs for influenza, herpes, and hepatitis.
Specific prophylaxis and therapy of infectious diseases. Vaccines & toxoidesEneutron
Vaccines provide protection against infectious diseases by exposing individuals to antigens from pathogens in a way that does not cause disease. There are several types of vaccines, including live attenuated vaccines which use weakened live pathogens, and inactivated vaccines which use killed pathogens. Live vaccines typically produce stronger and longer-lasting immunity but carry some risk, while inactivated vaccines are safer but may require booster doses to maintain protection. Both vaccine types aim to stimulate the immune system's memory response to future pathogens, protecting individuals and populations through herd immunity when widely adopted.
This document discusses different types of vaccines, including how they work and common side effects. It describes:
- Live attenuated vaccines which use weakened live viruses or bacteria that can replicate but do not typically cause disease. These include MMR, varicella, yellow fever, and rotavirus vaccines.
- Inactivated vaccines which use killed pathogens that cannot replicate or cause illness but typically require multiple doses to provide protection. Examples include influenza, hepatitis B, and rabies vaccines.
- Common minor side effects of vaccines like pain, swelling, or fever at the injection site or low-grade infection from live vaccines. More serious local reactions like abscesses or nodules are rare.
This document discusses immunizations and vaccines. It defines vaccination as providing active acquired immunity against diseases using agents resembling microorganisms that cause disease. Vaccines contain weakened or killed forms of viruses or bacteria. The word "vaccine" comes from cowpox virus, which was used in the first demonstration that one virus could protect against a related one. Vaccines contain small amounts of viruses or bacteria to produce immunity. While rare, serious adverse reactions or death from vaccines can occur. Vaccine types include live-attenuated, inactivated, toxoid, subunit, polysaccharide, and conjugate vaccines. Vaccination provides both individual and community benefits by preventing disease spread and protecting those who cannot receive vaccines.
1. Vaccination involves exposing the immune system to a weakened or killed form of a pathogen to stimulate the immune system to develop protective antibodies against that pathogen.
2. Vaccines work by teaching the immune system to recognize and attack pathogens like viruses and bacteria without causing illness if exposed to the live pathogen later.
3. There are two main types of vaccines - live attenuated vaccines which use a weakened live pathogen, and inactivated vaccines which use a killed pathogen. Both aim to elicit a protective immune response.
1. Vaccination involves exposing the immune system to a weakened or killed form of a pathogen to stimulate the immune system to develop protective antibodies against that pathogen.
2. Vaccines work by teaching the immune system to recognize and attack pathogens like viruses and bacteria without causing illness if exposed to the live pathogen later.
3. There are two main types of vaccines - live attenuated vaccines which use a weakened live pathogen, and inactivated vaccines which use a killed pathogen. Both aim to elicit a protective immune response.
There are three main types of vaccines: attenuated live vaccines which contain weakened live viruses or bacteria, inactivated vaccines which contain killed pathogens, and toxoid vaccines which contain modified bacterial toxins. Attenuated live vaccines require only one dose but carry a small risk of disease, while inactivated vaccines are safer but require multiple doses to achieve full immunity. The H1N1 flu vaccine this season is available as both an inactivated injection and attenuated nasal mist.
- Immunology is the study of the immune system and how it functions in health and disease. The immune system protects the body from pathogens.
- There are two types of immunity: innate immunity which provides immediate protection, and adaptive immunity which has immunological memory and mounts pathogen-specific responses.
- Vaccines work by actively immunizing individuals, providing protection from disease through inducing immune memory. They contain weakened or killed forms of pathogens to generate an immune response.
Vaccines work by boosting the defence system of your body.
They protect your body from infection without letting you suffer any symptoms related to that particular disease.
The document discusses various topics related to immunization and vaccines. It defines key terms like active immunity, passive immunity, vaccination, and immunization. It describes different types of vaccines such as live-attenuated vaccines, inactivated vaccines, toxoid vaccines, and newer technologies like mRNA and viral vector vaccines. It also discusses the ingredients in vaccines and their purposes. Furthermore, it provides recommendations for vaccination by age, including for pregnancy, newborns, and children.
This document defines vaccination and describes the three main types of vaccines: killed (inactivated), live attenuated, and toxoids. It explains that killed vaccines use microorganisms killed by heat or chemicals and require multiple doses, while live attenuated vaccines contain weakened live microorganisms that produce longer-lasting immunity but have some safety risks. Toxoids modify bacterial exotoxins. The document then provides details on specific bacterial and viral vaccines, including how they work, are administered, and their effectiveness.
The document discusses immunology and vaccines. It defines immunology as the study of the body's defense against foreign substances. It also defines vaccines as substances that provide immunity against infectious diseases. The document then describes the different types of vaccines, including inactivated, live attenuated, toxoid, subunit, conjugate, DNA, and recombinant vector vaccines. It explains how each type works and provides examples. The document also addresses questions around whether vaccines are safe and effective.
This document discusses vaccines and immunization. It explains how vaccines work by exposing the body to a weakened pathogen to stimulate antibody production. It describes different types of vaccines and vaccine dosing schedules. It addresses ensuring vaccine safety through clinical trials and continuous monitoring. The document debunks common myths about vaccines and discusses strategies to communicate with patients and bolster vaccine confidence.
Human bodies are equipped with their own kind of immunity system to counteract the attack of different infectious viruses, bacteria and fungi.Know more by visiting www.plus100years.com
Vaccines are one of public health's greatest achievements, preventing millions of deaths each year. They work by priming the immune system to recognize pathogens through controlled exposure to antigens, producing memory cells that enable a strong secondary response. The document discusses the importance of immunization programs, how vaccines promote health at both individual and population levels. It describes the immune system's response to infection and how vaccines mimic this process without causing illness. Different vaccine types - live attenuated, inactivated, subunit, and toxoid - are outlined, as are routes of administration and rare contraindications like anaphylaxis.
Global Medical Cures™ | Understanding VACCINES
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Global Medical Cures™ does not offer any medical advice, diagnosis, treatment or recommendations. Only your healthcare provider/physician can offer you information and recommendations for you to decide about your healthcare choices.
This document discusses different types of Newcastle disease vaccines. It introduces live vaccines which can replicate in the host, including apathogenic, lentogenic (conventional and cloned), and mesogenic strains. Inactivated vaccines use a killed virus while recombinant vaccines genetically engineer vaccines using parts of the ND virus genome. The advantages and disadvantages of each type are presented, focusing on vaccine reactions, administration methods, and level of protection provided.
The document discusses principles of vaccination including how vaccines mediate protection through antibodies and cytotoxic T lymphocytes. It describes the immune system and different types of immunity including passive, acquired, and active immunity. The two basic types of vaccines are described as live attenuated and inactivated. Specific vaccines discussed in detail include BCG, pneumococcal, rotavirus, diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis vaccines. Coverage, recommendations, efficacy, adverse reactions and contraindications are summarized for each vaccine.
3. Attenuated vaccine
derived from “wild,” or disease-causing, viruses or
bacteria that have been weakened under laboratory
conditions.
Attenuated vaccine is strong enough to cause immune
response, but too weak to cause disease
AVs stimulate an excellent immune response that is nearly
as good as compared to an infection with the wild-type
pathogen.
Viruses are often attenuated (weakened) by growing them
in cells that they don’t normally grow in for many
generations. The viruses begin to evolve and adapt to these
new cells so that they are less able to live in their preferred
environment.
4. Natural viruses need to reproduce thousands of times
during infection to cause disease. These weakened
viruses are only able to reproduce fewer than twenty
times.
With such little reproduction, attenuated viruses are
not able to create nearly enough copies of
themselves to cause disease.
However, enough viral particles are created to
create memory antibodies and keep the body from
getting the viral infection should it enter the body
naturally in the future.
5. How It made
Preparation of LIVE but WEAKEN pathogens occur in
2 Steps:
Step 1
Use the tissue culture to grow new viruses.
(Repeated Culture)
Step 2
Fill the syringe with a strain of the virus that has
desirable characteristics.
6. Step 1
You are about to create a live-attenuated vaccine,
which means that you need to alter a pathogen so
that it will still invade cells in the body and use those
cells to make many copies of itself, just as would any
other live virus.
The altered virus must be similar enough to the
original virus to stimulate an immune response, but
not so similar that it brings on the disease itself.
To create a new strain of the virus, you'll need to let it
grow in a tissue culture.
7. The tissue culture is an artificial growth medium for
the virus. You will intentionally make the environment
of the culture different than that of the natural human
environment. For this vaccine, you'll keep the culture
at a lower temperature.
8. Step 2
Over time, the virus will evolve into strains that grow
better in the lower temperature. Strains that grow
especially well in this cooler environment are selected
and allowed to evolve into new strains.
These strains are more likely to have a difficult time
growing in the warmer environment of the human
body. After many generations, a strain is selected that
grows slow enough in humans to allow the immune
system to eliminate it before it spreads.
9. For example, the measles virus used as a vaccine today
was isolated from a child with measles disease in 1954.
Almost 10 years of serial passage using tissue culture
media was required to transform the wild virus into
attenuated vaccine virus.
The attenuation of virus to create live attenuated
vaccines through reverse genetics technology, and
introduce targeted mutations, represents the most
advanced approach.
10.
11.
12. How it works
A live attenuated vaccine contains a weakened form of
the infectious agent that cause the disease
The infectious agent is alive, so cause an infection,
allowing the immune system to mount a complete
defense
But the agent is attenuated, and doesn’t cause the host
to become sick
13. the immune system produces T-lymphocytes and
antibodies.
Once the imitation infection goes away, the body is left
with a supply of “memory” T-lymphocytes, as well as
B-lymphocytes that will remember how to fight that
disease in the future.
the body takes a few weeks to produce T-lymphocytes
and B-lymphocytes after vaccination.
14. Sometimes, after getting a vaccine, the imitation
infection can cause minor symptoms, such as fever.
Such minor symptoms are normal and should be
expected as the body builds immunity.
15. To produce an immune response, live attenuated
vaccines must replicate in the vaccinated person
16.
17. Advantages
A live attenuated vaccine is a method of delivering
weakened versions of a disease causing pathogen into
the human body, where it can induce the immune
system into preparing itself for any future encounters
with the real.
Live vaccinations can usually immunize a person after
a single dose, and regular boosters aren’t needed (as is
the case with other types of vaccine). The MMR
vaccine( is an vaccine is an excellent example of an
effective live vaccine that only requires one or two
doses to achieve its effects.
18. The MMR vaccine is an immunization vaccine against measles
, mumps, and rubella.
It is estimated that 90% of the people receiving the MMR injection will
become immunized after the first dose, and a second dose is provided by
the NHS childhood immunization program to account for the remaining
10% of the population.
Live, attenuated vaccines can also sometimes be delivered by alternative
routes. For example a polio vaccine( are used throughout the world to
combat poliomyelitis) can be delivered orally, reducing the need for
injections which many people might not be comfortable with.
Finally live, attenuated vaccines often result in fewer side effects than
some alternative forms of vaccination like antibody vaccines.
23. Vaccine Storage
There are few immunization issues more important
than the appropriate storage and handling of vaccines.
The success of efforts against vaccine-preventable
diseases is attributable in part to proper storage and
handling of vaccines.
Vaccines exposed to temperatures outside the
recommended ranges can have reduced potency and
protection.
Storage and handling errors can cost thousands
of dollars in wasted vaccine and revaccination.
24.
25. Time
Vaccines must be stored properly from the time they
are manufactured until they are administered.
Proper maintenance of vaccines during transport is
known as the cold chain.
A proper cold chain is a temperature-controlled
supply chain that includes all equipment and
procedures used in the transport and storage and
handling of vaccines from the time of manufacturer to
administration of the vaccine.
26. Temperatures
Vaccines are fragile.
• They must be maintained at the temperatures recommended by vaccine
manufacturers and protected from light at every link in the cold chain.
Most live virus vaccines tolerate freezing temperatures, but deteriorate rapidly
after they are removed from storage.
Inactivated vaccines can be damaged by exposure to temperature
fluctuations (e.g., extreme heat or freezing temperatures).
Potency can be adversely affected if vaccines are left out too long or exposed to
multiple temperature excursions (out-of-range temperatures) that can have a
cumulative negative effect.
It is a good idea to post a sign on the front of the storage unit(s) indicating
which vaccines should be stored in the freezer and which
should be stored in the refrigerator.
27.
28. Side-effects
Some side-effects may be serious while others may
only be a mild inconvenience.
Everyone's reaction to a medicine is different
Measles Virus Live Attenuated/Mumps Virus Live
Attenuated/Rubella Virus Live Attenuated (Measles,
Mumps and Rubella vaccine (live) powder and solvent
for solution for injection 0.5ml vials)
29. Very common: More than 1 in 10 people who have Measles virus live
attenuated/Mumps virus live attenuated/Rubella virus live attenuated:
• fever
injection site problems such as redness, swelling or pain
Common: More than 1 in 100 people who have Measles virus live
attenuated/Mumps virus live attenuated/Rubella virus live attenuated:
• infections including respiratory tract infection
• skin rash or rashes
30. Uncommon: More than 1 in 1000 people who have Measles virus
live attenuated/Mumps virus live attenuated/Rubella virus live
attenuated
abnormal crying
Bronchitis
cough
diarrhoea
difficulty sleeping
ear or hearing problems
eye or eyesight problems
feeling nervous
loss of appetite
swelling of the salivary glands
vomiting
31. Rare: More than 1 in 10,000 people who have Measles virus
live attenuated/Mumps virus live attenuated/Rubella virus
live attenuated:
• convulsions
Very rare: Fewer than 1 in 10,000 people who have Measles
virus live attenuated/Mumps virus live attenuated/Rubella
virus live attenuated:
• brain or central nervous system problems
The frequency of these side-effects is unknown
• abnormal muscle movement
• arthritis
• joint pain
• thrombocytopenia
32.
33. Mutation
Mutation. This may lead to reversion to virulence (this is a major
disadvantage)
One of the primary concerns for example, is the risk of reversion to a
more virulent strain of the virus or bacteria being vaccinated against.
secondary mutation
One or more of these will possess a mutation that enables it to infect
the new host.
These mutations will spread, as the mutations allow the virus to grow
well in the new host; the result is a population that is significantly
different from the initial population, and thus will not grow well in the
original host when it is re-introduced (hence is "attenuated").
This makes it easier for the host's immune system to eliminate the
agent and create the immunological memory cells which will likely
protect the patient if they are infected with a similar version of the
virus in "the wild".