Environmental and Socioeconomic Interactions of Wild Edible and Associated Woody Plants in North Darfur

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Environmental and Socioeconomic Interactions of Wild Edible and Associated Woody Plants in North Darfur
Abubakr M. J. Siam1* , Mohamed A. Khamis1 , Ibrahim A. El Nour1
1 Department of Forestry and Range Sciences Faculty of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources, University of Al Fashir, P.O. Box 125, El Fasher, North Darfur, Sudan
* Corresponding author: E-mail: abmjsiam@gmail.com Tel: 249 (0)911074403
التفاعل البيئي والاجتماعي-الاقتصادي للنباتات البرية الخشبية
المستخدمة والمرتبطة بالغذاء في شمال دارفور
المستخلص
هددت الدرتسد دد لع للمددولدت القددديلدرتدوتمدد لفاتددلمبلدر ودودد لدر دد لفد لجت ادددو ل
د قت اد يلران داديلدربرم لدلخش لدرتيلتمث لقاد سلرغداد لدنساددبللال مد للشمدد ل دس دلسل.ل
أُخ يريلقندطقلدتدلح لفلقا طللفأملكتد ةلذديلدلهشدش لدر لدر در لأقددك لراتسد د ل.ل
أُجتدد يلدتاددقلدلحتا دد لدت ددتدس لرا اددل لوا دديللا دس ددديلانددلم لفكثد دد لد س ددلد لدرن دا دد لللللللللل
فدلخادد الد جت ادو د لد قت ادد م لرلأُ د للاد د تدملط متد لدر ند لدر شدلد لدر ت د .ل
لا لدتاقلدلحتا لدرن دا لفجتل ل لوش لسلودًلق لدرن داديلدربرمد لدلخشد لفدردتيلان اد ل
ع لثمدبلولد .لثمدس لأسلد لقنهدلاا تملفيلدرغاد :لدت طلفد سدتسد لفدلهلاد ولفدرادتسل
)س قلأصو لفأحمد ل(لفدرتضد بلفدر ندت لفدراد ديل.لأقددلدر اد لأسدلد لدرن دا د لد خد ل ديرل
دتادددد تق لفيلدرغدددداد لفدتدددد ا طلالدجتددددتهدلىندددددطقلدرتسد دددد لهددددي:لدرادددد د لفدتدددد ل
فدرنترفدرا ليلفدر ش فدرتو فدلح دزفدرا حلفدلهشد .لمتردفحلوت لأ د لد د ةلقددللاد ل
دد لع لوشدد ةللفيلقندددطقلدرتسد دد لفلا ددبرلدرهسدودد لس هدددلدر ادد ل.لاادددهبلدرن داددديل
درغاد لفخدص لدت طللالضلحلفيلادل ليرلدرغداد ل د لدم ا دديلدر مو د لأ ندد لدمدودديل
درندتجددد لوددد لدلمودددد لدت نددد سل.لكددد لدرن دادددديلدلخشددد لدتاددد تق لفيلدرغددداد لف ددديرل

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دتا تق لاا بلأ فدسدًلقها لفيلا همهلد ق لدرغاد لق لخلا لدس دد لس دبلدرلقتدل لفصدلبل
در دد لرادد لكاددبلدر دد لد خدد ل.لولاقتدد لدرددل ةلدرنادد ل سددلد لدرن داددديلدرغاد دد لقددول
اوض لدرندسل هلاكهدلكدسالعيجدلا .لدت طلفدرا د لم تمدبلنمدلدًلفف د ةلأ ضد لفيل
لا ديلشمد ل دس لسلشتمتةلدلمود .ليجبلأبلالضدولفيلدنو ددسلخ دطلدراد دس لفدر دل ل
دتاد ت ا لفيلدر ودودد لدر دد لفد جت ادددو لد قت ادد يلران داددديلدربرمدد لد ا دد لدرغاد دد لفيل
در ديلدلمد لرشاد ل دس لس.ل
Abstract
The study was conducted with the objective of gathering baseline information and analyzing the environmental and socioeconomic interactions of wild woody food plant resources in North Darfur State. Three areas with highly fragile environments were selected (Malliet, Malha and Umkaddada) as study sites. Field surveys on plant species composition and stocking density and households were carried out using stratified random sampling method. Plant field survey detected seventeen indigenous wild woody plant species belonging to eight families. Eight of which are used as food plants: Boscia senegalensis (Makhait),Cordia rothii (Andarab), Balanites aegyptiaca (Haglieg), Ziziphus spina-christi (Sidir; nabag ahmer), Ziziphus mauritiana (Sidr; nabag asfer), Grewia tenax (Giddame), Capparis deciduas (Tundub), and Grewia erythraea ( Saat). Other nine non food plant species associated with study areas are Acacia tortilis (Sayal), Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Marakh), Acacia mellifera (Kitir), Acacia nubica (Laout), Caloptropis procera (Usher), Commiphora africana (Gafal), Faidherbia albida (Haraz), Maerua crassifolia (Sarah) and Acacia senegal (Hashab). In the study areas family size ranges between 6-10

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persons and the farming is their main occupation. Wild plant foods especially Mukhait contribute substantially to household food provision for the rural communities during famine resulted from recurrent drought. All woody plants play important roles in enhancing food security as they provide fuel wood and conserving environment for other livelihoods. Relationship between relative abundance of edible woody plant species with the preference of their consumption was positive. Mukhait and Sayal exhibit better growth and abundance in extreme dry environments of the North Darfur region. Setting conservation and future research plans on ecological and socioeconomic interactions of native wild edible plants in arid environment of North Darfur should be considered.
Key words: Indigenous wild plants, household food security, plant composition and density, relative abundance, North Darfur
1- Introduction
Darfur has been severely hit by Sahel droughts and its associated impacts leading to the decline of agricultural production. As a consequence population displacement in large scales from the drought prone areas to relatively promising ones occurred in recent decades. These large scale movements created further serious problems such as shortage in food, fodder and inability at hosting sites to absorb this exodus resulting into group of marginal people. Therefore, most attention has been given by researchers and policy makers to the

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displaced people and their new settlements; however little interests have been focused on the life of those remained in their original homelands tackling the environmental difficulties. Studying and analyzing the interactions of local rural communities with their surroundings seem top priority for setting development strategies. Assessment of indigenous knowledge and use devoted by rural dwellers to wild plants species remain necessary for both ecological and social aspects. The use and knowledge of wild edible plants is better conserved in the community that is located farther away from urban centers (Reyes-Garcia et al., 2005). Food shortage and lack is very frequent in North Darfur due to rainfall scarcity or insect pests (APU, 2011), thus people either to migrate or depend on food aids provided by relief agencies. But swift access during food crisis is not always possible due to security, logistic or any other reasons. In order to reduce the dependency on the food aid, other food sources such as wild plants should be sought and promoted.
Recently more attention was given to indigenous wild food plants worldwide. According to Reddy et al., (2007) more than 3000 edible plant species are known to mankind but less than 30 crop species contribute to more than 90% of the world calorie intake. The contribution of wild plant species to household food supply varies according to region and groups (Piya et al., 2011, Grosskinsky and Gullick, 2000, Modi et al.,2006, Tiwari et al., 2010, Misra et al., 2008, Reddy et al., 2007, and Mazhar et al., 2007). In Darfur the consumption of wild-food plants seems to be one of the important

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local survival strategies during famine periods. B. senegalensis (Makhait) and Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Korabe) are traditionally well known wild edible plants that play vital roles in minimizing adverse effects of starvation in rural areas of Darfur. They are backbones of household food security during food shortage crisis particularly when there is no intervention for food aid by official authorities or NGOs agencies. Scientific and formal intervention for collection, identification, and testing for suitability of consumption by human in addition to evaluate the extent of existence of wild food plants remain very important. It is expected that studies on the socioeconomic and environmental interactions of wild plants in North Darfur could provide important information for development of policies on rational exploitation of natural resources for human sustenance and to reduce the human dependency on food aid provided by the world community.
Areas, especially Malha, Malleit and Umkadada localities are characterized by insufficient rainfall, drought and frequent shortage of food; therefore they are selected as study area. The aim of this study is to gather baseline information on abundance and composition of native wild food and other associated woody plants and socioeconomic indicators (family size, gender, education level, and occupation) of local communities in three areas. Also the study aims to assess edible parts, method and season of collection, quantity produced per season, level of use and preference for consumption. Such investigation could explore the most common species that used

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as source of food by the majority of people and the relationship between relative abundance and preference for consumption. Specific objectives of the study were:
1- To identify woody wild food plants that are traditionally used by the local communities as source of food particularly in the out crops seasons /or during crisis in North Darfur.
2- To document indigenous knowledge and importance of wild-food plants for the livelihood and survival strategies adopted by rural people in food insecure areas in Malha, Malliet and UmKadada localities.
3- To assess the composition and stocking density of native wild- food and other associated woody plant species in these three areas.
3- Materials and Methods
3.1- description of study area
Malliet, Malha and Umkadada areas (Localities) were selected as study sites as they are mostly vulnerable to drought and consequently food insecurity. Malliet locates at latitude 14 15 N and longitude 25 27 E. Malha locates at latitude of 15 05 N and longitude 26  27 E. Umkadada locates at latitudes 13 14 N and longitudes 26 37 E. Malliet and Malha are located in the Northern part of North Darfur State, which characterized by hilly slopes and depressions, while Umkaddada located in the Eastern part of El Fasher and characterized by sand dunes.

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3.2- Data collection
For the determination of plant composition and stocking density, 90 sample plots, 0.5 hectare approximately 2.1 feddan (fed) each, were selected and plants inside were counted and identified. Relative abundance for each species was calculated using (Klironomos, 2002) method as the percentage of locations containing that species. Edible woody plants include trees and shrubs which their fruits, seeds, leaves, and flowers are known to be eaten by rural people, while associated woody plants involve those trees and shrubs grow alongside edible ones in study areas.
Household and field surveys were carried out using stratified random sampling method. A total of 334 respondents (Malliet 120, Malha122 and Umkaddada 92) were randomly selected for the household survey using semi-structured interviews. Additional information was also obtained through key informants’ interviews and group discussions. Questionnaires were used to collect socioeconomic characteristics (viz. family size, gender, education level, occupation, edible part, method of collection, season of collection, quantity collected per plant per season, and preference for consumption). Secondary data were obtained from pertinent reports and studies.
3.3. Statistical Analysis
For the calculation of means and percentage of variables the Statistical Package of Social Science (SPSS) was used. Relationship between means of different variables was established using excel

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program regression analysis and the significance of correlations was tested at P = 0.05.
4- Results
4.1- Plant species composition and abundance
Results showed that there are 17 indigenous wild tree and shrub species in the study area, belonging to eight families as shown in Tables (1) and (2). Eight of which are used as food plants namely: Boscia senegalensis (Makhait),Cordia rothii (Andarab), Balanites aegyptiaca (Haglieg), Ziziphus spina-christi (Sidir; nabag ahmer), Ziziphus mauritiana (Sidr; nabag asfer), Grewia tenax (Giddame), Capparis deciduas (Tundub), and Grewia erythraea ( Saat). The highest diversity (15 species) per fed is found in Malha locality of which six are used as food dominated by Haglieg with 34.1% relative abundance and 52.5% regeneration out of edible trees. Makhait regeneration ranks as second with 20% while Giddame exhibited no regeneration. In Malliet 11 species were recorded, five of them are food plants and dominated by Makhait 69.2% and 67.6% relative abundance and regeneration respectively. Sidr comes next as 23.6% relative abundance and 32.4 relative regeneration. While, Haglieg, Giddame and Tundub showed no regeneration. In Umkadada locality the total number of wild shrubs are eight, of which three species are as food plants with Makhait showing the highest percentage of abundance 90% and regeneration 82.4%. On the other hand Saat which found only in Umkadada among the study areas showed poor

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availability 8.6% and regeneration 17.6% while Haglieg abundance equal only 1.4% with no regeneration.
The other nine non- food plants species (Table 2).) are Acacia tortilis (Sayal), Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Marakh), Acacia mellifera (Kitir), Acacia nubica (Laout), Caloptropis procera (Usher), Commiphora africana (Gafal), Faidherbia albida (Haraz), Maerua crassifolia (Sarah) and Acacia senegal (Hashab). The sayal tends to be the dominant nonfood plants species in three areas representing 45.4%, 44.9%, and 41.2% in Malha, Malliet, and Umkaddada, respectively. Its relative regeneration in Malha and Malliet represents 62% and 61% respectively, while in Umkadada no regeneration was found for all non food shrubs and trees.
Table 1: Wild woody food plants composition, density, and regeneration in Malha, Malliet, and Umkadada areas
Area
Local Arabic name of plant
Scientific name
Family
No. of plant / fed
Relative abundance of plant (%) / fed
Regeneration
(relative regeneration) / fed
Malha
Haglieg
Makhait
Tundub
Andarab
Gedame
Sidr
Balanites aegyptiaca
Boscia senegalensis
Caparis decidua
Cordia rothii
Grewia tenax
Ziziphus mauritiana
Balanitaceae
Caparidaceae
Caparidaceae
Bignoniaceae
Tiliaceae
Rhamanaceae
6.2
3.4
2.2
2.6
0.2
3.6
34.1
18.7
12.1
14.3
1.1
19.8
4.2 (52.5)
1.6 (20)
0.7 (8.8)
0.3 (3.7)
0 (0)
1.2 (15)
Haglieg
Makhait
Balanites aegyptiaca
Balanitaceae
Caparidaceae
0.7
12.9
3.8
69.2
0 (0)
5 (67.6)

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Malliet
Tundub
Gedame
Sidr
Boscia senegalensis
Caparis decidua
Grewia tenax
Ziziphus spina- christi
Caparidaceae
Tiliaceae
Rhamanaceae
0.3
0.3
4.3
1.6
1.6
23.6
0 (0)
0 (0)
2.4 (32.4)
Umkadada
Haglieg
Makhait
Saat
Balanites aegyptiaca
Boscia senegalensis
Grewia erythraea
Balanitaceae
Caparidaceae
Tiliaceae
0.2
12.6
1.2
1.4
90
8.6
0 (0)
1.4 (82.4)
0.3 (17.6)
Table 2: Non food wild woody plants composition, density and regeneration in Malha, Malliet, and Umkadada areas
Area
Local arabic name of plant
Scientific name
Family
No. of plant / fed
Relative abundance of plant (%) / fed
Regeneration
(relative regeneration) / fed
Malha
Sayal
Marakh
Sarha
Hashab
Kitir
Laout
Ushar
Gafal
Haraz
Acacia tortilis
Leptadenia pyrotechnica
Maerua crassifolia
Acacia senegal
Acacia mellifera
Acacia nubaica
Caloptropis procera
Commiphora africana
Faidherbia albida
Mimosaceae
Asclepiadaceae
Capparidiaceae
Mimosaceae
Mimosaceae
Mimosaceae
Asclepiadaceae
Burseraceae
Mimosaceae
8.9
2.6
0.7
0.5
1.8
1.8
1.4
1.2
0.7
45.4
13.3
3.6
2.6
9.2
9.2
7.1
6.1
3.6
6.7 (62)
0.8 (7.4)
0.2 (1.9)
0 (0)
1.3 (12)
0.3 (2.8)
0.3 (2.8
1 (9.3)
0.2 (1.9)

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Malliet
Sayal
Marakh
Sarha
Hashab
Laout
Haraz
Acacia tortilis
Leptadenia pyrotechnica
Maerua crassifolia
Acacia senegal
Acacia nubica
Faidherbia albida
Mimosaceae
Asclepiadaceae
Capparidiaceae
Mimosaceae
Mimosaceae
Mimosaceae
5.3
2.6
2.2
0.3
0.7
0.7
44.9
22
18.6
2.5
5.9
5.9
5 (61)
0.8 (9.8)
1.4 (17.1)
0 (0)
0.8 (9.8)
0.2 (2.4)
Umkadada
Sayal
Marakh
Sarha
Hashab
Gafal
Acacia tortilis
Leptadenia pyrotechnica
Maerua crassifolia
Acacia senegal
Commiphora africana
Mimosaceae
Asclepiadaceae
Capparidiaceae
Mimosaceae
Burseraceae
0.7
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.2
41.2
17.6
11.8
17.6
11.8
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
4.2- Socioeconomic characteristics
Table 3 shows that the family size ranges between 6-10 persons as indicated by the majority of the respondents (70% in Malleit, 65.2% in Umkadada, and 43.4% in Malha). Male respondents are higher than the females in Malha and Umkadada representing 57.4% and 59.8% relative to 42.6 and 40.2% female, respectively. Majority of the respondents have acquired Khalwa and primary school levels. Malha shows high illiteracy (29.5%) compared to other areas, while Umkadada showed no illiteracy. The results exhibited that no respondent has acquired University level. Farming is the main occupation for most of the respondents. Nearly all the respondents in

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the study areas used/using wild food plants (Fig. 1) during different times and occasions.
Table 3: Socioeconomic characteristics of respondents in Malha, Malliet, and Umkadada areas
Area
Family size (6-10 persons) %
Sex%
Education%
Occupation%
Male
Female
Literate
illiterate
farmers
herders
others
Malha
43.4
57.4
42.6
70.5
29.5
42.62
16.4
41
Malliet
70
49.2
50.8
99.2
0.8
61.7
0
38.3
UmKadada
65.2
59.8
40.2
100
0
45.7
0
54.3
Figure 1: Level of wild food shrubs and tree use by interviewees in three localities

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Edible parts, quantities of fruits, method and season of collection are shown in Table 4. About eight wild tree species used as food in the study area. The results have shown that about six indigenous wild tree species used as food in Malha, five in Malliet, and four species in Umkadada. It is important to note that not all the edible species indicated by respondents were found in sampling areas. For instance Grewia villosa (Gargadan) is used in Malliet but was not detected during field data collection. Three species are common to the three areas (Makhait, Sidir and Gidame). While Heglieg is commonly used in Malliet and Malha, Andarab is used mostly in Malha, whereas Saat only used in Umkadada.
Table 4: Quantity, method and season of collection of edible fruits of wild shrubs and trees
Species
Edible part
Collection method
Collection season
Quantity / kg /plant / season
Boscia senegalensis
fruit + seed
Picking
March to June
1-20
Ziziphus spp
fruit + seed
Shaking
Nov to Jan
 20
Balanites aegyptiaca
fruit
Shaking
Dec to Feb
 20
Cordia rothii
fruit
Picking
Jan to Mar
1-5
Grewia tenax
fruit
Picking
Dec to Jul
1-5
Grewia erythraea
fruit
Picking
Aug to Oct
1-5
Grewia villosa
fruit
Picking
Sep to Mar
1-5
Fruits and seeds are the most used parts; they are either extracted through direct hand picking and /or by shaking the tree and collecting

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the fallen fruits from the ground. Collection season varies according to plant species as mentioned. The results reveal that through year round there is a certain food plant that can be collected. Makhait is mostly collected during March-June where the green unripe fruits during March and the ripe ones during June. Quantities collected per plant per season, Makhait produces 12 kg as average, Sidr and Haglieg produce more than 20 kg while the rest plant species produce 1-5 kg per plant per season.
Preference of plant as food by respondents is shown in Table 5. Makhait is the dominant preferred wild food plant species that used in the three areas as mentioned by the interviewees 88% in Umkaddada, 41% in Malha and 26.7% in Malliet respectively.
Table 5: Rank of preference for consumption of wild food plant species in three areas
Malha
Malliet
Umkadada
Boscia senegalensis (41)
Boscia senegalensis (26.7)
Boscia senegalensis (88)
Ziziphus spina- christi (28.7)
Balanites aegyptiaca (15)
Grewia tenax (6.5)
Species (preference %)
Cordia rothii (14.8)
Grewia tenax (9.2)
Ziziphus spina christi (1.1)
Grewia tenax (11.5)
Ziziphus spina- christi (4.2)
Balanites aegyptiaca (3.3)
Grewia vilosa (1.7)
Order of species preference is locality specific, hence varies among the three areas. Strong positive correlation (R = 0.78) between relative preference and abundance of tree species was established (Fig. 2).

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Figure 2: Relationship between relative abundance and preference of wild food shrubs and trees in Malha, Malleit and Umkadada areas
5- Discussion
Based on this study findings it could be noted that there are seventeen species of indigenous wild trees and shrubs found in the area belonging to eight families. With regard to the edible plants, Boscia senegalensis show dominance in term of abundance and regeneration in Malliet and Umkaddada locality, while Balanites aegyptiaca acts so in Malha. Despite the intensive use of B. sengalensis fruits and seeds, it tends to well thrive in north Darfur. This implicates that the species well regenerates and grows; hence the consumption by community members does not threaten its survival. As stated by Cruz et al., (2013) conservation of the species is not

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endangered by their use but by destruction of the ecosystems in which these plants grow.
The other nine non- food plants species are also of great importance as fodder, fuel wood, building materials, timber, environmental protection in addition to other multiple uses. Sayal (A. tortilis) tree species flourish relatively better than the others particularly in Malha and Malliet whereas the average number of regeneration is about seven and five per fed respectively while for the rest species the number ranges from one to zero. In Umkadada the situation is appalling because no regeneration has been observed for both food and non food shrubs and trees except Makhait (B. sengalensis). Thus, B. senegalensis and A. tortilis seem well adaptable to the extreme dry environment of the region. Relative abundance and regeneration of these species are likely due to drought and adverse conditions tolerance. These two species deserve special consideration in any conservation plans of plants’ species. Because Mukhait plant is valued as human food with high protein content about 20-30% (Maydell, 1990 and Siam et al., 2011) and Sayal is valued as animal fodder and shade source during dry hot summers and grows in extreme diverse acting the symbol of the tree limit towards the desert (Maydell, 1990). Most Sahelo -Sahara tree species tolerate drought extending over eleven months and resist daily temperatures above 50 oC and winter night below 0 oC.
In socio-economic characteristics the average family size ranges between six to ten persons and generally the males are outnumbered

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females among interviewees. As there is no specific livelihood activity confining specific social gender, the higher number of males could not change the collective response of interviewees. Acquisition of majority of the respondents only khalwa and primary school levels might become evident that advanced education level would change the living standard and attitude of community towards wild food plants. The use of wild edible plants can be abandoned by some people, because using of wild plant species as food is considered to be synonymous with poverty (Cruz et al., 2013). Moreover, easy access of local communities to industrialized products induces loss of indigenous knowledge and traditional practices related to natural resources (Reyes-Garcia, 2005). However, the education level and farming practice of most respondents in addition to consumption of wild food plants as main or additional meal by all of them in the study likely to encourage the promotion of use and management. Consumption and promotion of the plants by community members is convenient and stimulates the appropriation and consequent protection of ecosystem. Gathering of biological resources for daily use is associated with the maintenance of a strong cultural tradition (Altieri et al., 1987). This could be supported by safety fruits and seeds extraction methods adopted by users in this study. Whereas, collection methods are not destructive as do the other methods like felling the trees or breaking the branches.
Obtaining magnitude of wild edible fruits over different seasons seems to be great advantage for rural communities especially during

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natural disasters. Throughout the year there is a certain food plant that can be collected. It is worth noting that people consume fruits of Haglieg, Sidir, Andarab, Giddame,Tundub, and Saat as complementary food while use seeds of mukait as major food particularly during famine. Many people in rural areas especially in remote villages still belief that Makhait is the best defense line against the famine resulted from recurrent drought. Because it usually bears seeds during dry period and produce more seeds following the season of scarce rainfall, furthermore its fruits availability lasts four months from March to June. Although preference for plant species as food is locality specific (Table 5), the positive correlation between relative abundance and preference for consumption of plant species was found (Fig. 2). This finding is in line with the statement that, strong relationship was established between more known edible species and their specific locations (Ladio et al., 2007, and Cruz et al., 2013). The wide use and knowledge of local farmers could be used to encourage the adoption of agroforestry and community forests of edible and economic plants which is crucial for maintenance and conservation of ecosystem. Initiation and adoption of programs for indigenous edible plants protection and planting do not only contribute to household food security, but also to provide other livelihoods and to conserve the environment for its own sake (Sayer and Campbell, 2004). Such programs could also compensate for the absence of or presence of very few environment and natural resources based projects in North Darfur.

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In conclusion the seventeen species of indigenous wild woody plants found in the area, eight of which are edible should receive attention for further understanding of their environmental and socio- economic interactions to set strategies for achieving immediate benefits for local people and at the same time could sustain long term use of environment and natural resources. Among all species Boscia senegalensis as edible plant and Acacia tortilis as associated species exhibited better growth and survival in extreme dry environments of North Darfur region, thus deserve special focus in any conservation plans.
Acknowledgement
Authors thank WFP North Darfur office for financial support and travel facilities provided during this study. The research was conducted within Strategic Partnership between World Food Programme WFP and Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resources FESNR, University of Al Fashir on Food Assistance Monitoring, Operational research and Capacity Building in North Darfur. Authors also thank Dr. Yousif Jimpy for providing coordinates data of the areas.
References
1. Altieri M., Anderson M., and Merrick L. (1987). Peasant agriculture and the conservation of crop and wild plant resources. Conservation Biology,1: 49-58.
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