Introduction to embedded systems

Introduction to Embedded Systems
by: Eslam Said
#Learn_and_Compete@2018 ESLAM SAID

#Learn_and_Compete@2018 ESLAM SAID 2

Agenda
▪ Embedded system standard diploma outline
▪ What’s Embedded Systems ?
▪ Embedded Systems Applications
▪ Embedded systems Components
▪ The Embedded real time systems
▪ Embedded systems Constraints
▪ Embedded Systems Characteristics
▪ Embedded Systems Market
▪ Questions

Embedded system standard diploma outline
▪ Introduction
▪ C programming
▪ General data structure and algorithms
▪ Computer and processor architecture
▪ Embedded systems SW design
▪ Micro-controller interfacing
▪ Introduction to ARM cortex-M4 processor
▪ Real time operating system (RTOS)
▪ Automotive busses technology
▪ Testing
▪ Final embedded system project

Historical overview
▪ Turing machine , 1930, alan turing
▪ Electric modern computer, 1946,
Mauckly & Eckert , [1800 instruction/sec].
▪ Electric Storage Automatic Computer, 1949,
Mauckly & Eckert , [650 instruction/sec].
5

6

Embedded Systems Definition
An embedded system is a combination of computer hardware and software—and perhaps
additional parts, either mechanical or electronic—designed to perform a dedicated function. A
good example is the washing machine Almost every household has one, and tens of millions of
them are used every day, but very few people realize that a computer processor and software
are involved in.
washing machine parts
▪ Status display panel
▪ Switches & Dials
▪ Motor
▪ Power supply
▪ Control unit
▪ Inner water level sensor and solenoid valve

What is a system?
A system is a way to working and organizing or doing one or many tasks
according to a fixed plan (program) or set of rules.
washing machine rules
1- Wash by spinning
2- Rinse
3-Drying by blinking
5- Display the process stage in Each step
6- In case interruption, execute the remaining

▪ Embedded System is one that has computer hardware with software embedded in
it.
▪ Embedded systems are information processing systems that are embedded into a
larger product.

❑ Is Computer Embedded System machine?
Embedded System vs Computer
the design of an embedded system to perform a dedicated function is in contrast
to that of the personal computer. It too is comprised of computer hardware and
software and mechanical components (disk drives, for example). However, a
personal computer is not designed to perform a specific function. Rather, it is able
to do many different things. Many people use the term general-purpose computer
to make this distinction clear.

Embedded System vs general-purpose computer
11

Agenda
▪ Questions

Embedded Systems Applications
Purpose of Embedded Systems
▪ Data collection/Storage /Representation
▪ Data Communication
▪ Data (signal) processing
▪ Monitoring
▪ Control
▪ Application specific user interface

Embedded Systems Applications
Data Collection/Storage/Representation
▪ Embedded systems designed for the purpose of data collection performs acquisition of
data from the external world.
▪ Data collection is usually done for storage, analysis, manipulation and transmission.
▪ The term “data” refers all kinds of information, such as text, voice, image, video,
electrical signals and any other measurable quantities.
▪ Data can be either analog (continuous) or digital (discrete).
▪ Embedded systems with analog data capturing techniques collect data directly in the
form of analog signal whereas embedded systems with digital data collection
mechanism converts the analog signal to the digital signal using analog to digital (A/D)
converters and then collects the binary equivalent of the analog data.
▪ If the data is digital, it can be directly captured without any additional interface by
digital embedded systems.
▪ The collected data may be stored directly in the system or may be transmitted to some
other systems or it may be processed by the system or it may be deleted instantly after
giving a meaningful representation.

Data Communication
▪ Embedded data communication systems are deployed in applications from complex
satellite communication systems to simple home networking systems.
▪ The data collected by an embedded terminal may require transferring of the same
to some other system located remotely.
▪ The transmission is achieved either by a wire-line medium or by a wire-less
medium.
▪ As technology is changing, wireless medium is becoming the standard for data
communication in embedded systems. It offers cheaper connectivity solutions and
make the communication link free from the hassle of wire bundles.
▪ The data collecting embedded terminal itself can incorporate data communication
units like Wireless modules (Bluetooth, ZigBee, Wi-Fi, etc.) or wire-line modules
(RS-232, USB,etc.).

Data (Signal) Processing
▪ The data (voice, image, video, electrical signals and other measurable quantities)
collected by embedded systems may be used for various kinds of data processing.
▪ Embedded systems with signal processing functionalities are employed in
applications demanding signal processing like speech recognition, synthesis, audio
video codec, transmission applications, etc.
Monitoring
▪ Almost all embedded products coming under the medical domain are with
monitoring functions only.
▪ They are used for determining the state of some variables using input sensors.
▪ A very good example is the electro cardiogram (ECG) machine for monitoring the
heartbeat of a patient.

Control
▪ Embedded systems with control functionalities impose control over some
variables according to the changes in input variables.
▪ A system with control functionality contains both sensors and actuators.
▪ Sensors are connected to the input port for capturing the changes in
environmental variable or measuring variable.
▪ The actuators connected to the output port are controlled according to the
changes in the input variable to put an impact on the controlling variable to
bring the controlled variable to the specified range.
▪ Air conditioner system used in our home to control the room temperature
to a specified limit is a typical example for embedded system for control
purpose. An air conditioner contains a room temperature sensing element
(sensor) which may be thermistor and a handheld unit for setting up
(feeding) the desired temperature.

Control(cont.)
▪ The air compressor unit acts as the actuator. The compressor is controlled
according to the current room temperature and the desired temperature set by the
end user.
▪ The input variable is the current room temperature and the controlled variable is
also the room temperature. The controlling variable is cool air flow by the
compressor unit.
▪ If the controlled variable and input variable are not at the same value, the
controlling variable tries to equalize them through taking actions on the cool air
flow.

Applications specific user interface
▪ Buttons, switches, keypad, lights, speakers, display units, etc. are application-
specific user interfaces.

Embedded Systems example
Automotive

Automotive(cont.)
modern cars and trucks contain many embedded systems. One embedded system
controls the brakes, another monitors and controls the vehicle's emissions, and a third
displays information on the dashboard. Some luxury car manufacturers have even
touted the number of processors (often more than 60, including one in each headlight)
in advertisements. In most cases, automotive embedded systems are connected by a
communications network.

Other Embedded systems segments
Robotics
Military
Aircraft
Consumer electronics
Image Processing
Aerospace
Automation

Agenda
▪ Questions

Embedded systems Components
❑ Hardware ( Processor, Timers, Interrupt controller,
I/O Devices, Memories, Ports, etc.)
❑ Software(application –RTOS)

Embedded HW
What is a Microcontroller?
a microcontroller is a programmable single chip which controls a process or
system. Microcontrollers are typically used as embedded controllers where they
control part of a larger system such as an appliance, automobile, scientific
instrument or a computer peripheral. Microcontrollers are designed to be low cost
solutions; therefore using them can drastically reduces part and design costs for a
project.

What is a Microcontroller?(cont.)
▪ Physically, a microcontroller is an integrated circuit with pins along each side.
the pins presented by a microcontroller are used for power, ground, oscillator,
I/O ports, interrupt request signals, reset and control.

The Microcontroller in a System
▪ Microcontrollers do not function in isolation. As their name suggests they are
designed to control other devices.
▪ Microcontrollers can interface with other on chip devices like Sensors, Switches,
LEDs , 7-segments, LCD, Keypad and DC Motor.
▪ The microcontroller can accept inputs from some devices and provide outputs to
other devices within any given system. For example, a microcontroller may accept
input from a switch and may send output to an LED. If the switch is pressed the LED
can be signaled by microcontroller .

A microcontroller has seven main components:
▪ Central processing unit (CPU)
▪ ROM
▪ RAM
▪ Input and Output buffers
▪ Timer
▪ Interrupt circuitry
▪ Buses

Microcontroller vs microprocessor
▪ A microcontroller is not the same as a microprocessor. A microprocessor is a single
chip CPU used within other computer systems. A microcontroller is itself a single
chip computer system.
▪ Microprocessor consists of an ALU, register array, and a control unit. ALU performs
arithmetical and logical operations on the data received from the memory or an
input device.

Evolution of Microprocessors
First generation – From 1971 to 1972 the era of the first generation came which
brought microprocessors like INTEL 4004 / 4 bit.

Architecture of microcontroller
▪ There are two basic types of architecture: Harvard and Von Neumann.
▪ Microcontrollers most often use a Harvard based architecture.
Von Neumann Architecture
Von Neumann architecture has a single, common memory space where both
program instructions and data are stored. There is a single data bus which
fetches both instructions and data. Each time the CPU fetches a program
instruction it may have to perform one or more read/write operations to data
memory space. It must wait until these subsequent operations are complete
before it can fetch and decode the next program instruction. The advantage to
this architecture lies in its simplicity and economy.

Harvard Architecture
Harvard architecture computers have separate memory areas for program
instructions and data. There are two or more internal data buses which allow
simultaneous access to both instructions and data. The CPU fetches
instructions on the program memory bus. If the fetched instruction requires an
operation on data memory, the CPU can fetch the next program instruction
while it uses the data bus for its data operation.

The Central Processing Unit
▪ The central processing unit (CPU) does all the computing: it fetches, decodes and
executes program instructions and write or read data to and from memory. The
CPU performs the calculations required by program instructions and places the
results of these calculations, if required, into memory space.
▪ Most CPUs are synchronous. This means that they depend on the cycles of a
processor clock. A clock generates a high-frequency square wave usually driven by
a crystal, a RC (resistor capacitor) or an external source. The clock is sometimes
referred to as an oscillator. The clock speed, or oscillation rate, is measured in
megahertz (MHz) which represents one million cycles/second.

The Central Processing Unit
The most important units inside CPU are:
❑ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
❑ Control Unit (CU)
❑ Registers

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
An ALU performs basic arithmetic and logic operations.
arithmetic operations:
▪ Addition
▪ Subtraction
▪ Shifting
▪ Increment
▪ Decrement
logic operations :
▪ Comparisons of values such as NOT, AND, and OR.
ALU status flags:
▪ N,Z,C and V

Control unit
▪ Control Unit is the part of the computer’s central processing unit (CPU), which
directs the operation of the processor. It is the responsibility of the Control Unit to
tell the computer’s memory, arithmetic/logic unit and input and output devices
how to respond to the instructions that have been sent to the processor.
▪ Instruction Decoder Converts instructions fetched from program memory into
codes which the ALU can understand.

Registers
Registers are used by the CPU to temporarily store data that they can change during
program execution. Most microcontroller registers are memory-mapped, associated
with a memory location, and can be used like any other memory location.
The registers in the processor serve two functions:
User-visible registers: These enable the assembly-language programmer to
minimize main memory references by optimizing the use of registers. For high-
level languages, an optimizing compiler will attempt to make intelligent choices of
which variables to assign to registers and which to main memory locations. Some
high-level languages, such as C and C++, allow the programmer to suggest to the
compiler which (heavily used) variables should be held in registers.
Control and status registers: These are used by the processor to control the
operation of the processor and by privileged, operating-system routines to control
the execution of program.

User-Visible Registers
Data registers can be assigned to a variety of functions by the programmer. In
some cases, they are general purpose in nature and can be used with any machine
instruction that performs operations on data.
Address registers contain main memory addresses of data and instructions, or they
contain a portion of the address that is used in the calculation of the complete
address. they may be devoted to specific function of addressing mode.
Examples
▪ Index register: Indexed addressing is a common mode of addressing that
involves adding an index to a base value to get the effective address.
▪ Stack pointer: If there is user-visible stack addressing, then typically the stack is
in main memory and there is a special register that points to the top of the
stack. This allows the use of instructions that contain no address field, such as
push and pop.

Address registers Examples (cont.)
Segment pointer: With segmented addressing,
memory is divided into variable length blocks
of words called segments. A memory reference
consists of a reference to a particular segment
and an offset within the segment;
this mode of addressing is important in memory
management. In this mode of addressing,
a Segment pointer is used to hold
the address of the base (starting location) of the segment.

Condition codes Registers are Specific Purpose where their bits set by the processor
hardware as the result of operations. For example, an arithmetic operation may
produce a positive, negative, zero, or overflow result. In addition to the result itself
being stored in a register or memory, a condition code is also set. The code may
subsequently be tested as part of a conditional branch operation. Generally, machine
instructions allow these bits to be read by implicit reference, but they cannot be
altered by the programmer.

The accumulator register is a specific Purpose Registers that
can hold operands or results of operations.

▪ A link register is a special-purpose register which holds the address to return to
when a function call completes. This is more efficient than the more traditional
scheme of storing return addressed on a stack. The link register does not require
the writes and reads of the memory containing the stack which can save a
considerable percentage of execution time with repeated calls of small
subroutines.
▪ It can also be used as a general-purpose register if the return address is stored on
the stack.
▪ A link register is used in many instruction set architectures, such as ARM.

Control and Status Registers
The program counter (PC)
holds the address of the next instruction in program memory space. It contains the
address of the next instruction the CPU will process. As each instruction is fetched and
processed by the ALU, the CPU increments the PC.
Instruction register (IR)
Contains the instruction most recently fetched.
Program Status Word Register(PSW)
Is a flag register which become set(1) or
clear(0) depending upon condition after
Operation.
43

Control and Status Registers(cont.)
status flags are:
Negative Flag (N)
Zero Flag (Z)
Global Interrupt Enable(I)
Overflow Flag (V)
Carry Flag (C)
Overflow Flag (O): This flag will be set (1) if the result of operation is to large to fit in the number
of bits available to represent it.
Carry Flag (C): This is set to (1) if there is a carry from an addition or subtraction instruction.
Zero Flag (Z): sets it when the result of any operation is zero.
Global Interrupt Enable(I): The Global Interrupt Enable bit must be set for the interrupts to be
enabled
Negative Flag (N): indicates a negative result in an arithmetic or logic operation.
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general purpose registers vs special purpose registers
General purpose – it can be used by most instructions. One can do
arithmetic with them, store data temporally , store function parameters
,return of function ,use them for memory addresses, and so on.
Special purpose – it can only be used for certain purposes and only by
certain instructions. Other instructions may depend on their values
implicitly. Examples are the Stack Pointer. On using PUSH, POP, CALL,
RETURN by certain instructions.

Instruction cycle
❑ Fetch
❑ Decode
❑ Execute

AVR core architecture

THE MEMORY HIERARCHY
The design constraints on a computer’s memory can be summed up by
two questions:
• How fast ?
• How much?

The memory types
ROM(read only memory)
is non-volatile memory used for program information and permanent data. The
microcontroller uses ROM memory space to store program instructions it will execute when
it is started or reset. Program instructions must be saved in non-volatile memory so that
they are not affected by loss of power. The microcontroller usually cannot write data to
program memory space.

Types of ROM
Mask ROM contains a software mask that is burned onto the chip during the
design phase of the semiconductor manufacturing process. These types of
memories due to their low cost are appropriate for embedded systems where
large volumes will be produced. The major drawback is that update of the program
stored in the memory is not possible.
PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory) This is a read-only non-volatile
memory that can be written (programmed) only once. A special programming
device has to be used for this purpose.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) This memory can
be electrically programmed, but erasing it requires physically exposing it to
ultraviolet light. Due to this specific it’s no longer used in embedded systems.

Types of ROM
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)
▪ This type of memory can be electrically programmed and erased. The term
EEPROM is commonly used for memories that can be erased in small chunks
(e.g. bytes). It has limited number of erase/write cycles (100,000 - 1,000,000
cycles).
▪ The contents of this memory may be changed during run time (similar to RAM),
but remains permanently saved even if the power supply is off (similar to
ROM).
▪ The erase and program of a single byte can take as long as 10 milliseconds. This
delay prevents an EEPROM from replacing a normal RAM part.

Types of ROM
Flash memory
▪ The flash memory is among the special types of memory that can be erased
and programmed with a block of data. The flash memory keeps its data even
with no power at all. The flash memory is popular because it works fast and
efficiently than EEPROM.
▪ Flash memory is used to hold program code in microcontrollers.
▪ Can be Write/Erase up to 10,000 Cycles.

The memory types
RAM(Random Access Memory)
▪ RAM is used for data memory and allows the CPU to create and
modify data as it executes the application program.
▪ RAM is volatile, it holds its contents only as long as it has a
constant power supply. If power to the chip is turned off, the
contents of RAM are lost.
▪ Integrated RAM chips are available in two form:
SRAM(Static RAM)
DRAM(Dynamic RAM)

RAM types
DRAM(Dynamic RAM)
▪ DRAM stores data by “writing a charge to the capacitor by way of an access
transistor” and was invented in 1966 by Robert Dennard at IBM and was patented
in 1967. DRAM looks at the state of charge in a transistor-capacitor circuit.
▪ The capacitor arrays will hold their charge only for a short period before it begins to
diminish.
▪ The capacitor is used for storing the data
where bit value 1 signifies that the capacitor
is charged and a bit value 0 means
that capacitor is discharged.

RAM types
SRAM(Static RAM)
▪ SRAM does not use capacitors. SRAM uses several transistors in a
cross-coupled flip-flop configuration and does not have the leakage
issue and does not need to be refreshed.
▪ SRAM does not require power to refresh circuitry.

SRAM vs DRAM

I/O Ports
▪ The microcontroller has to be connected to additional external electronics and
peripherals. For that reason, each microcontroller has one or more registers called
“port” in this case.
▪ These ports are bidirectional could be output or input.
▪ Each I/O port is under control of another SFR, which means that each bit of that
register determines state of the corresponding microcontroller pin.
▪ Each port has 3 control registers associated with it called DDRx, PORTx, and PINx.
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Timer
▪ A timer is a counter that is incremented at a fixed rate when the system clock
pulses. There are several different types of timers available. A timer/counter
can perform several different tasks. The CPU uses the timer to keep track of
time accurately. The timer can generate a stream of pulses or a single pulse at
different frequencies. It can be used to start and stop tasks at desired times.
▪ Timer/Counter modules are used to perform timing or counting operations in the
controller. These include counting events, time passed between two events,
generate interrupt after a certain time and generate PWM signals.

Watchdog timer
▪ The Watchdog Timer is a hardware or software generated timer interrupt which
reboots/resets the system in the situations of a software or hardware fault .
▪ The intention is to bring the system back from the unresponsive state into normal operation.
▪ During normal operation, the CPU regularly restarts the watchdog timer to prevent it
from elapsing, or "timing out". If due to a hardware fault or program error, the computer
fails to restart the watchdog, the timer will elapse and generate a reset signal to reset
the CPU.

Interrupts
▪ An interrupt is an event that suspends regular program operation while the
event is serviced by another program. Interrupts increase the response speed to
external events. Different microcontrollers have different interrupt sources
which can include external, timer and serial port interrupts. When an interrupt
is received current operation is suspended, the interrupt is identified and the
controller jumps (vectors) to an interrupt service routine.
▪ There are two different interrupt types: maskable and non-maskable.
• maskable interrupt can be disabled and enabled.
• non-maskable interrupts can not be disabled and are therefore always enabled.
▪ Most 8 bit microcontrollers use vectored arbitration interrupts. Vectored
arbitration means that when a specific interrupt occurs the interrupt handler
automatically branches to an address associated with that interrupt.
60

Interrupts
Why interrupt?
Interrupts allow the microcontroller to interact with its environment. If your
microcontroller does not have interrupts you must poll peripherals to determine if require
servicing. It is much more efficient to have peripheral devices inform, or interrupt, the controller
when they require servicing.
Interrupt Handling
▪ Code executed by an interrupt is not generally considered part of the main application. Since
this code handles the cases where an interrupt occurs, it is called an interrupt handler or an
interrupt service routine.
▪ Interrupt handlers are usually short sections of code that are designed to handle the
immediate needs of the device and return control to the operating system or user program.
void ISR (void)
{
//code
}

Steps in handling interrupts
▪ Interrupt event has occurred.
▪ Store current state of program.
▪ Get the address of the handler routine(vector interrupts only).
▪ Execute appropriate interrupt handling routine.
▪ Restore state of program.
▪ Resume program execution.

Interrupt Latency
▪ The interrupt latency is the interval of time measured from the instant an interrupt
is asserted until the corresponding ISR begins to execute.
▪ The time it takes to finish the program instructions in progress and save the current
program state and begin the ISR.

Interrupt Priority
▪ If more than one interrupt is requesting service , the higher priority one will be
serviced first.
▪ Interrupt priority is determined through interrupt priority register ( in some
microcontrollers).
▪ If two interrupts with the same priority are requesting service, the priority will be
determined by their position in the vector table.
▪ Reset has the highest priority in the vector table.

AVR Architecture
Other Microcontroller ‘s Peripherals:
General Purpose I/O Ports(e.g.)
Blinking an LED with µC
Switch Interface
Switch Interface (using ext. Interrupt)
8-bit Timer/Counter with PWM
Analog Digital Converter(ADC).
Universal Synchronous/Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter(USART).
Serial Peripheral Interface(SPI).
Inter Integrated Circuits(I2C).

Agenda
▪ The Embedded Real Time systems
▪ Questions

The Embedded Real Time systems
Real-Time Operation
As we know that real-time embedded systems have a time constrained to execute the task. This
time is called a deadline. The soft-real time system may vary the deadline. But the hard real-
time system must complete the task in a given time frame.
Soft-Real-Time System
The example of the soft-real time system could be our day to day lifer products like washing
machine, microwave oven, printer and fax machine. Let’s suppose we are cooking something.
We put some item to cook. We set a time and temperature. As soon as we press the start button
of the oven it takes some random time to start to suppose 15sec. Even after a 15sec delay, it
cooked perfectly, nothing went wrong in cooking. It missed the time by approx. 15sec. This is
generally happening in the soft real-time system.

The Embedded Real Time systems
Hard-Real-Time System
In hard real time system, the time requirement is a critical constraint. The system
should perform within the deadline. If the system didn’t perform within the deadline,
it is considered as a task failure. These types of systems should not miss the deadline.
Missing the deadline can be catastrophic. Air traffic control systems, missile, and
nuclear reactor control systems are few examples for hard real time systems. If the
aircraft control system didn’t give the instructions to the aircraft within the deadline, it
can cause the air craft to crash. Therefore, in a hard-real time system, meeting the
deadline is extremely important. These systems are deployed mainly into safety critical
systems.

Agenda
▪ The Embedded Environment
▪ Questions

Embedded systems Constraints
Main factors in embedded system
➢ Development Tools
• C compiler
• simulator or emulator
• development board
➢ Memory Size
➢ Interfaces
I/O interface for display
I/O interface for keypad
A/D device for temperature sensing
➢ Special Features - e.g. watchdog
➢ Operating Environment
➢ Software Planning

Embedded systems Constraints
Embedded Systems Design Issues
• Size
• Cost
• Speed
• Power Consumption
• real time applications
There are many aspects of embedded systems development which must be
considered. These are:
Reliability
Efficiency
Cost

Agenda
▪ Questions

Embedded Systems Characteristics
❑ Embedded systems have to be dependable
▪ Reliability: Reliability is the probability that a system will not fail.
▪ Maintainability: Maintainability is the probability that a failing system can be
repaired within a certain time-frame.
▪ Availability: Availability is the probability that the system is available.
▪ Safety: This term describes the property that a failing system will not cause
any harm.
▪ Security: This term describes the property that confidential data remains
confidential and that authentic communication is guaranteed.

❑ Embedded systems have to be efficient
Energy: Many embedded systems are mobile systems obtaining their
energy through batteries. computational requirements are increasing at a rapid rate (especially
for multimedia applications) and customers are expecting long run-times from their batteries.
Therefore, the available electrical energy must be
used very efficiently.
Code-size: All the code to be run on an embedded system has to be stored with the system.
Typically, there are no hard discs on which code can be stored.
Run-time efficiency: The minimum amount of resources should be used for implementing the
required functionality. We should be able to meet time constraints using the least amount of
hardware resources and energy. In order to reduce the energy consumption, clock frequencies
and supply voltages should be as small as possible.
Weight: some applications must be of low weight.
Cost: For high-volume embedded systems, especially in consumer electronics, competitiveness
on the market is an extremely crucial issue, and efficient use of hardware components and the
software development budget are required.

❑ Embedded systems are dedicated towards a certain application
For example, processors running control software in a car or a train will always run that
software, and there will be no attempt to run a computer game. There are mainly reason
for this:
▪ Running additional programs would make those systems less dependable.
❑ Many embedded systems must meet real-time constraints
❑ Portability and flexibility
❑ Software Characteristics
The first step in the software plan is to select an algorithm that solves the problem specified
in your problem specification. Various algorithms should be considered and compared in
terms of code size, speed, difficulty, and ease of maintenance.

Agenda
▪ Questions

Embedded systems market

Contact me
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Eng. Eslam Said
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E-mail: eslam_said199@yahoo.com
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Introduction to embedded systems

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Introduction to embedded systems