This document describes the process of signal processing in nuclear spectroscopy detectors and amplifiers. It discusses how signals from radiation detectors are collected, amplified, filtered, and processed to analyze the energy of detected particles or photons. Key steps include using charge-sensitive preamplifiers to convert detector signals to voltage pulses, differentiating and filtering these pulses, amplifying the signals while maintaining a stable baseline, and using techniques like single channel analyzers and constant fraction discriminators to analyze pulse heights and precisely time selected pulses for spectroscopy analysis. The goal is to optimize the signal-to-noise ratio and energy resolution through these signal processing steps.
This presentation contains the basics of oscillators, types of oscillators & its mathematical Analysis. Numericals based on each type of oscillator are solved & given for practice.
A presentation by Arsalan Qureshi student of Dawood University Of Engineering And Technology. Roll No: D-16-TE-09. This Presentation Is about op amp and its properties of integrator and differentiator.
This presentation contains the basics of oscillators, types of oscillators & its mathematical Analysis. Numericals based on each type of oscillator are solved & given for practice.
A presentation by Arsalan Qureshi student of Dawood University Of Engineering And Technology. Roll No: D-16-TE-09. This Presentation Is about op amp and its properties of integrator and differentiator.
Tuned Amplifiers : Introduction, Q-Factor, small signal tuned amplifier, capacitance single tuned amplifier, double
tuned amplifiers, effect of cascading single tuned amplifiers on band width, effect of cascading double tuned
amplifiers on band width, staggered tuned amplifiers, stability of tuned amplifiers, wideband amplifiers
Negative amplifiers and its types Positive feedback and Negative feedbackimtiazalijoono
Negative amplifiers
What is Feedback?
Positive feedback
Negative feedback
Feedback Circuit
Principles of Negative Voltage Feedback In Amplifiers
Gain of Negative Voltage Feedback Amplifier
Advantages of Negative Voltage Feedback
Principles of Negative Current Feedback
Current Gain with Negative Current Feedback
An amplifier is one of the most important applications of transistor. Generally, transistor in CE configuration was used for faithful amplification of signal due to high gain, high input impedance and high power gain. But it has been observed that feedback in an amplifier introduces significant improvement in gain and gives amplified output in required form.
Introduction to Linear ICs– BJT differential amplifier-Operational amplifier IC 741–Block diagram and Characteristics - Inverting, non inverting and difference amplifier – Adder, Subtractor, Integrator, Differentiator-Comparator- Window detector- Regenerative comparator (Schmitttrigger) - Precision rectifier- Current to voltage converter – Voltage to current converter
-Log and antilog amplifiers- Instrumentation amplifiers.
Tuned Amplifiers : Introduction, Q-Factor, small signal tuned amplifier, capacitance single tuned amplifier, double
tuned amplifiers, effect of cascading single tuned amplifiers on band width, effect of cascading double tuned
amplifiers on band width, staggered tuned amplifiers, stability of tuned amplifiers, wideband amplifiers
Negative amplifiers and its types Positive feedback and Negative feedbackimtiazalijoono
Negative amplifiers
What is Feedback?
Positive feedback
Negative feedback
Feedback Circuit
Principles of Negative Voltage Feedback In Amplifiers
Gain of Negative Voltage Feedback Amplifier
Advantages of Negative Voltage Feedback
Principles of Negative Current Feedback
Current Gain with Negative Current Feedback
An amplifier is one of the most important applications of transistor. Generally, transistor in CE configuration was used for faithful amplification of signal due to high gain, high input impedance and high power gain. But it has been observed that feedback in an amplifier introduces significant improvement in gain and gives amplified output in required form.
Introduction to Linear ICs– BJT differential amplifier-Operational amplifier IC 741–Block diagram and Characteristics - Inverting, non inverting and difference amplifier – Adder, Subtractor, Integrator, Differentiator-Comparator- Window detector- Regenerative comparator (Schmitttrigger) - Precision rectifier- Current to voltage converter – Voltage to current converter
-Log and antilog amplifiers- Instrumentation amplifiers.
Final year project: To Design and Test a low cost Gamma Ray detectorChristopher Mitchell
Smartphone cameras have the ability to be converted into ionising radiation detectors by covering the lens. The lens detects high-energy photons emitted by a variety of gamma radiation sources. The gamma detector is limited by its inability to differentiate between the energies of the radiation fields it is detecting, however the detector can be calibrated to give the estimated dose (μSv/hr). It has the ability to be used as a personal dosimeter. The detector is not very sensitive and is subject to thermal noise. The radiation intensity detected varies from phone to phone. However linearity plots of counts versus dose rate can be obtained regardless of noise or sensitivity values. The measurements of the detector are sensitive to the position and angle of the source. The following parameters were tested as part of this investigation: Calibration of device with sources, thermal noise, distance of source, shielding effects, resolving time of detector, variance of count rate with angle and absolute efficiency comparison to semiconductor detectors. The detector follows the radiation theory tested such as the inverse square law and the law of absorption. The Smartphone detector is a low cost dose meter that can provide estimated dose readings of radiation sources, although it is not as efficient as other semiconductor detectors, this low cost detector is much cheaper than its professional detector counterparts and there are more smartphones available than detectors. So the smartphone at times may be the best gamma detector available.
This guide is an innovative tool for assessing compliance with environmental, health, safety, transportation, construction and training legislation for over 30 jurisdictions worldwide. The protocol includes:
Applicability tables
Pre-audit preparation
Rulebooks
Scoresheets
And more
An Infrared spectrum represents a fingerprint of a sample with absorption peaks which correspond to the frequencies of vibrations between the bonds of the atoms making up the material-Because each different material is a unique combination of atoms, no two compounds produce the exact same spectrum, therefore IR can result in a unique identification of every different kind of material!
A complete description of including circuit diagram, gain equation, features of Instrumentational amplifier , its working principle, applications, practical circuits, Proteus simulation and conclusion.
Uet, Peshawar Pakistan
Batch-06
Sinewave Generation 1. Problem Statement The goal of t.docxjennifer822
Sinewave Generation
1. Problem Statement
The goal of this project is to generate a sinusoidal waveform with the Arduino. Software is
provided that outputs a binary sinewave signal on pins D8-D11 which is converted to an
analogue voltage using a special type of digital to analogue converter (DAC), called an R-2R
ladder. The sinewave's frequency is roughly 200 Hz. Your task is to design and construct
both the R-2R ladder and a reconstruction filter which converts the “staircase” output of the
R-2R DAC into a “smooth” sinusoidal signal of amplitude 3 Vpk-pk and mean value zero.
2. Background
Many modern devices utilise digital circuits for analysing and processing data but still require
an interface to the analogue world, for example, to drive a speaker or control a motor's speed.
The conversion of digital data to analogue voltages is performed with a circuit known as a
digital to analogue converter, or DAC. In this project you will be implementing a simple
DAC circuit built solely of resistors, called the R-2R ladder.
To generate an analogue signal DACs will update their output at a specified frequency known
as the sample rate. The DAC's output voltage will only change value once per sample,
resulting in a “staircase” looking waveform. In order to produce a smooth waveform a circuit
known as a reconstruction filter is used. There are many different ways of implementing this
filter but in this project you will use a combination of active (op-amp based) low-pass and
high-pass filters.
2.1. R-2R ladder
The R-2R ladder DAC uses a network of resistors to convert a binary number to an analogue
voltage. The digital number is given from the Arduino by the digital output pins. In fact
these pins act as a controlled voltage source. If a bit in the 4-bit binary represented number is
1, the corresponding output pin is set HIGH and acts as a voltage source. If the bit is 0 on the
other hand, the corresponding output pin is set LOW and acts as a ground connection.
Although simple this circuit has several limitations. Specifically, it has a high output
impedance (ie: the Thevenin equivalent resistance is high) and the precision of the output
voltage is limited by the low number of bits and the precision of the resistors chosen. The
1% tolerance resistors available in the lab become the limiting factor beyond 6 bits so this
DAC architecture is rarely used for high precision DACs (10+ bits).
In this project you can use op-amp circuits to act as buffers to compensate for the high output
impedance of the R-2R ladder. The precision of the output will be limited by the chosen 4-bit
bit depth and will result in “noise” on the output (ie: random voltage amplitude errors) which
are impractical to remove. Nonetheless a smooth-looking waveform should still be possible
to generate.
The basic circuit is shown in Figure 1.
Exercise 1. Find expressions for the output (Vout) in terms o.
Development of a group of low power, low noise, operational amplifiers for Biomedical and Biotechnology instrumentation applications. Application is demonstrated to implement high performance single slope and dual slope Analog to Digital Converters (ADC). By Kevin Glass.
RF testing has remained hype for most of us. But seriously it is not so. It can be very interesting and one can develop a lot of interest in this if given an opportunity.
In this paper, authors have started with the some basic concepts of radio engineering which we studied in engineering and built upon these concepts to use in practical applications.
We have also described the basic principles of Signal Analyzer and Signal Generator which are the most common test tools used for any radio testing.
ENGR 1201
Final Project
Operational Amplifier
Jennifer Medina
Bao Tr
May 8, 2015
What is an Operational Amplifier?
An operational amplifier is fundamentally a voltage amplifying device designed to be used with external feedback components such as resistors and capacitors between its output and input terminals. These feedback components determine the resulting function or operation of the amplifier and by virtue of the different feedback configurations whether resistive, capacitive or both, the amplifier can perform a variety of different operations, giving rise to its name of Operational Amplifier. In our project, we used three terminal device which consists of two high impedance inputs, one called inverting input that is marked as a negative or a minus (-), and the other one that is positive that is called non-inverting input that is marked with a plus or positive sign (+). The third terminal represent the Operational Amplifier output port which can both sink either voltage or a current in our case we used voltage.
Objective:
The objective of this project is to understand exactly how a basic operational amplifiers works. Also, to be able to read basic electrical circuits.
Apparatus used:
Resistors, connecting wires, batteries, digital oscilloscope, voltmeter, an electronic learning lab, speaker, connecting cables, DC power supply, capacitors, and a bug.
Concepts
· Voltage – Voltage “in” and Voltage “out”
· Current – Current “in” and Current “out”
· Trans conductance – Voltage “in” and Current “out”
· Trans resistance – Current “in” and Voltage “out”
· Resistor
· Battery
· Ground
· /
· Wave graph
The presented circuit diagrams where the ones use for the project.
Circuit diagram #1
V DD
Vout
Rin
Vin
RF
VDD
Vout
Vin
Rin
RF
Circuit diagram#2
Vin
V out
RF
Rin
AC
source
8
6
3
5
7
2
4
1
Data:
This image we see the actual circuit done in the electronic learning lab. This match exactly with our circuits shown before.
These second images we can see a picture of the oscilloscope proving the theory of operational amplifiers. The yellow waves is the initial signal and the green waves are the output signal. As one can see the yellow is a very small signal compare it to the green one. The green one is inverted and has a larger amplitude, but they both have the same frequency.
In this particular image one can see what happened when we increase the RF (resistance) RF varies that is why it has a cross line in our circuit diagram #2. However, RF is just affecting the output result the input is till will be the same
In this image we increase the Voltage and we reduce the resistor, but because we did this our PK-PK also increases. This still just affect the output, the input still the same and the frequency of both channels is till the same. Something very important that happened whil ...
A Plasma Tweeter is an audio device which uses a pair of electrodes as a source of sound. It has a clear reproduction and Omni directional radiation pattern. A plasma tweeter has a better frequency response than a conventional speaker and does not involve any moving part (diaphragm) and thus has less reverberation and no wear and tear. Plasma tweeters invented earlier were very expensive. This paper presents a plasma audio system which is making the regular audio system more efficient because of the use of the latest plasma tweeter. Here the objective is to create a low cost and more efficient version of the most speakers invented till now with the complete audio system.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Mammalian Pineal Body Structure and Also Functions
Introduction
1. INTRODUCTION
Alpha or beta particle or photon hits the semiconductor detector and is absorbed in it.
Inside the sensitive volume of the detector we have the electric charge. Detector is
connected to the electric voltage. The positive charge is moved in the direction of the
negative voltage and the negative charge is moved toward the positive electrode.
In the preamplifier the generated charge is put inside the capacitor with the value of
few pF. As the consequence, the voltage across capacitor rises.
The energy spent for the creation of an electron-hole pair inside a typical
semiconductor detector is about 2 eV. The particle with the energy of 100 000 eV will
produce 50 000 electrons and 50 000 holes, each with a charge of 1.60 . 10-19
As. The
total charge 1.60 . 10-19
As . 5. 104
= 8.10-15
As yields a voltage change of 4 mV on the
2 pF capacitor.
In measurement of radiation from 1 keV to 1 MeV we can expect voltage responses
from 0.05 mV to 500 mV. In order to bring signals to 5V level, suitable for further
analysis we need amplification.
The upper amplification factor should be somewhere 1000, and the lower about 10.
Some gain we can get already within the PREAMPLIFIER, while the main amplification
is done done by the SPECTROSCOPY AMPLIFIER.
However, besides of the amplification many other tasks should be done. The signal
from the charge sensitive preamplifier with the voltage span about 10 volts cannot be
amplified without overloading the amplifier. The information about separate pulse is the
height of each step. We can get it by making the difference between the original signal,
and slightly delayed (or time-shifted) signal. Unfortunately, this treatment increases the
noise, and makes results less reliable. The difference between the original signal, and
the time-shifted signal is, and this we know from mathematics, also proportional to the
time derivation of the signal, or as we also call the differentiation. This is completely
true if the time shift tend to go to zero.
To improve the signal to noise ratio some filtering must be applied. We can calculate
the average value of the noise within the time interval T. Longer the averaging time,
smaller the average value. The signal is less reduced by the averaging. Run
TRIFILTER program to prove this statement.
The conclusion is that we need amplification, differentiation and filtering. Which is the
order of separate operations? It was already our conclusion that we should start with
the differentiation. As the next we can add either amplification, or filtering.
For the input signal processing, it makes no difference; the final result will be the
same. However, we have the real system in which also additional noise is generated. If
we put amplification stages at the end of the processing chain, the noise from amplifier
will appear at the output. If amplification is made before filtering, then also the noise
generated inside the amplifier will be filtered.
2. This is a typical configuration:
The amplification of 1 to 2 thousands cannot be achieved in one stage because of the
limited frequency response of operational amplifiers.
Also the efficient output filtering should be performed in few stages.
At the output the power stage is added to be able to drive coaxial cables with typical
impedancy of 50 ohms.
The described system is still far from the commercial spectroscopy amplifier. Better
name for the first stage is pseudo-differentiator. The real differentiator is unstable
circuit. In addition, the differentiation increases noise while does not change the signal
amplitude. Differentiator is always used together with the smoothing filter. The circuit is
called pseudo-differentiator or the approximate differentiator.
All stages are DC-coupled. Any small offset voltage of the input stage provides a large
shift of the output base line. Even when properly compensated, the long-term
temperature drift will affect the base line position later. The simplest, and the most
efficient solution is to add at the end the second differentiator. Single polar bell-shaped
pulses (named pseudo-gaussian) are converted into the bipolar pulses, and the base
line is absolutely stable. However, each differentiation increases the noise and
deteriorates the energy resolution of the system. This is quite acceptable when our
detector is a scintillation counter, with the resolution not better than 6 or 7 percent.
Analysing signals from contemporary semiconductor detector the resolution might be
below 0.2 percent. The second differentiation cannot be applied. We use sophisticated
system for the correct base line position maintenance. System is called BLR (base line
restorer). The most sophisticated version of the BLR is the gated BLR. The idea is
simple. We observe the base line position when it is free from pulses. The servo
system compares the reading with the reference zero, and pushes it back toward the
zero position when its deviates from zero. In the feedback loop we use an integrator
and high gain. This base line regulation system acts around the output stage. Even
this is not enough. If deviation is too big, the system can be blocked. Therefore
spectroscopy amplifiers have a similar, simpler feedback loop after the amplifiers. Its
name is the DC-restorer.
The race to improve the resolution led to the development of the gated integrator. The
output signal is integrated. Instead of measuring the pulse amplitude we measure the
peak surface. Integration is an additional filtering and improves the signal to noise
ratio. When pulse is over, the integrator output voltage is returned to zero by the reset.
3. However, the resolution improvement becomes negligible by adding further filters. On
the other hand, the base line deviation has stronger influence one the accuracy of the
energy determination. The base line error DUo versus pulse amplitude Ao causes the
relative error DUo/Ao. This error is doubled when pulse is processed through the gated
integrator. The great hit of '70th
disappears from the last generation of spectroscopy
amplifiers.
In the first amplifiers few low-pass single real pole filters (called also: pseudo-
integrators, approximate integrators or first order filters) were used. The disadvantage
of such filters was the existence of rather long exponential tail following the pulse
peak.
Later introduced the complex pole filtering became widely used. It offers better signal
to noise ratio and almost symmetrical pulses. However, it can be proved that the
triangular output pulse shape enable the ultimate signal to noise ratio. Therefore
further attempts were made in this direction.
By using three two complex pole filtering stages, and by making the linear combination
of all three stages the output signal closer to the triangular form, can be shaped.
Although the difference in resolution measured by using the pseudo-gaussian and
pseudo-triangular pulse shaping is small the pseudo-triangular pulse shaping seems to
dominate in the present generation of spectroscopy amplifiers.
Have you gained some knowledge?
Run the following program to test yourself. You are qualified for further travel through the nuclear
electronics.
4. IAEA TOURS
Is announcing direct flights to many useful destinations
Differentiation and pole-zero
compensation.
How to prepare signals from the preamplifier for the
successful amplification?
Amplifiers
Making signals bigger by using various circuits and
operational amplifiers
DC controller
How to correct the base line deviation?
Complex pole filtering
Time to start fighting with the noise
Base line restoration
Last chance to put the base line into exact zero position
Base line restorer gating
BLR is not a simple task. We should handle with the base
line only between pulses. How to define these intervals?
Noise level detection
By using the discriminator with the level set slightly above
the noise level we can eliminate pulses. How much is the
noise level?
Single channel analyser
Analyser select pulses of the same height class
Timing single channel analyser
We know the number of pulses within the same height
class but the exact time information hase been lost. How
to keep it?
Constant fraction discriminator
Still fighting for the exact timing of selected pulses
Preamplifier
How to collect charge from the detector and how to pump
it into well defined capacity?
CLICK AND FLY…
TO TERMINAL 2
5. FROM DETECTOR TO SPECTROSCOPY AMPLIFIER
Preamplifier response
Voltage sensitive mode
Charge sensitive mode
Charge sensitive preamplifier with the resistor feedback
Preamplifier structure
HOW TO START?
From staircase to pulses
From step, or long-tailed exponential to decent pulse
Undershoot follows the pulse. Pole-zero cancellation
Pole-zero adviser in Silena spectroscopy amplifier
ABOUT AMPLIFICATION
Operational amplifier
Frequency response of few operational amplifiers. The gain influence.
FILTERING REDUCES THE NOISE
Making mathematical average. Expected in the new generation?
RC filters. From white to filtered noise
RC filters. Improving resolution
Too long tail when using RC filters
Complex pole filtering
TAKING CARE FOR THE PROPER POSITION OF THE BASE LINE
Good and bad features of the AC coupling
Pulse clipping improves the operation
Feedback gain and the response time of the base line restorer system (BLR)
Gated BLR. Gating operated manually
HOW TO PREPARE GATING PULSES?
Let us try with discriminator
Hysteresys improves the response
HOW TO SET THE OPTIMAL LEVEL?
Charging capacitor through diode
Diode threshold problems avoided. Circuit too nervous
Noise level detector; final approach
SINGLE CHANNEL ANALYZER:
Two comparators set at different levels.
Response of two comparators set to two levels
Can we XOR responses to get an answer?
Problem solved, but more logics added
Watching signals through the single channel analyzer
Modified version of single channel analyzer
LOST TIMING INFORMATION kept in TIMING SINGLE CHANNEL ANALYZER
Peak position by differentiation…
Peak position by constant fraction discriminator…
TIMING SCA but not good…
Good TIMING SCA
SOME SPECIAL TREATMENT
Bipolar output
Gated integrator
CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE. REFRESH BASIC LINEAR OPERATIONS
Operational amplifier
Test1 Test 2 Test3 Frequency response
Integrator for pedestrians
Integrator
Pseudo-integator for pedestrians
Pseudo-integrator (RC filter, approximate integrator, single real pole filter…)
How good I am in pseudo-integrator?
Pseudo-differentiator
Comparator
Hysteresis
Designing system…
BACK TO TERMINAL 1
6. Our intention is to study in details the
educational version of the spectroscopy
amplifier. The main difference between
the present apectroscopy amplifier and
commercially available amplifiers is in
the use of only one pulse shaping time.
Note the main spectroscopy chain, the DC
controller inside the left dashed box and
the gated BLR circuit inside the right
dashed box.
The wiring diagram is on the next figure
while the detailed description of the
separate sub-units you can find in the
corresponding chapters of the book.
7. Spectroscopy amplifier;
educational version.
If you replace cheap operational
amplifiers LM318 with faster
LT1220 (as shown with U9)and
TL081 in the first two stages with
ultralow noise CLC425 as shown
in APPENDIX 1 you can reach
the commercial quality.