This document summarizes a study on the impact of ongoing conflicts on livestock communal grazing in North Darfur State, Sudan. The study found that insecurity due to conflicts has caused a sharp reduction in the average number of livestock owned per household from 407 to 55 heads. It also found that seasonal migration of livestock is threatened, with only 34% of pastoralists following traditional animal routes. The traditional communal grazing system of land tenure has become a source of conflict between pastoralists and farmers in the area. Government and private sector investments are needed to improve pastures and livestock breeds to help resolve conflicts in Darfur.
Propose Strategies to Enhance the Biodiversity Status and Traditional Knowled...IJAEMSJORNAL
This study entitle propose strategies to enhance the biodiversity status and traditional knowledge systems relevant for the conservation of Pan troglodytes ellioti was undertaken in the Kimbi-Fungom National Park (KWFR) and Kom-Wum Forest Reserve (KWFR) Northwest region of Cameroon. The main objective was to investigate sustainable tactics that will contribute to trim down pressure on Pan troglodytes ellioti and other flagship species around the study areas. Data collections were undertaken with the help of interviewed administered questionnaires, informal interview using interview guide, group discussion and direct observations activities. Following interviewees response, sixty eight (68%) of the respondents were confident that they could take up effective management of the K-FNP and K-WFR. Equally, 92% of respondents agreed to the fact that increasing population, poverty increment, insufficient modern health facilities, influx of new cultural activities due to loss of traditional taboos and totemic beliefs, remains greater threat to chimpanzees in the study areas. Most of the interviewees (74%) agreed that updating of knowledge on the abundance and distribution of chimpanzee, identifying location of all human activities especially huts, farms, shortcuts and illegal market in the park/reserve through regular patrols with eco-guards to reinforce order and ensure a better protection for chimpanzees is vital. Much more, 95% of respondent accepted the fact that old and new traditional knowledge of conservation such as taboos/law, totemic beliefs, sacred forests, royal species, automatic spiritual sanction, harvesting seasons should be revived and encourage through traditional institutions/council to better protect chimpanzees. Furthermore, 85% of interviewees accepted the suggestion that to get rid of poor traditional practices that uses chimpanzee’s body parts/meat for medicine and rituals, can be replace with goats, sheep, pig, fouls body parts/meat. To reduce over dependent and conflicts on chimpanzees products and other natural resources, 97% of the respondents were in favour that income generating micro-projects such as fish farming, animal rearing, and market gardening should be promoted. Providing jobs through ecotourism activities such as forest clearance and excursions, construction of adequate and equip infrastructures were highly welcome by 99% of interviewees. To attain all these, regular conservation educational programmes in schools, meeting places and in “ngumba” houses should be promoted to well sensitize population on chimpanzee’s conservation.
Effects of Anthropogenic Activities on Chimpanzee Nest Location in the Tofala...AI Publications
Chimpanzee nest construction has been potentially influenced by altitude and human activities. This study entitle “effects of anthropogenic activities on chimpanzee nest location in the Tofala Hill Wildlife Sanctuary (THWS), South West Region, Cameroon,” dated June 2017-March 2018 with the objectives to investigate the construction of arboreal (night nest) and ground (terrestrial or resting nest) nests among chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti) subpopulations in the THWS, and the effects of anthropogenic activities on chimpanzee nest location. A guided reconnaissance survey “recce” walks based on the line transect method was used to obtain information on the location, altitudinal distribution, height and age of chimpanzee nests in order to determine the encounter rates of chimpanzee nesting in the THWS. The different statistical tests were conducted using XLSTAT 2007. 8. 4 statistical software for data analysis. From the result, arboreal (night nest) nests accounted for 75.86% of total nest construction while ground (terrestrial or resting nest) nests accounted for 21.14%. Chimpanzee nested most at elevated heights (mean nesting height = 15.8m) and at high altitudes (800-1000m) with very low encounter rates of logging and agricultural activities (0.13 and 0.06 signs per km respectively). Nests were constructed amongst trees of the families; Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Menispermaceae and Moraceae trees of girth 25.5 – 115cm. However, fruiting and flowering trees were most preferable. In the THWS, chimpanzees prefer to select their nesting sites mostly in the woodland and primary forests vegetation where human activities (agricultural and hunting activities) are low. Therefore, human predation appeared to be an important factor influencing chimpanzee nest location in the THWS.
Captive Breeding: Genetic and Demographic ManagementDrPrincelinaBora
It is a presentation about the genetic and population management of captive stock of wild animals which can be eventually reintroduced into the wild. It covers basically the aspects of setting genetic and demographic goal before starting a captive stock and also measures to reduce adaptation to captive environment which is detrimental in the wild. At the end some success stories have been added basically for captive programs conducted in India. All the references from where the data have been taken are given with the file.
In the past, conservation effort has primarily focused on establishment of forest reserves for timber production, with minimal or no consideration to how these natural resources will help sustain or improve livelihoods of adjoining communities. This study examined the contribution of Aramoko forest reserve to the livelihoods of the adjoining communities in Ekiti State. One hundred and twenty pre-tested questionnaires were administered among the products collectors in the study area. Data collected were analysed and the result showed that 78.3 % of the respondents are married with 52.3 % of them male, while 50.8 % of the respondents aged between 51-70 years with 64.1 % having at least secondary education. Twenty-five (25) different products were collected by the respondents in the study area. These products include among others; timber with highest frequency of (120) followed by herbal plants (115), Archantina marginata (105), Thaumatococcus danielli (89), Bridelia ferruginea (70) and Irvingia garbonensis (65). The use of motor cycle accounted for 41.4 % of the respondents means of transportation, while 31.3 % of the respondents sell their product in bit at the village market. Picking, digging, plucking, cutting and uprooting were methods used for harvesting by the respondents while illegal felling (24 %) and indiscriminate bush burning (22.4 %) were the major conservation problem in the study area. Specifically, some of the products harvested are used for food, medicine, fuelwood, herbs and cultural purposes. The study recommends that research should be conducted into how these products can be artificially raised in the nursery for plantation establishment.
Biodiversity and conservation strategies of Nymphalidae Butterflies in the h...researchanimalsciences
Nymphalidae butterflies have a number of subfamilies, including the species
such as Browns, Milkweeds, Heliconians and Beaks. These vary greatly in appearance
ranging from small to large, with mostly in medium size. Some among these
butterflies are powerful fliers (Nawabs and Rajahs) or migrants (Painted lady,
Milkweed butterflies) while Bush browns (
Mycalesis visala, Melanitis leda
and
Elymnias hypermnestra)
and Rings (
Ypthima baldus, Ypthima chenui
and
Ypthima philomela
) are weak fliers. Three study sites i.e., Lankamalai of Kadapa
district, Talakona and Tirumala Hills of Chittoor district of Eastern Ghats of Southern
Andhra Pradesh were chosen.
Captive breeding method has been adopted for
restocking the population.
Nearly 26 Nymphalidae species were identified from
6 sub families. Species diversity
was calculated by using Simpson’s diversity indices
along with the seasonality and population index, richness and evenness of the species
were also discussed.
Propose Strategies to Enhance the Biodiversity Status and Traditional Knowled...IJAEMSJORNAL
This study entitle propose strategies to enhance the biodiversity status and traditional knowledge systems relevant for the conservation of Pan troglodytes ellioti was undertaken in the Kimbi-Fungom National Park (KWFR) and Kom-Wum Forest Reserve (KWFR) Northwest region of Cameroon. The main objective was to investigate sustainable tactics that will contribute to trim down pressure on Pan troglodytes ellioti and other flagship species around the study areas. Data collections were undertaken with the help of interviewed administered questionnaires, informal interview using interview guide, group discussion and direct observations activities. Following interviewees response, sixty eight (68%) of the respondents were confident that they could take up effective management of the K-FNP and K-WFR. Equally, 92% of respondents agreed to the fact that increasing population, poverty increment, insufficient modern health facilities, influx of new cultural activities due to loss of traditional taboos and totemic beliefs, remains greater threat to chimpanzees in the study areas. Most of the interviewees (74%) agreed that updating of knowledge on the abundance and distribution of chimpanzee, identifying location of all human activities especially huts, farms, shortcuts and illegal market in the park/reserve through regular patrols with eco-guards to reinforce order and ensure a better protection for chimpanzees is vital. Much more, 95% of respondent accepted the fact that old and new traditional knowledge of conservation such as taboos/law, totemic beliefs, sacred forests, royal species, automatic spiritual sanction, harvesting seasons should be revived and encourage through traditional institutions/council to better protect chimpanzees. Furthermore, 85% of interviewees accepted the suggestion that to get rid of poor traditional practices that uses chimpanzee’s body parts/meat for medicine and rituals, can be replace with goats, sheep, pig, fouls body parts/meat. To reduce over dependent and conflicts on chimpanzees products and other natural resources, 97% of the respondents were in favour that income generating micro-projects such as fish farming, animal rearing, and market gardening should be promoted. Providing jobs through ecotourism activities such as forest clearance and excursions, construction of adequate and equip infrastructures were highly welcome by 99% of interviewees. To attain all these, regular conservation educational programmes in schools, meeting places and in “ngumba” houses should be promoted to well sensitize population on chimpanzee’s conservation.
Effects of Anthropogenic Activities on Chimpanzee Nest Location in the Tofala...AI Publications
Chimpanzee nest construction has been potentially influenced by altitude and human activities. This study entitle “effects of anthropogenic activities on chimpanzee nest location in the Tofala Hill Wildlife Sanctuary (THWS), South West Region, Cameroon,” dated June 2017-March 2018 with the objectives to investigate the construction of arboreal (night nest) and ground (terrestrial or resting nest) nests among chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti) subpopulations in the THWS, and the effects of anthropogenic activities on chimpanzee nest location. A guided reconnaissance survey “recce” walks based on the line transect method was used to obtain information on the location, altitudinal distribution, height and age of chimpanzee nests in order to determine the encounter rates of chimpanzee nesting in the THWS. The different statistical tests were conducted using XLSTAT 2007. 8. 4 statistical software for data analysis. From the result, arboreal (night nest) nests accounted for 75.86% of total nest construction while ground (terrestrial or resting nest) nests accounted for 21.14%. Chimpanzee nested most at elevated heights (mean nesting height = 15.8m) and at high altitudes (800-1000m) with very low encounter rates of logging and agricultural activities (0.13 and 0.06 signs per km respectively). Nests were constructed amongst trees of the families; Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Menispermaceae and Moraceae trees of girth 25.5 – 115cm. However, fruiting and flowering trees were most preferable. In the THWS, chimpanzees prefer to select their nesting sites mostly in the woodland and primary forests vegetation where human activities (agricultural and hunting activities) are low. Therefore, human predation appeared to be an important factor influencing chimpanzee nest location in the THWS.
Captive Breeding: Genetic and Demographic ManagementDrPrincelinaBora
It is a presentation about the genetic and population management of captive stock of wild animals which can be eventually reintroduced into the wild. It covers basically the aspects of setting genetic and demographic goal before starting a captive stock and also measures to reduce adaptation to captive environment which is detrimental in the wild. At the end some success stories have been added basically for captive programs conducted in India. All the references from where the data have been taken are given with the file.
In the past, conservation effort has primarily focused on establishment of forest reserves for timber production, with minimal or no consideration to how these natural resources will help sustain or improve livelihoods of adjoining communities. This study examined the contribution of Aramoko forest reserve to the livelihoods of the adjoining communities in Ekiti State. One hundred and twenty pre-tested questionnaires were administered among the products collectors in the study area. Data collected were analysed and the result showed that 78.3 % of the respondents are married with 52.3 % of them male, while 50.8 % of the respondents aged between 51-70 years with 64.1 % having at least secondary education. Twenty-five (25) different products were collected by the respondents in the study area. These products include among others; timber with highest frequency of (120) followed by herbal plants (115), Archantina marginata (105), Thaumatococcus danielli (89), Bridelia ferruginea (70) and Irvingia garbonensis (65). The use of motor cycle accounted for 41.4 % of the respondents means of transportation, while 31.3 % of the respondents sell their product in bit at the village market. Picking, digging, plucking, cutting and uprooting were methods used for harvesting by the respondents while illegal felling (24 %) and indiscriminate bush burning (22.4 %) were the major conservation problem in the study area. Specifically, some of the products harvested are used for food, medicine, fuelwood, herbs and cultural purposes. The study recommends that research should be conducted into how these products can be artificially raised in the nursery for plantation establishment.
Biodiversity and conservation strategies of Nymphalidae Butterflies in the h...researchanimalsciences
Nymphalidae butterflies have a number of subfamilies, including the species
such as Browns, Milkweeds, Heliconians and Beaks. These vary greatly in appearance
ranging from small to large, with mostly in medium size. Some among these
butterflies are powerful fliers (Nawabs and Rajahs) or migrants (Painted lady,
Milkweed butterflies) while Bush browns (
Mycalesis visala, Melanitis leda
and
Elymnias hypermnestra)
and Rings (
Ypthima baldus, Ypthima chenui
and
Ypthima philomela
) are weak fliers. Three study sites i.e., Lankamalai of Kadapa
district, Talakona and Tirumala Hills of Chittoor district of Eastern Ghats of Southern
Andhra Pradesh were chosen.
Captive breeding method has been adopted for
restocking the population.
Nearly 26 Nymphalidae species were identified from
6 sub families. Species diversity
was calculated by using Simpson’s diversity indices
along with the seasonality and population index, richness and evenness of the species
were also discussed.
Strategies adopted to mitigate Human–Elephant Conflict (HEC) in and around Ke...KVASU
Elephants are among the flagship species of conservation. They live in a variety of habitats and landscapes. Apart from that, elephants were also kept in captivity. Only about 20 per cent of the elephant’s range lies in national parks and sanctuaries. With forests thinning out, the rest 80 per cent of the elephants in most parts of the country have dispersed into areas with high density of human population. HEC forms a grave threat for both sides i.e. animals as well as humans. Reports pointed out that around 300 people were killed annually in India due to human elephant conflicts. The common causes for this includes crop raiding which was the result of habitat loss and forest fragmentation due to human intrusion. It was reported that around 40-50 elephants were killed during crop raiding in India. Another contributor to it is lethal retaliation against elephants. It was reported that more than 60 elephants were found dead in retaliation incidents in North East India and Sumatra in 2001, which was poisoned by the plantation workers. The conflict intensifies when people try to chase away the animals with searchlights, crackers or guns, making the pachyderms even more aggressive.
An Emergent Carapa oreophila Products Value Chain – A Case Study of The Kilum...AI Publications
This study focused on the tradable products of Carapaoreophilaand employs ethnobotanic quantitative methods. Semi-structured ethnobotanical questionnaires were conducted to collect information on general knowledge of Carapa oreophila, characteristics of informants; plant parts exploited as well as gathering; processing and storage methods. The reasons for use: market value, points of sales, means of transport, trade channels, constraints and their opinion on resource availability. Ethnobotanic method and descriptive statistic were employed to measure the effect of product exploitation. This paper exposes three traded Carapaoreophilaproducts with high market value. Fuel wood and leave-rodent chain had high market value and high turnovers while wood craft goods, hoe and axe handles had high turnovers but low market value. Leave harvesters are also fuelwood suppliers. The incomes earned by harvesters of the Carapa products are used to meet their domestic demand for money or liquidity preference. Unfortunately, harvest methods and techniques are unhealthy and do not contribute to secure the forest resource. Given its multipurpose uses, we recommend the promotion and enhancement of Carapa oreophila through its domestication and seed oil production to provide significant socio-economic benefits to the local people. To this end, it is necessary to implement strategies to support local communities to actively participate in the conservation and sustainable use of the species as part of the preservation of plant biodiversity.
Biodiversity of Butterflies at Ambasamudram Taluk, Tirunelveli district, Tami...researchagriculture
The present study has been aimed to explore the existing diversity of butterflies from Ambasamudram Taluk, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu. A total of 19 genera and 23 species belonging to eight families were recorded. Out of these, Nymphalidae were dominant with 7 species, followed by Papilionidae (5 species), Pieridae (5 species), Danaidae (3 species), Acraeidae (1 species), Hesperiidae (1 species), Lycaenidae (1 species), and Satyridae
(1 species). Nymphalidae was found to be the most dominant members with 30.43% followed by Papilionidae (21.74%), Pieridae (17.39%) and Danaidae (13.04%). The minimum number of species found in this habitat was from the families such as Acraeidae (4.35%), Hesperiidae (4.35%), Lycaenidae (4.35%) and Satyridae (4.35%).
Article Citation:
Elanchezhyan K, VinothKumar B, Madhu Sudhanan E.
Biodiversity of Butterflies at Ambasamudram Taluk, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu.
Journal of Research in Agriculture (2012) 1(2): 099-107.
Full Text:
http://www.jagri.info/documents/AG0025.pdf
Biodiversity of Butterflies at Ambasamudram Taluk, Tirunelveli District, Tam...researchagriculture
The present study has been aimed to explore the existing diversity of
butterflies from Ambasamudram Taluk, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu. A total of
19 genera and 23 species belonging to eight families were recorded. Out of these,
Nymphalidae were dominant with 7 species, followed by Papilionidae (5 species),
Pieridae (5 species), Danaidae (3 species), Acraeidae (1 species), Hesperiidae
(1 species), Lycaenidae (1 species), and Satyridae (1 species). Nymphalidae was found
to be the most dominant members with 30.43% followed by Papilionidae (21.74%),
Pieridae (17.39%) and Danaidae (13.04%). The minimum number of species found in
this habitat was from the families such as Acraeidae (4.35%), Hesperiidae (4.35%),
Lycaenidae (4.35%) and Satyridae (4.35%).
Donkeys Transport, Source of Livelihoods, Food Security and Traditional Knowl...dbpublications
Abstract - Even through donkeys have been extensively used by people in many areas in the
world, their use has been synonymous with backwardness, under development and low status. In
a qualitative and quantitative study of 120 households located within the Bolgatanga.
Municipality, this study sought to provide an overview of the consequences of development for
donkey use and management. The survey was done to assess donkey transport, sources of
livelihoods, food security and traditional knowledge, and the myths about donkey usage in
Bolgatanga. Municipality. Formal questionnaire and informal interviews were used to gather
information from purposively sampled donkey owners. Descriptive statistics and linear
regression were used to analyze the data. The donkey was a source of employment particularly
for the rural dwellers and female-headed households in the transportation of goods. It also made
a direct positive contribution of food security of many female-headed as well as low income
households. Increasing net income from the donkey however resulted in a reduction in the
expenditure made on food by most male-headed households while increasing the percentage of
income saved. The study also tried to show how the use of donkey shad enabled these people to
withstand some of the threats to their lives and livelihoods. The paper provides several examples
of how these different uses ensured the survival of women and men in hostile environments and
enables them to integrate into the social and economic processes from which they are often
excluded. Government and NGOs, as a strategy to all eviate poverty may consider providing a
donkey and cart to poor farming households and female-headed households in places with
similar characteristics like Bolgatanga and its environs.
Approaches and Techniques for Managing Human-Elephant Conflicts in Western Se...Isaac Yohana Chamba
A research proposal for a Research project for completion of Master degree of Science in Ecosystems science and Management of Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) for academic years 2016-2018. The research tries to find and come up with a new thinking in the management of Human-elephant conflicts for better and sustainable management of socio-ecological systems in Ikorongo-Grumeti Game Reserves, other protected areas within Tanzania and outside the country having similar problems. The project is funded by Singita Grumeti Fund (SGF) - 2017.
The Limit of Chill Method as a Non-Lethal Deterrent in Mitigating Human Eleph...inventionjournals
Despite the popularity of chill method in mitigating human-elephant conflict (HEC) in crops fields of areas adjacent or within unfenced protected areas ecosystem in Africa countries, there are some challenges facing application of the method resulting to food insecurity. The study aimed at examining limitation of chill method in mitigating HEC using Western Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania as a case study. Data were collected by using Survey and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods. Collected data were analysed by using statistical package for social scientists (SPSS) software. The study revealed that human elephant conflicts were a big problem in two selected villages (namely Nyamburi and Bonchugu) for about 97%. In trying to solve the problem different mitigation measures were used by the local people to prevent elephants (Loxodontaafricanaafricana) from crops fields whereas chill method despite of its challenges seems to be effectives for about 83%. Major challenges which limit/hinder chill method in mitigating human elephant conflicts includes pepper types, availability and their effectiveness in producing chocking smell; weather conditions; and changing behaviour of elephants (Loxodontaafricanaafricana).
Birds of Pambujan, Northern Samar, Philippinesijtsrd
This assessment was specifically carried out to identify the avian species present in the study area, describe its distribution, determine its frequency, ascertain their conservation status, and enumerate the anthropogenic factors that influence their presence in the sampling sites. In each of the five barangays, representing different habitat types, a 1 kilometer trail was established and visited twice a day until the species accumulation asymptote was reached. During each visit, photographic images of the avian species present were taken for documentation and identification purposes. There were 27 species of birds, belonging to 17 families, present in the sampling sites. Of these species, Passer montanus, Artamus leucorhynchus, and Hirundo tahitica were the most frequently sighted. On the other hand, Bulbopsittacus lunulatus was the least frequently observed bird. Majority of the birds inhabited the forest area, while others were found along riverbanks, in grasslands, and along the coasts. Except for Ceyx melanurus, which is listed as “vulnerableâ€, all other species were categorized as “least concern†under the IUCN Guidelines. Swidden agriculture slash and burn or kaingin and hunting for food and the pet trade affect the presence of birds in the sampling sites. Although there are still a number of species present, it is imperative that adequate protection and conservation measures are adopted and strictly implemented by the local government units. Joseph L. Lucban, Jr. | Abel Alejandro U. Flores, Jr. ""Birds of Pambujan, Northern Samar, Philippines"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd22938.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/other/22938/birds-of-pambujan-northern-samar-philippines/joseph-l-lucban-jr
Strategies adopted to mitigate Human–Elephant Conflict (HEC) in and around Ke...KVASU
Elephants are among the flagship species of conservation. They live in a variety of habitats and landscapes. Apart from that, elephants were also kept in captivity. Only about 20 per cent of the elephant’s range lies in national parks and sanctuaries. With forests thinning out, the rest 80 per cent of the elephants in most parts of the country have dispersed into areas with high density of human population. HEC forms a grave threat for both sides i.e. animals as well as humans. Reports pointed out that around 300 people were killed annually in India due to human elephant conflicts. The common causes for this includes crop raiding which was the result of habitat loss and forest fragmentation due to human intrusion. It was reported that around 40-50 elephants were killed during crop raiding in India. Another contributor to it is lethal retaliation against elephants. It was reported that more than 60 elephants were found dead in retaliation incidents in North East India and Sumatra in 2001, which was poisoned by the plantation workers. The conflict intensifies when people try to chase away the animals with searchlights, crackers or guns, making the pachyderms even more aggressive.
An Emergent Carapa oreophila Products Value Chain – A Case Study of The Kilum...AI Publications
This study focused on the tradable products of Carapaoreophilaand employs ethnobotanic quantitative methods. Semi-structured ethnobotanical questionnaires were conducted to collect information on general knowledge of Carapa oreophila, characteristics of informants; plant parts exploited as well as gathering; processing and storage methods. The reasons for use: market value, points of sales, means of transport, trade channels, constraints and their opinion on resource availability. Ethnobotanic method and descriptive statistic were employed to measure the effect of product exploitation. This paper exposes three traded Carapaoreophilaproducts with high market value. Fuel wood and leave-rodent chain had high market value and high turnovers while wood craft goods, hoe and axe handles had high turnovers but low market value. Leave harvesters are also fuelwood suppliers. The incomes earned by harvesters of the Carapa products are used to meet their domestic demand for money or liquidity preference. Unfortunately, harvest methods and techniques are unhealthy and do not contribute to secure the forest resource. Given its multipurpose uses, we recommend the promotion and enhancement of Carapa oreophila through its domestication and seed oil production to provide significant socio-economic benefits to the local people. To this end, it is necessary to implement strategies to support local communities to actively participate in the conservation and sustainable use of the species as part of the preservation of plant biodiversity.
Biodiversity of Butterflies at Ambasamudram Taluk, Tirunelveli district, Tami...researchagriculture
The present study has been aimed to explore the existing diversity of butterflies from Ambasamudram Taluk, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu. A total of 19 genera and 23 species belonging to eight families were recorded. Out of these, Nymphalidae were dominant with 7 species, followed by Papilionidae (5 species), Pieridae (5 species), Danaidae (3 species), Acraeidae (1 species), Hesperiidae (1 species), Lycaenidae (1 species), and Satyridae
(1 species). Nymphalidae was found to be the most dominant members with 30.43% followed by Papilionidae (21.74%), Pieridae (17.39%) and Danaidae (13.04%). The minimum number of species found in this habitat was from the families such as Acraeidae (4.35%), Hesperiidae (4.35%), Lycaenidae (4.35%) and Satyridae (4.35%).
Article Citation:
Elanchezhyan K, VinothKumar B, Madhu Sudhanan E.
Biodiversity of Butterflies at Ambasamudram Taluk, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu.
Journal of Research in Agriculture (2012) 1(2): 099-107.
Full Text:
http://www.jagri.info/documents/AG0025.pdf
Biodiversity of Butterflies at Ambasamudram Taluk, Tirunelveli District, Tam...researchagriculture
The present study has been aimed to explore the existing diversity of
butterflies from Ambasamudram Taluk, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu. A total of
19 genera and 23 species belonging to eight families were recorded. Out of these,
Nymphalidae were dominant with 7 species, followed by Papilionidae (5 species),
Pieridae (5 species), Danaidae (3 species), Acraeidae (1 species), Hesperiidae
(1 species), Lycaenidae (1 species), and Satyridae (1 species). Nymphalidae was found
to be the most dominant members with 30.43% followed by Papilionidae (21.74%),
Pieridae (17.39%) and Danaidae (13.04%). The minimum number of species found in
this habitat was from the families such as Acraeidae (4.35%), Hesperiidae (4.35%),
Lycaenidae (4.35%) and Satyridae (4.35%).
Donkeys Transport, Source of Livelihoods, Food Security and Traditional Knowl...dbpublications
Abstract - Even through donkeys have been extensively used by people in many areas in the
world, their use has been synonymous with backwardness, under development and low status. In
a qualitative and quantitative study of 120 households located within the Bolgatanga.
Municipality, this study sought to provide an overview of the consequences of development for
donkey use and management. The survey was done to assess donkey transport, sources of
livelihoods, food security and traditional knowledge, and the myths about donkey usage in
Bolgatanga. Municipality. Formal questionnaire and informal interviews were used to gather
information from purposively sampled donkey owners. Descriptive statistics and linear
regression were used to analyze the data. The donkey was a source of employment particularly
for the rural dwellers and female-headed households in the transportation of goods. It also made
a direct positive contribution of food security of many female-headed as well as low income
households. Increasing net income from the donkey however resulted in a reduction in the
expenditure made on food by most male-headed households while increasing the percentage of
income saved. The study also tried to show how the use of donkey shad enabled these people to
withstand some of the threats to their lives and livelihoods. The paper provides several examples
of how these different uses ensured the survival of women and men in hostile environments and
enables them to integrate into the social and economic processes from which they are often
excluded. Government and NGOs, as a strategy to all eviate poverty may consider providing a
donkey and cart to poor farming households and female-headed households in places with
similar characteristics like Bolgatanga and its environs.
Approaches and Techniques for Managing Human-Elephant Conflicts in Western Se...Isaac Yohana Chamba
A research proposal for a Research project for completion of Master degree of Science in Ecosystems science and Management of Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) for academic years 2016-2018. The research tries to find and come up with a new thinking in the management of Human-elephant conflicts for better and sustainable management of socio-ecological systems in Ikorongo-Grumeti Game Reserves, other protected areas within Tanzania and outside the country having similar problems. The project is funded by Singita Grumeti Fund (SGF) - 2017.
The Limit of Chill Method as a Non-Lethal Deterrent in Mitigating Human Eleph...inventionjournals
Despite the popularity of chill method in mitigating human-elephant conflict (HEC) in crops fields of areas adjacent or within unfenced protected areas ecosystem in Africa countries, there are some challenges facing application of the method resulting to food insecurity. The study aimed at examining limitation of chill method in mitigating HEC using Western Serengeti ecosystem in Tanzania as a case study. Data were collected by using Survey and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods. Collected data were analysed by using statistical package for social scientists (SPSS) software. The study revealed that human elephant conflicts were a big problem in two selected villages (namely Nyamburi and Bonchugu) for about 97%. In trying to solve the problem different mitigation measures were used by the local people to prevent elephants (Loxodontaafricanaafricana) from crops fields whereas chill method despite of its challenges seems to be effectives for about 83%. Major challenges which limit/hinder chill method in mitigating human elephant conflicts includes pepper types, availability and their effectiveness in producing chocking smell; weather conditions; and changing behaviour of elephants (Loxodontaafricanaafricana).
Birds of Pambujan, Northern Samar, Philippinesijtsrd
This assessment was specifically carried out to identify the avian species present in the study area, describe its distribution, determine its frequency, ascertain their conservation status, and enumerate the anthropogenic factors that influence their presence in the sampling sites. In each of the five barangays, representing different habitat types, a 1 kilometer trail was established and visited twice a day until the species accumulation asymptote was reached. During each visit, photographic images of the avian species present were taken for documentation and identification purposes. There were 27 species of birds, belonging to 17 families, present in the sampling sites. Of these species, Passer montanus, Artamus leucorhynchus, and Hirundo tahitica were the most frequently sighted. On the other hand, Bulbopsittacus lunulatus was the least frequently observed bird. Majority of the birds inhabited the forest area, while others were found along riverbanks, in grasslands, and along the coasts. Except for Ceyx melanurus, which is listed as “vulnerableâ€, all other species were categorized as “least concern†under the IUCN Guidelines. Swidden agriculture slash and burn or kaingin and hunting for food and the pet trade affect the presence of birds in the sampling sites. Although there are still a number of species present, it is imperative that adequate protection and conservation measures are adopted and strictly implemented by the local government units. Joseph L. Lucban, Jr. | Abel Alejandro U. Flores, Jr. ""Birds of Pambujan, Northern Samar, Philippines"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd22938.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/other/22938/birds-of-pambujan-northern-samar-philippines/joseph-l-lucban-jr
Rangeland Degradation and Rehabilitation: Indigenous Ecological Knowledge and...AI Publications
Pastoralists’ perceptions and indigenous ecological knowledge of vegetation changes are often ignored despite the debate about their role in rangeland management. Yet, pastoralists are known to have extensive ecological knowledge which could complement scientific knowledge and contribute to improved understanding and sustainable management of savanna Ecosystems. This study was aimed at exploring pastoralists’ perceptions regarding rangeland degradation in the Adamawa highland plateau. More specifically, it was geared to examine their awareness of rangeland degradation, the current status/condition of the rangelands, the drivers and major root causes of degradation, negative consequences, existing management practices, and a methodological framework to make these measures more resilient. The study applied a descriptive statistics method. Focus group discussions, field observations and structured/semi-structured survey questionnaires, were used for data collection, where 240 pastoralists were targeted. The study covered 4 sub-divisions within Faro & Deo District of the plateau based on the intensity of degradation (high, medium and less). The major findings indicate that, the main livelihood activity is cattle rearing and crop cultivation (86.43%) with a certain degree of sedentarization. The major livestock production constraint proved to be insufficient and poor pasture available for cattle (65.71%). A great majority (93.6%) also confirmed that the present rangeland state/condition has become poor and non-conducive for cattle production. This is clearly interpreted in the drastic drop of the ‘cheptel’ (average holdings) and a decline in the quality of pastoral resources/outputs offered to the communities. The major root causes of degradation were overgrazing, bush encroachment, uncontrolled bush fires, soil erosion, population pressure and limited care/attention paid to rangelands. The major socio-economic consequences were poverty, food insecurity, conflicts, loss of cultural heritage, rural exodus and high crime waves. Through their indigenous ecological knowledge pastoralists conserve their rangelands through: mechanical and chemical fight against bush encroachment (Bush clearing and use of selective herbicide respectively), seasonal herd mobility/transhumance, use of paddocking systems, destocking of herds, adoption of improved pastures, and improvement on pastoral hydraulics. Government and NGOs’ supports to rangeland management, proved to be limited in the study area. The degradation of rangelands in the study area is progressing at an alarming rate which gives the impression of difficulty to restore it in the future if proper measures are not taken by stakeholders.
Community Breeding Practice and the Challenges in Dairy Cattle Management in ...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— Dairy product is an important feed supplementation. However, rearing dairy cattle is became a challenge especially at smallholder level due to lack of indigenous dairy cattle breeds. As a result, the country has established cross breeding program since 1990`s. Nevertheless, it is not uniform and does not consider smallholder farmers. Therefore, this research initiated to identify the breeding practice and the main challenges of smallholder farmers in rearing dairy cattle. For this purpose, first systematic field survey was conducted to generate preliminary information and breed judgment. Then two study areas were selected purposively based on milk production potential and dairy breed characteristics. Two focus group discussions per study area were conducted. Then, randomly 200 respondents per study area were selected. Finally, individual interview and field observation were employed to generate the needed data. Even though there is no established breeding scheme, the smallholder farmers practiced breed improvement by either cross breeding or straight breeding. They implemented Cross breeding to improve milk productivity using 50-100% exotic blood sire/semen. Pure exotic semens were preferred for AI (Artificial insemination). The smallholder framers do not select indigenous caw for cross breeding practice. However, they selected indigenous caw/heifer for replacement based on pedigree history, body stature, and udder vein. Regarding mating system, more than 50% of the respondent exercise control-mating system in their herd. Mostly this was done by pertaining the sire and dam together for a single day. In addition to this partiality in preference of sire, less productive individual cattle culled from the herd by castration, sell and slaughtering. The management system, early castration and lack of accurate estrus detection were the major challenges in dairy cattle development. As the result of this survey in the two study areas, indiscriminate cross breeding without consideration of the production system, body size and blood levels were predominant. Therefore, successive training for smallholder farmers on breeding system is highly recommended.
Use of Raffias’ species (Raphia spp.) and its impact on socioeconomic charact...Open Access Research Paper
Raffias’ species are used in handcrafts, constructions, food processing etc. But in Benin, any quantitative ethnobotanical study was not evaluated for their use and socioeconomic impact of uses on average income. This study investigated the importance of use of raffias’ species and the impact of socioeconomic characteristics of informants on the household income. Ethnobotany quantitative approach was used and data on use, products prices and the quantity sold were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire administered during an interview. The result showed that raffias’ species in Benin are used principally for craft (CI = 1.41 for R. hookeri and 1.68 for R. sudanica), but R. hookeri was most important for people in Guinean zone than those in soudanian and soudano-guinean zones. The frequently uses were the beds, mats, baskets and roofs. The most part of the plant used is the rachis for both species and the less used is the nut. Education level, gender and main activities were socioeconomic variable which influenced the annual income from exploitation of raffias species. The uneducated, men and farmers took more income from raffias’ species than others. Also, the development level of areas where the species are found, influence the income from their exploitations. To evaluate better the contribution of raffias’ species to regional and national gross product, it will be necessary to study the value chain of the main products, but also take into account the informant categories defined in this study regarding operators.
Diversity and abundance of terrestrial mammals in the northern periphery of ...Innspub Net
The Tanoé-Ehy Marsh Forest (TEMF), an unprotected forest that is about to be turn into a voluntary nature reserve is a forest block in south-eastern Côte d’Ivoire known as being of great importance for the conservation of biodiversity. But in the rainy season, that forest is largely over flooded and terrestrial mammals are likely to move to the periphery and make them vulnerable to anthropogenic threats. Our objectives are to determine the diversity, the relative abundance of terrestrial mammals and their spatial distribution in the northern periphery of the TEMF during the rainy season. We collected data by conducting recce surveys after interviews with local people. In total, we obtained 33 species among which ten primates’ species were identified. According to the recce survey, the African Civet (Civettictis civetta) and the Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) are the most common and abundant species in the study area with 12.7% and 12.0% of relative abundance respectively. In addition, six of the listed species are on the IUCN Red List, including Piliocolobus waldronae, a critically endangered species, Cercocebus lunulatus and Cercopithecus roloway endangered species, Colobus vellerosus, Phataginus tetradactyla and Phataginus tricuspis, three vulnerable species. Thus, the consideration of the periphery for the sustainable management of the TEMF is proving to be an imperative.
Status of Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in th...AI Publications
The study titled “Status of Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in the North and South Eastern parts of the Kimbi-Fungom National Park (K-FNP) of the North West Region of Cameroon” was carried out in the rainy season from 1st May to 31st July 2015. The general objective was to contribute to the conservation of bushbuck and Buffalo in the K-FNP through the establishment of status of mammals which will serve as a guide for management decisions. The methodology employed was the “recce-walk”. Twenty seven (27) lines transects of 2 km long each were walked making a total effort of 53km. One hundred and fifty six (156) questionnaires were administered to the local population, twenty one (21) semi-structured interviews to households and seven (7) focus group discussions with local chiefs and notables were used to get local people’s perceptions about wildlife conservation in the NP. Results revealed a total of 13 species of mammals within the NP belonging to 6 families. The Bovidae family had the highest number of species represented by the buffalo (Syncerus caffer), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), the blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola) and the red duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis). The buffalo and the bushbuck recorded encounter rates of 0.85 and 0.34sign/km respectively. The Buffalo had a higher density in the North East of the South East compartment of the park while the bushbuck had a higher density in the south west of the north east compartment. There was a strong relationship (R2=0.792) between the encounter rate of mammals and anthropogenic activities. Ninety two (92.31%) of respondents recognized the importance of the NP because they depended on it for collection of NTFP’s (34.60%), hunting of Bushmeat (12.80%), fuel wood gathering (7.70%), religious activities (6.40%), agricultural land (5.10%), harvesting of medicinal plants(5.10%), source of clean water (5.10%), traditional rituals (3.80%) and traditional medicine harvesting (2.6%). Ninety seven percent (97.2%) supported wildlife conservation because of its touristic, aesthetic and for sustainability. Thirty four percent (34.60%) of the respondents were aware of community implication in managing the NP. K-FNP is poor in species abundance, species richness and flagship species. Associated benefits from ecotourism are far-fetched coupled with encroachment by grazers. We therefore recommend that the government, councils, NGOs and the local communities should step up conservation efforts.
Status of Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in th...AI Publications
The study titled “Status of Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in the North and South Eastern parts of the Kimbi-Fungom National Park (K-FNP) of the North West Region of Cameroon” was carried out in the rainy season from 1st May to 31st July 2015. The general objective was to contribute to the conservation of bushbuck and Buffalo in the K-FNP through the establishment of status of mammals which will serve as a guide for management decisions. The methodology employed was the “recce-walk”. Twenty seven (27) lines transects of 2 km long each were walked making a total effort of 53km. One hundred and fifty six (156) questionnaires were administered to the local population, twenty one (21) semi-structured interviews to households and seven (7) focus group discussions with local chiefs and notables were used to get local people’s perceptions about wildlife conservation in the NP. Results revealed a total of 13 species of mammals within the NP belonging to 6 families. The Bovidae family had the highest number of species represented by the buffalo (Syncerus caffer), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), the blue duiker (Cephalophus monticola) and the red duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis). The buffalo and the bushbuck recorded encounter rates of 0.85 and 0.34sign/km respectively. The Buffalo had a higher density in the North East of the South East compartment of the park while the bushbuck had a higher density in the south west of the north east compartment. There was a strong relationship (R2=0.792) between the encounter rate of mammals and anthropogenic activities. Ninety two (92.31%) of respondents recognized the importance of the NP because they depended on it for collection of NTFP’s (34.60%), hunting of Bushmeat (12.80%), fuel wood gathering (7.70%), religious activities (6.40%), agricultural land (5.10%), harvesting of medicinal plants(5.10%), source of clean water (5.10%), traditional rituals (3.80%) and traditional medicine harvesting (2.6%). Ninety seven percent (97.2%) supported wildlife conservation because of its touristic, aesthetic and for sustainability. Thirty four percent (34.60%) of the respondents were aware of community implication in managing the NP. K-FNP is poor in species abundance, species richness and flagship species. Associated benefits from ecotourism are far-fetched coupled with encroachment by grazers. We therefore recommend that the government, councils, NGOs and the local communities should step up conservation efforts.
Status of large mammals: case study of gorilla (Gorilla gorilla diehi), chimp...IJEAB
This study entitled status of large mammals: case study of gorilla, chimpanzee and buffalo, was carried out in the Black Bush Area of Waindow (BBAW), Menchum South, NW Cameroon from January-March, 2014. The general objective was to determine the status of large mammal’s species and to investigate the presence of gorilla, chimpanzees and buffalo reported by the indigenous people in order to contribute to the conservation of these species in the region. The recce- survey method was used for species inventory whereby direct and indirect observations of bio-indicators of these species and human signs were recorded. From the result, the encounter rates of buffalo and chimpanzee were 0.35 and 0.26 signs per km respectively with no gorilla sign observed. Spatial distribution maps revealed great concentration of these species in the northern zone. Hunting recorded the highest encounter rate of 0.42 signs per km of anthropogenic activities. As such, one could deduce that the pressures exacerbated on these animals due to human activities and encroachment by Nigeria traders, and grazers placed the remaining species under intense threat of disappearing within the study areas. It is therefore necessary to intensify conservation efforts so as to urgently address these species concerns.
The present study aims to investigate the biodiversity of woody vegetation along a gradient of human impacting region in the three constituent parts of Ferlo Biosphere Reserve (FBR): the core area, the buffer zone and the transition area. We conducted an inventory of 110 plots of 900 m² each. Total species richness was 49 species distributed in 32 genera within 16 botanical families. The analysis of contesimal frequency showed that Guiera senegalensis is the most common species with a presence of 75% of such records. Examination of species abundance spectrum showed that four most abundant species such as Guiera senegalensis (29.5%), Combretum glutinosum (15.9%), Pterocarpus lucens (11.6%) and Boscia senegalensis (10 , 5%). These four species represent 68% of the total individuals of the RBF and are also the four most common species. The spectrum of abundance of families showed that Combretaceae is the best represented family with almost half of the number of species (49.7%). The representativeness of biological types and geographical affinity of the species has been established for the woody vegetation in the study area. The study of diversity indices revealed that the buffer zone and the transition area are subjected to multiple uses and experiencing human action. It has a greater diversity and a level of organization with higher timber stand than the central area which is an integral conservation zone.
Progresses of designing community-based breeding strategies for indigenous sh...ILRI
Presented by Ashebir Kifle at the ICARDA-ILRI-BOKU project workshop on Designing community-based breeding strategies for indigenous sheep breeds of smallholders in Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, October 29, 2010.
Presented during the 17h Annual Sahelo-Saharan Interest Group Meeting organized by the NGO Sahara Conservation Fund in Senegal, from 4 to 6 May 2017. The Sahara Conservation Fund (SCF) gathers every year about a hundred people who are interested in the field of Sahelo-Saharan species conservation.
The Assessment of Human-Snake Interaction and its Outcome in the City of KumbaAI Publications
Throughout history humans have had an uneasy relationship with serpents. Snakes are animals that fascinate many people while frightening others, good or bad, most people have strong feelings about snakes, but few people remain neutral. Most human-snake interactions had lead to the destruction of snakes due to human inability to control fear and panic. The indiscriminate killing of snakes for presumed human safety has drastically reduced the population of many snake species to the level of extirpation. The objective of this, however, is to examine the human interaction with snakes in city of Kumba. To get this survey done, a total number of two hundred and fifty questionnaires were administered to a randomly selected population sample in the study area. The results of the survey revealed that the prevention of snake attacks and the opinion of people on snake population management is significantly related (X2 = 11.069 df=4, P<0.05).The importance of snakes and their medical need for snake venom has showed a significant agreement (X2 = 12.045 df=2, P<0.05). Also, the prevention of snake attacks and the area snakes are easily sighted showed a significant association (X2 = 29.205 df=4, P<0.05). In addition, there is a significant link between the snake-bite treatment and its prevention (R2 = 0.312, P<0.05). Moreso, a respondent score of 39.30% is recorded upon the knowledge of venomous snakes. Furthermore, the study recorded a respondent score of 39.30% on the preferable use of traditional treatment on snake-bite victim than the expected medical treatment (31.84%), creating an understanding that the people of Kumba are still very much dependent on the ancient methods of treating snake-bite victims. The Kumba city dwellers need education on the snake behaviour, venomous and non venomous species around their area and the ecological and medical importance of snakes.
Similar to impact of Darfur conflicts onthe future of communal grazing in North Darfur State. (20)
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Chapter 3 - Islamic Banking Products and Services.pptx
impact of Darfur conflicts onthe future of communal grazing in North Darfur State.
1. 97
The impact of Darfur conflicts onthe future of communal grazing in North Darfur State.
أثر النزاعات في دارفور على مستقبل الرعي المشاع في ولاية
شمال دارفور
By: Ismail. M. AhmedIsmail¹. Osama. E. Yassin², Elgili .M³ and Ibrahim.A. Elnour4
1- Dept. of Animal production, College of Natural Resources and Environmental Science, ElFashir University, Sudan, E-mail: abuareege@gmail.com, mobile: 0912829694 FAX +2497314211, P.Box:125 ElFashir, Sudan
2- Dept. Of animal Production, College of Animal Production and Technology- Sudan University of Science and Technology
3- Dept. of Developmental Studies, College of Animal Production and Technology- Sudan University of Science and Technology
4- Dep. Forestry and Pastures Science, College of Natural Resources and Environmental Science, ElFashir University, Sudan
مستخلص:
أجريتتهذهتتلدذاسة اِفيتتلفذةذاس تِت أفذوفتت ذأ تت رذ 0202 ذإلىذي نيتت ذ 0200 ذةذمحلتتي ذ
المالحلذواسك ولذذةذولايلفذشمالِذدا فِ ذِ هةفذتست ذليطذاسضت ذللتأذأ ترذاسعاالتالجفذاةا يِتلذذ
ةذدا فِ ذِللأذنظامذاسرليذالمشاعذسلماشيل.ذذاسبيانالجذالميةانيلذفذجَمعه ذذو ذختللذالملظظتلفذ
وذنظّتت ذالمبتتا للجَذ اسعيعتتالجذذاسعشتت اةيلذذسلأشتتصا ذالمععتتيلذذاسرةيستتيلِذووتت ذذافيتت بانالج ذ
الإضافلذإلىذالمعل والجفذاس ذجمعهذوفت ذالماتاد ذِِاسنان يتلفذ.ذاسبيانتالجذامم ذعتلذظلّلته ذ افيت لذ
الحاوتلذالإظاتاةيلذذسلإظاتا ذاس يت يِ.ذاسة اِفيتلذت يتلهذإستيذأ ذالان تِللجذانيوتنذ تا ذذ
اسعاةقَذاسرةيسذسرِلايلذالماشيلذوفيب بَذفبةذ بيرذذةذو فيطذلةدذالحي انالجذاس ذتملكهتاذ
انيفيرأذ"ذوف ذفذ 729 ذ أِسِذسلأفيرأذذإلىذ 55 ذ أِسِذسلأفيرأ".وهة دذاس ظالذالم سميذذسلماشيلفذإذذ
أ ذ 47 %ذفبتتطذذوتت ذاسرلتتاأذيستتلك ذوستتا اِلجذوعيعتتلذةذوعتتاأقِذاسة اِفيتتل ذأ ذعتتا ذظر تت ذلفذذ
الماشيلف.ذاسعظامذاس بليتة ذلاذوت فل ذوأفيت صةامذذاني ذونظتامذالحتا أِذظستبذذ 97 %ذذوفت ذ
2. 02
المستت بيبلذ تتا ذأظتتةذوهتتةذدالجذاسرلتتيذالمشتتاعذ الإضتتافلذإلىذرا ةِتتبذالهتت ا ذ عستتبلذذ 70 ذ%ذ
واس ليقذالمبكرذ عسبلذ 72 % ذو باياذالمحايي ذيح اجهتاذالماا لِت ذأن سِته ذ شتةأذ علت ذذ
لحي انتتاته ذ عستتبلذذ 99 %ذذونستتبلذ 09 %ذسلبيتتكذ ماتتة ذِسلتتةخ ذ.ذذنتتطذاسرلتتيذةذوع بتتلذ
اسة اِفيلذيع مةذأفيافيتا ذللتأذاسرلتيذالمشتاعذواس ليتقذاستل ذأيتب ذأظتةذل اوت ذاساتراعذ تلذ
اسرلاأذأن سِه ذو ذجانبذو تلذاسرلتاأذوالم تاا لِلذالمست بري ذو ت ذجان تبذ ختذذذذذذذ ر.ذستلس ذتتةخ ذ
انيفيتت نما ذِالحكتت ويذوافيتتا ذةذ ستتلذالمذرالتتيذوفيتتللالجذالماشتتيلذلتتمزذنظتتامذالمتتاا عِذ
اسرل يلذذو ذاسضرو أِذبمكا ذلافي برا ذِانيوضاعذذةذدا فِ .ِ
Abstract
This study was carried out during the period from October 2010 to June, 2011 in Malha and Kuma Localities, North Darfur State to highlight the impact of ongoing conflicts on livestock communal grazing. Field data were collected through observation, structured interviews with random samples of key informants persons and filling questionnaires, as well as information gathered from secondary sources. Collected Data was analyzed by SPSS to descriptive statistics. The study revealed that, insecurity was the main handicap of livestock grazing that, caused sharp reduction in number of livestock owned from an average of 407 heads per household to 55heads per household. Seasonal migration of livestock was also threatened and only 34% of pastoralists in the study areas follow specific animal routes during livestock movements. The traditional system of land tenure and use as Hakora system according to 69% of respondents was one of communal grazing constrains in addition to illegal enclosures (zarayebElhawa) has percentage of about 42%, early free grazing on cultivated area (taliq) at percentage of 40% and crops
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residues are hardly needed by farmers at percentages of 67% as feedstuffs for their animals and 26% for sale as source of income. Hence, livestock grazing pattern in the study area is mainly dependent on communal grazing which becomes one of the conflict factors between pastoralists themselves on one side and between pastoralists and sedentary farmers on the other. Thus, the interference of governmental and private sectors investments, to improve, pastures and animal breeds, through animal ranches are so important for peace settlement in Darfur.
Keywords: Routes, Pastoralists, Transhumances, Nomadism, Free Grazing
Introduction
Greater Darfur region mainly consists of four main climatic zones: high rainfall savannah in the southern part with an average rainfall (400- 800mm) per year, low rainfall savannah which located in the Northern part of High rainfall Savannah with an average rainfall (200- 400mm) per year, semi- arid occupies the area between low rain fall savannah and the desert. This area characterized by high fluctuations of the rainfall (100- 300mm), and the Desert Zone which is characterized by very low or no rainfall and high temperature occupying the Northern part of the region.(Fadul2006),(Abdalla2008)
.These diverse climatic zones make the region a center of livestock communal grazing. According to Elnour (2012) there are three types of animal production systems in Darfur represented by Nomadic system, semi nomadic and sedentary system. Each type has its pattern,
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advantages and disadvantages. Communal grazing systems are defined as systems where communal grazing areas are the principal feed resource base for livestock, where crop residues are grazed and where animals are kept in a kraal or paddock at night. (Communal livestock grazing system is mainly found in semi-arid, sub-humid and mountain areas with a low population density, (Nilsson2001). According to Abdalla(2002) most of livestock in Sudan graze on traditional grazing systems through extensive system (communal grazing system), which is characterized by the common pastures and water resources and allowed to be used by every livestock owner and who can move to whichever place to search for pastures and water sources.Fadul(2006) reported that livestock production in Sudan in general and Darfur in particular is based on communal grazing and use of crop residues by all the community freely.
In Darfur, majority of livestock is owned by the pastoralists.Ajeebet al (2010) reported that in Darfur, pastoralism is a subsistence (economic) way of life adopted by nomads over years for better utilization of the available communal natural resources (fodder and water). There are two forms of pastoralism: 1) Nomadism: in which nomads follow a seasonal migration pattern with their families; they have no permanent settlements and they are usually self- sufficient in terms of food and other necessities. 2) Transhumance: the nomads follow a cyclical pattern of short migration distances. They usually complement livestock herding with farming around their encampment. Fadul (2011) reported that, Livestock raising in Darfur
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is the first livelihood strategy to the nomadic and pastoralists and second livelihood strategy for over 90% of sedentary farmers and urban. Therefore no doubt to say that, all Darfurian are pastoralists and livestock husbandry is the only difference between them. Unfortunately stone aged husbandry system (communal grazing free movement) is the denominator system practiced by all pastoralists in which livestock move through certain pass ways called animal tracks (routes).Helen et al (2009) stated that eleven migration routes are traditionally used by the Northern Rizaygat in the Darfur region. These extend from Wadi Howar and Wakhaim in far north, to Jabal Marra and Rehid El Berdi in West and South Darfur States respectively.Fadulet al (2011) reported that, animal routes and grazing means free or communal grazing,is based on usage of crop residues freely by all the community.
The importance of this study can be summarized as a critical study for communal grazing in the future , because the conflicts broke the traditional links between the pastoralists communities and sedentary farmers communities on which the communal grazing is based. Hence this study aimed to highlighten the impact of conflicts on traditional mechanisms for continuity of communal grazing and to investigate constraints that handicap communal grazing in Malha and Kuma localities in North Darfur.
Material and Methods:
The study was conducted in North Darfur State (Kuma and Malha) localities as a part of the areas known by pastoralist area, in the period from October 2010 to June 2011.
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200 households of pastoralists were selected randomly to carry out the study and the data collected through;
1) Focus Group discussion; three group discussion for men and one group discussion for women in each locality were conducted
2) Key informants interview with native administration, herders union, veterinary officers and agricultural union.
3) Filling of 200 household questionnaires on random basis.
4) Review of the former reports and studies on livestock grazing and population in Sudan in general and Darfur in particular.
The data collected was concentrated on the number of livestock owned by the household before and during conflict, type of livestock raising, pattern of livestock movement and the routes in addition to herders who follow specific animal route during their movement.
Collected Data was analyzed by Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) to calculate frequencies, descriptive statistics and significant differences by Analysis of variance and T-test
Results and Discussion
1-Population of livestock in North Darfur State
The total population of livestock in North Darfur is estimated at 29,778,130 heads, distributed as 8,639,918 heads for cattle, 11,005,137 heads of sheep, 9,206,879 heads of goats and 9,261,96 heads for camels, in accordance to annual growth rate, 3.2, 3.3, 2.5 and 2.3 for cattle, Sheep, goats and camels, respectively depending on the latest animal survey in Sudan in 1976 (Ministry of Animal Resources North Darfur 2011). During the field work survey, key
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informants persons interviews and focus group discussion it appeared that the process of estimating the population of livestock in the Sudan adopted on 1976 animal survey in a large country with variable climates and the late security disorder conditions, it is hard to give a reasonable estimate of the size of livestock especially in North Darfur. This is possibly due to:
a. Drought of 1983/1984 created climatic changes that lead to:
*Livestock mortality, being great in cattle and sheep and few in camels.
*Shift from cattle grazing in most households to sheep and camels grazing as in many areas in far north of North Darfur State as happened at Ain-besaro North Malah, because cattle do not take stand more than two days without drinking water compared to camels and sheep. In addition sheep become better economic source and camels can withstand harsh environments more than cattle.
b. Darfur conflicts which resulted in massive loss of livestock, and helped in changes of livestock grazing types from camels to sheep in many areas (e.g. around Meleet and Kuma).All this makes the process of estimating the livestock population in Sudan in general and Darfur in particular depending on survey of 1976 un- reasonable. Therefore real comprehensive livestock survey is necessary and urgent because livestock represents the cornerstone of Sudan economy.
2- Numbers of livestock owned by households
Table -1: shows that, the average numbers of the animals, owned by investigated households, were 407±182.1 and 55±3.1 before the
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recent Darfur conflicts and after the conflicts respectively, with significant differences.
Table-1: Animal population (in hundreds) before and after conflicts
Issue
Before the conflicts
After the conflicts
Total
407±182.1
55±3.1*
Camels
168.4±27.7*
11.46±6.2*
Sheep
230±92.3*
9.27±2.17*
Goats
173.5±123.2*
27.8±12.1*
Cattle
9.5±7.01
1.63±0.6
*Significant ≤o.o5
Source: Fieldwork, (2011)
The sharp reduction of the numbers of animals from 407 heads for household to 55 heads (about 86.5% of the animals have been lost) due to looting and distress selling. Even those who managed to save their livestock were not able to keep them. Finally they have been forced to sell them even at low prices to provide food or because they were not able to provide pastures for them.Fadul (2006) mentioned that in North Darfur due to successive millet harvest failures, the people trade between animals and millet, the staple food in the region where one sheep of six months for 1.5 sacks of millet and one year male goat for 0.8 to 1 sack.
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3-Typesof Livestock owned by the households before the conflict in the Study area
Figure (1) shows that about 40% of the pastoralists’ households in (Malha and Kuma) raised sheep and goats, 25% raised cattle, sheep and goats together and 20% raised camels and sheep, whereas 15% raised camels only. Thus the main types of the livestock, raised by the pastoralists before the conflicts were sheep and camel with total percentage of about 45% and 35% for sheep and camels respectively this is because camels and sheep are well adapted to the semi-aried climate which is dominant in the northern parts of Northern Darfur especially the areas of Malha and Kuma, sheep usually drink water every 5 days and 10 days during summer and winter respectively, whereas camels drink every 10 to 20 in summer and winter respectively. Also Camels can feed on shrubs that are not palatable for other livestock types.
The lowest percentage of animal type was 25% for households owned cattle, because cattle cannot stay without drinking water more than two days. Therefore grazing cattle, gather around water points which resulted in pasture deterioration as observed around boreholes in Kuma and Malha areas.
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Figure (1): Types of livestock owned by the Household before conflict
4-Type of the livestock raised by the studied groups during the conflicts
During the ongoing conflict many household of the pastoralists, specially nomads in North Darfur lost their livestock specially camels and sheep. Figure, (2 ) shows that types of livestock raised during the conflicts detailed as follow; 50% of households raised goats, followed by sheep with percentage of 34% households, sheep and goats9% and percentage of owning camels only 7%. The camels raising was sharply dropped, according to key informant persons and focus group discussion due to: a) looting during conflicts or distress selling because many household were not able to keep their camels specially women headed households. b) Keeping camels in certain areas around the territories of homeland of the tribe due to the tensions
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between neighboring tribes. This could be seen obviously in Kuma locality, whichis inhabited by, Ziadyyia nomadic tribe. This tribe used to graze mainly camels and sheep in cyclic grazing turns from June to August/ they move to south of railway around: Tolo, Jabir to Babanosa in Kordofan. During September to October/ they return to areas around their homeland.During winter they used to migrate to extreme north to Juzzu area.But now all animals are kept inside their homeland territories which resulted in outbreak of camel’s disease, shortage of pasture high competition over water resources and pasture.
The ultimate results are loss of animal’s, reduction in animal production and deterioration of rangelands lead to shifting from camel grazing to sheep grazing which is economically better and easier in management compared to camels.
Figure (2) Type of livestock raised by the household during the conflict
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The high percentage of household raised goats at (50%) because goats is the first line of household food security in Darfur as affirmed by the study of pastoralist food security in north Darfur and conducted by Fadulet al, (2011). Moreover, women headed households are the main goat rearing households. This is because goats are easier to manage by women in addition that goats raising requires small capital for starting.
5-Communal grazing and pattern of livestock movement and routes in the study area.
The livestock grazing and routes of communal grazing are those areas wherepasture and crops are shared by all as mentioned by Fadul (2006), the main animal routes of the nomads and transhumance in the two localities (Kuma and Malha) from south to north and vice versa according to the key informants Abdallajuzzu and Abu-Elkhier(2010) are as follow :Tolo - Abuhimera borehole-Um-elhusien(gibaish) - Eastern kuma - Sari mountain Um-Hegieleege -Mariega -Um Dagour -MalhaWakhaim -Wadi-Howar.
These can be emphasized by what had been mentioned by Helen et al (2009) who stated that eleven migration routes are traditionally used by the Northern Rizaygat in the Darfur region. These extend from Wadi-Howar and Wakhaim in the far north, to Jabal Marra and Rehid El Berdi in West and South Darfur states, respectively. But after the last conflicts of Darfur the situation has been changed as shown in figure: 3: which explains that, 65.7% of the respondents mentioned that they do not follow specific animal routes during
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livestock movement on their searching for pastures and water resources and most of them in Kuma. On the other hand,34.3% of the pastoralists mentioned that they follow specific animal routes during herds movement and most of them in Malha because Malha locality which is inhabited mainly by Meidoub Nomadic tribe, has a vast grazing land on their own homeland and it is bordering the Juzzu plants areas around Wadi-Hawar and Wakhayim in far northern parts of North Darfur. Therefore the tension between the two neighboring nomadic tribes has more influence on Ziadyyia in Kuma compare to Midob,because they restricted the camels and sheep grazing inside their homeland territories in the areas between Um-elhusien in south- eastern parts to Nussub in northern boarders with Miedoub.According to focus group discussions and key informants, this is the main reason of reducing animal production capability and deteriorations of pastures and disappearance of palatable grasses such as 1) Baghial: (Blepharislinarfolia) 2)Ikrish: (Pappaphorumspp). 3)Bayiat: (Commeliniakotschyi) 4) Rabaa: Zalyapentandra and replaced by other grasses with low nutritive value as Haskaneet :(Cenchrusbiflurs) BanoEragoristisasperaGaw:(Aristida - mutabilis) and Nada (Cidacordifolia)
Pattern of livestock migration in the study area before the conflicts in: a) Kuma: according to key informant persons;
Between June and July livestock move from Damars (around Ziaddyia tribe home land) toward south to areas at Tulu, Jabir
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and sometimes to south Nyala railway to Riazghat home land (so called Shougara trip)
Between September and October returns to areas around their (Dar) homeland which called Marga( getting out).
Noshouq trip between December and January where they move towards Juzzu areas far north of North Darfur state to areas of Wadi-Hawar and Wakhayim.
The return trip to their dammar between March and April to settled around water sources till the time of shougara
Figure (3) Herders following specific Animal routes during livestock movement
Competition over water resources and outbreak of camels' diseases as repeated widely through key informant persons and focus group discussion at home of NazirJuzzu (2011) and emphasized by Fadul (2011) in rapid assessment of livestock in North Darfur
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in(2011). Improvement of rangelands has become a necessity in Malha and Kuma through seed broadcasting of desirable species especially in the Nussub area between Malha and Kuma where accumulation of large animals occurred with increasing water sources.The rapid growth of donkeys as a result of displacement becomes a real threat to rangelands, cultivation and drinking water as well. According to Umelhussien borehole keeper in Kuma locality, about 400 to 450 donkeys come to drink every day.
6-2: The problems facing communal grazing
Table (2) The frequency and frequency percentage of problems facing the livestock during movement on the animal routes and "Damars"
No
Problem
On tracks (routes)
On damars
frequencies
percentage
frequencies
percentage
1
Insecurity
163
81.5
36
18
2
Shortage of drinking water
19
9.5
19
9.5
3
Shortage of pastures
18
9.0
109
54.5
4
Diseases
0
0
36
18
5
Total
200
100
200
100
Source: Fieldwork, (2011)
Table (2)demonstrates the main constrains of communal grazing with proportions varying between moving on routes and settling on
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damars.The most constrains occurred during movement of livestock on routes, especially insecurity that represents 81.5% as the main determinant of the movement of livestock on the routes. Blocking of the animal routes in specific areas within tribe Dar had no clear impact on livestock in Malha because it is spacious than Juzzu areas,but the blocking of the livestock routes in Kuma has tangible impact on livestock grazing especially camels that had declined in numbers significantly.The recent conflict in Darfur results from insecurity in many areas of pastoralists and tensions among tribes, led to broad looting for camels and cattle, even those who managed to save their livestock unfortunately were not able to find free range land to graze their animals naturally especially camels. Therefore many camels’ grazers shifted to graze sheep, which do not need to walk long distances for grazing like camels and economically more beneficial than camels
It is necessary to modernize livestock production systems through animal ranches that provide adequate water sources and sufficient pastures, veterinary services and education on scientific bases. Drought is one of livestock production constrains, because pastures growth and nutritive value depend on annual rainfall and its distribution through the rainy season mostly from June to October.
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6-3: Causes of conflicts and communal grazing constrains
Table (3) Frequency percentage of stakeholders who agree or disagree to conflict in the area
Reasons
No
Causes
Agree%
Disagree%
I don't know%
1
Communal Grazing
49
29
22
2
Agri-expansion on grazing lands
32
41
27
3
Rapid Growth of Livestock
53
29
18
4
Illegal enclosures
42
38
18
5
Too late Harvesting
23
54
23
6
Early free grazing on cultivation area
40
42
18
7
Farming on routes and rest area*1
30
34
36
8
Attacking farms by animal
46
39
15
9
Hakora System*2
69
5
26
Source: Fieldwork, (2011)
Key:*1: Rest area (Sawany) an area of about 10 -15 km for Nomads to stay for rest not more than 3-7 days during movement
*2Hakora (Dar): Tribe home land administrated by tribe top leader
Table 3 showed the main factors that led to conflicts as stated by the respondents:
The important factors that causes the conflicts were Hakora system, rapid growth of livestock, communal grazing, animal attacking crop
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farms and Illegal enclosures which represented 69%, 53%, 49% , 46% and 42% respectively as mentioned by the respondents. Date of communal grazing: setting time for the livestock to start grazing of “al-Talaig” (the residues of the agricultural crops, 28 February or (1st March) of every year.
Table (3) shows the answers of the respondents to the agreement or disagreement questions about the causes of conflicts in the study area.
Hakora system as a cause of conflicts received the highest percentage of agreement amounted to 69%, Hakora (Plural Hawakeer) means tribal lands ownership as reported in Doha Document for peace in Darfur (DDPD) (2011) sometimes called (Dar)
According to Ajeebet al (2010) most of Darfurian tribes acquired for themselves large territories of land Called (Hakora) or (Dar) it is regarded as the property of the entire tribes and the chief of the tribe is regarded as custodian of the property. For the sedentary farmers, land is allotted to each member of the tribe for cultivation purposes, while unused land is left to form shared resources for use by both farmers and nomads.
After the recent armed conflict in Darfur, situation differed and there was tension between the settled tribes and pastoralists as result of failure to respect the customs and regulations and law breaking.
Rapid growth rate of livestock with percentage of agreement at about 53% followed Hakora system
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Livestock attacking farms at percentage of agreement about 46%
Illegal enclosures has percentage of agreement about 42%
Early free grazing on cultivation with percentage of 40%
Expansion of agriculture on range lands has percentage of agreement about 32%
Farming on routes and rest areas has percentage of 30% agreement.
Expansion of agriculture on pasture lands resulting into tightness in grazing areas and animal routes. Rapid needs of sedentary farmers to seeking fodders for their own animals and new income sources led them to establish fences around pasture land (illegal enclosures) to reserves pasture grass, which became one of the conflict causes between sedentary famers and pastoralists. Early Communal grazing before the specific time for crops harvesting and before setting time for the livestock to start grazing of “al-Talaig” (the residues of the agricultural crops) also is one of conflicts issues causes.
6-4- Usage of crop residues as communal grazing constrains
Table-4:The frequency and frequency percentages of respondents regarding the usages of crops residues
No
Usage
Frequencies
Percentage
1
Animal feedstuffs
68
68
2
Selling
29
29
4
Neglected
3
3
Total
100
100
Source: Fieldwork, (2011)
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Table (4) shows the frequency and frequency percentages of respondent reporting the usage of crops residues. About 68% of these respondents and 29% mentioned that they use their crop residue for animal feedstuffs and selling, respectively.Only 3% of the respondent stated that they neglected the crops residues used by livestock during communal grazing. The investigated persons mentioned that 29% of the sedentary farmers usually sell their crop residue as a source of income, therefore crop residues are no longer left to be grazed during communal grazing and taliq. This is incompatible with what had been documented by Nilsson (2001) and Fadul (2006), who stated that communal grazing is based on crops residues, therefore, communal gazing and the taliq has become one of the causes of conflicts between pastoralists and farmers as animal grazers sometimes leave their livestock to graze the farms before fixed date for the harvesting and free grazing on 7 February each year, which was approved lastly instead of 28 February.
Conclusion
Because livestock grazing in Darfur mainly depends on communal grazing which, became one of the conflict factors between pastoralists themselves on one side and between pastoralists and sedentary farmers on the other. Thus, intervention of governmental and private sector, for improving; pastures and animals breeds, through animal ranches is so important for peace settlement in Darfur.
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References
1- Abdalla, S. A. (2008) Use of Controlled Irrigation for the Improvement of Sorghum Growth and Productivity in North Darfur.Ph.D thesis University of Khartoum, Sudan
2- Abdalla, Siding. M., (2002), Dairy Farm management (Arabic), cited in Ismail (2013), The effect of Animal traditional system improvement on conflict management , case study North Darfur State. PhD Sudan University.
3- Ajeeb, A, Ibrahim E.A , Ismail M.Elsir.A, (2010), Nomadic Population base line survey. North Darfur, Faculty of Natural resources and Environmental science (Elfashir University) in collaboration with International Organization for Migration (IOM)
4- Elnour, I. A, (2012), Livelihoods for Pastoralist Prospective (Presence, Past and Future) un published paper presented in a workshop), Livelihoods for Pastoralist and famers Prospective, Peace Center,Elfashir University in Collaboration with Darfur Darfur Dialogue Consultant 22- 23 December 2012
5- Fadul, A. (2006). Natural Resources for sustainable peace .University of Peace, Africa Programme, Conference proceeding. , December 2006.
6- Fadul, A.A, and, Ismail M.A, (2011). Research study on Pastoralists Food Security in North Darfur, World Food Programme (WFP) in Collaboration with Elfashir University, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resources.Augst2011
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7- Nilsson, Tabias, (2001), Management of Communal Grazing lands, a case study in Tanzania. www.Scrib.com/doc.
8- Fadul.A. (2011).Rapid Livestock Assessment Report, Livestock Working Group Ministry of Animal Resource and Fisheries-Norh Darfur in Collaboration with FAO Elfashir
9- Helen Young, Abdallla, A and Omer E,(2009) Livelihoods, power and Choice, the Vulnerability of the Northern Rizaygat, in Darfur, Sudan, Feinstein International Center.
10- MOARAF-ND, (2011) Annual report Animal, Health Unit- North Darfur.
11- Doha Document for peace in Darfur (DDPD) (2011)
1. Key person: (2011)AbdellahJuzzu (Nazir), Head of Ziadyia Native Administration, Kuma Locality- North Darfur State
2. Key Person (2011) Ibrahim Abu Elkhair. Head of Pastolalits Union, Malha Locality- North Darfur State.