High voltages can cause overvoltage events that exceed the design limits of electrical systems. There are two main types of overvoltage: lightning overvoltage from natural sources, and switching overvoltage caused by changing loads on a system. Lightning overvoltage occurs when a lightning strike induces high voltage in a system. Switching overvoltage happens when large inductive or resistive loads are connected or disconnected, causing voltage spikes. Both types of overvoltage can damage equipment and should be controlled through various techniques like resistors, phase control, and reactors. Uncontrolled overvoltages present a danger, so protection methods are important for system reliability and safety.
Over voltages can be caused by internal factors like switching operations or insulation failures, or external factors like lightning. Lightning arrestors protect equipment by diverting high voltage surges to ground. They break down temporarily during over voltages and regain insulation at normal voltages. Insulation coordination determines equipment insulation strength to withstand normal operating voltages and temporary over voltages based on factors like highest system frequency, temporary over voltages, and transient surges. Equipment is tested and rated with a basic insulation level to ensure it can withstand impulse voltages above that level.
PROTECTION AGAINST OVER VOLTAGE AND GROUNDING Part 1Dr. Rohit Babu
The document discusses protection against overvoltages and grounding in power systems. It defines external and internal overvoltages, describes how lightning causes overvoltages, and explains the mechanisms of direct and indirect lightning strokes. It also covers topics like wave shapes of lightning voltages, overvoltage protection of transmission lines using overhead ground wires, and measurement of surge voltages using a klydonograph.
Overview of Grounding for Industrial and Commercial Power Systemsmichaeljmack
This document summarizes a presentation on grounding for industrial and commercial power systems. It begins with an overview of basic electrical concepts like voltage, current, capacitance, and transformers. It then discusses the two main functions of grounding: safety/protection and providing a common reference point. Key aspects of grounding systems are explained, including minimizing shock hazards and ensuring proper overcurrent protection. The document provides definitions of grounding terminology and discusses requirements for grounding separately derived systems and solidly grounded transformer secondaries.
The document discusses earthing arrangements and protection against electric shock. It defines key terms like earthing, protective conductors, and fault conditions. It describes the three common earthing arrangements - TT, TN-S, and TN-C-S systems. For each system, it explains the wiring configuration and how fault currents flow. Protection methods like RCDs and their operation are also covered to prevent electric shock. Diagrams and formulas are provided to calculate touch voltages and ensure safety.
PROTECTION AGAINST OVER VOLTAGE AND GROUNDINGDr. Rohit Babu
- The document discusses grounded and ungrounded neutral systems in power systems.
- In an ungrounded system, the neutral is isolated from ground which can cause overvoltages and issues with fault detection.
- Grounded systems connect the neutral to ground to limit voltages and improve safety, reliability and fault detection.
- Common methods for grounding the neutral include solid grounding, resistance grounding, reactance grounding and Peterson coil grounding. The selection depends on system size and protection requirements.
Over voltages can be caused by internal factors like switching operations or insulation failures, or external factors like lightning. Lightning arrestors protect equipment by diverting high voltage surges to ground. They break down temporarily during over voltages and regain insulation at normal voltages. Insulation coordination determines equipment insulation strength to withstand normal operating voltages and temporary over voltages based on factors like highest system frequency, temporary over voltages, and transient surges. Equipment is tested and rated with a basic insulation level to ensure it can withstand impulse voltages above that level.
PROTECTION AGAINST OVER VOLTAGE AND GROUNDING Part 1Dr. Rohit Babu
The document discusses protection against overvoltages and grounding in power systems. It defines external and internal overvoltages, describes how lightning causes overvoltages, and explains the mechanisms of direct and indirect lightning strokes. It also covers topics like wave shapes of lightning voltages, overvoltage protection of transmission lines using overhead ground wires, and measurement of surge voltages using a klydonograph.
Overview of Grounding for Industrial and Commercial Power Systemsmichaeljmack
This document summarizes a presentation on grounding for industrial and commercial power systems. It begins with an overview of basic electrical concepts like voltage, current, capacitance, and transformers. It then discusses the two main functions of grounding: safety/protection and providing a common reference point. Key aspects of grounding systems are explained, including minimizing shock hazards and ensuring proper overcurrent protection. The document provides definitions of grounding terminology and discusses requirements for grounding separately derived systems and solidly grounded transformer secondaries.
The document discusses earthing arrangements and protection against electric shock. It defines key terms like earthing, protective conductors, and fault conditions. It describes the three common earthing arrangements - TT, TN-S, and TN-C-S systems. For each system, it explains the wiring configuration and how fault currents flow. Protection methods like RCDs and their operation are also covered to prevent electric shock. Diagrams and formulas are provided to calculate touch voltages and ensure safety.
PROTECTION AGAINST OVER VOLTAGE AND GROUNDINGDr. Rohit Babu
- The document discusses grounded and ungrounded neutral systems in power systems.
- In an ungrounded system, the neutral is isolated from ground which can cause overvoltages and issues with fault detection.
- Grounded systems connect the neutral to ground to limit voltages and improve safety, reliability and fault detection.
- Common methods for grounding the neutral include solid grounding, resistance grounding, reactance grounding and Peterson coil grounding. The selection depends on system size and protection requirements.
This document discusses methods for calculating arc flash hazards to help select proper personal protective equipment (PPE). It describes three primary calculation methods: 1) Ralph Lee's theoretical model from 1982, 2) equations and tables in NFPA 70E-2004, and 3) the comprehensive equations presented in IEEE Std 1584-2002. The document provides guidelines for determining which calculation method is correct for a given situation, such as verifying the method applies to the system voltages and fault currents and using device-specific equations over general equations. It also summarizes types of PPE defined in NFPA 70E-2004 based on the degree of arc flash protection required.
This document discusses various grounding techniques for electrical systems. It begins by comparing different grounding methods such as ungrounded, solidly grounded, and resistance grounded systems. It then focuses on high resistance grounding and describes how HRG limits fault currents while allowing systems to continue operating after ground faults. The document provides examples of applying HRG to generators, variable frequency drives, and paralleled power sources. It discusses component ratings, fault currents, harmonics, and coordination of protection devices for HRG systems.
Using High Resistance Grounding to Mitigate Arc Flash Hazardsmichaeljmack
Using High Resistance Grounding to Mitigate Arc Flash Hazards
Presenter: Ajit Bapat, P.E.
I-GARD's HRG systems can detect ground faults, signal alarms, and locate affected circuits to remove personnel from arc flash dangers. I-GARD's FALCON provides fast arc flash mitigation in under 1ms through adjustable light sensitivity to reduce arc flash energy. I-GARD's arc flash analysis calculates risk using IEEE and NFPA equations to develop comprehensive protection plans for a safer work environment.
This document discusses various sources of transient over-voltages on power systems including capacitor switching and lightning. It describes how capacitor switching can cause oscillations that generate transient over-voltages. Lightning can also directly or indirectly introduce surges into power systems. The document outlines issues like magnification of transients at customer locations and ferroresonance that can occur. It discusses principles of overvoltage protection like limiting voltage and diverting surge current. Protection devices like surge arresters and transient voltage surge suppressors are described.
Tank Grounding for safe operating conditions to ensure proper dissipation of transient electrical currents, static electricity, and lightning dispersion.
This document is a student's final report on testing the earthing system of a 10 MVA power transformer at a substation in Palembang, Indonesia. The student defines a final report and the purpose of their report. The background discusses how electricity usage is increasing with technology, requiring reliable distribution systems. Earthing systems are important for protecting equipment from short circuits and leakage currents. The objectives are to determine the electrode type used and grounding impedance. Benefits include preventing disturbances, maintaining power distribution, and protecting workers from electrical shock. The student thanks the reader for their attention.
Transient voltages, also called surges or spikes, are momentary changes in voltage or current that occur over a short period of time, usually less than 1/60th of a second. They are generated by both external sources like lightning and utility switching and internal sources like motor starts and static discharge. Transients can travel through a facility's electrical system and affect electronic equipment, causing erratic operation, lock ups, premature failure or decreased efficiency. Effective transient voltage suppression equipment can significantly increase the life of electrical and electronic systems and provide a strong return on investment.
Electrical fault is the deviation of voltages and currents from nominal values or states. Under normal operating conditions, power system equipment or lines carry normal voltages and currents which results in a safer operation of the system.
The document provides an overview of different protection systems, including power system protection, lightning protection systems, and train protection systems.
Power system protection aims to isolate faults or overloads to prevent damage and injuries. It uses components like current transformers, voltage transformers, protective relays, circuit breakers and batteries. Coordination ensures protective devices operate in the optimal timed sequence.
Lightning protection systems provide a low impedance path for lightning to ground to reduce structural damage risks. Devices include lightning arresters, rods and detectors.
Train protection systems ensure safe operation in the event of human error. Early inductive systems transmitted data magnetically between tracks and locomotives. Modern cab signalling systems constantly update drivers on train positions and speeds
This document discusses overcurrent circuit protectors, including the differences between current cutoffs and current limiters. It describes various types of overcurrent protectors such as fuses, circuit breakers, PPTCs, CPTCs, LFRs, and ECLs. It provides details on thermal, magnetic, and thermal-magnetic circuit breakers. The document discusses important parameters for selecting protectors such as agency approvals, physical size, current and voltage ratings. It also covers fuse design details such as elements, materials, and I-t curves.
The document discusses different types of grounding systems used in high voltage systems, including: equipment grounds which connect metal parts to earth to protect from electric shock; system grounds which connect one point of an electrical circuit to earth to protect equipment and aid fault detection; and solidly grounded systems where the neutral is directly connected to ground without impedance. It notes factors like voltage level, equipment type, and safety that influence grounding method selection.
This document discusses transient problems related to load switching that can cause nuisance tripping of adjustable speed drives (ASDs). It notes that ASDs use voltage source inverters with capacitors in the DC link, making them sensitive to overvoltage transients from utility capacitor switching or load switching. Such transients from load switching can generate high frequency impulses when energizing inductive loads like relays or contactors. Simultaneously energizing large transformers and capacitor banks can also cause dynamic overvoltage problems if system resonances occur. Protection methods include electrical separation of sensitive equipment, as well as using filters, isolation transformers, and shielding.
This document is a technical seminar report submitted for the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering. It discusses short circuit study in electrical technology. Short circuit calculations are required to ensure equipment ratings are adequate to withstand fault currents. No substation equipment can be purchased without knowledge of complete short circuit values. Short circuit studies deliver short circuit calculations highlighting underrated equipment and suggested modifications. They also include protective device setting and coordination studies. Regularly maintaining and updating short circuit calculations helps protect equipment and safety.
The document discusses area of vulnerability (AoV) for predicting voltage sags. It defines AoV as the zone where a short circuit could cause a voltage dip or interruption based on electrical distance from the fault location. It describes methods to simulate faults using power flow and short circuit analysis to determine AoV and voltage sag magnitude and duration. The key steps involve creating models of the network, running load flow, and simulating single line-to-ground and three phase faults at different points to record voltage values and identify the AoV. Case studies and further analysis of AoV are needed to better understand vulnerabilities and develop preventative solutions.
digital testing of high voltage circuit breakerRenuka Verma
The document discusses digital testing of high voltage circuit breakers. Digital testing involves developing a software model of a circuit breaker using measurements from standard laboratory tests. This allows evaluation of circuit breakers' performance in different scenarios without full-scale testing. Some advantages are reducing testing costs and time, estimating interrupting limits, and accelerating circuit breaker design development. Applications include analyzing the influence of parallel capacitance and current line length. Digital testing provides precise information about circuit breakers' performance.
This presentation gives detailed information about power quality i.e. how poor power quality is caused? what are the parameters on which we measure power quality? how can we solve the problem of poor power quality? this presentation will give you all the answers.
The document discusses power electronics and regulators. It covers topics such as semiconductors, doping, PN junctions, transistors, silicon controlled rectifiers, zener diodes, and regulator circuits. The key points are:
- Semiconductors like silicon can be doped to create N-type or P-type materials which form the basis of diodes and transistors.
- A PN junction is formed when P-type and N-type materials are joined, creating a depletion region.
- Transistors involve two PN junctions and have three terminals - base, collector, emitter. Darlington transistors have very high current gain.
- Zener diodes
This document outlines the marine electrical standard requirements for electrical machinery and systems on ships. It discusses SOLAS regulations regarding main and emergency electrical power sources. Equipment like generators, circuit breakers, switchboards, cables, and motors are subject to periodic surveys to check they are maintained according to classification standards. The objectives are to understand general requirements for electrical power provision and ensure safety.
This document summarizes a paper presented at the International Conference on Marine Technology in Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia from October 20-22, 2012. The paper discusses a study that performed hydrodynamic model testing and simulation of a mooring system for a very large floating offshore aquaculture system used for ocean plantation of seaweed for biomass. The study aimed to determine coefficients required for designing and simulating the mooring system to ensure the system's reliability and safety. The results of the hydrodynamic testing were used to model the static and dynamic behavior of the mooring system under different environmental conditions.
The document discusses rules of integration, including:
1) The definite integral calculates the area under a curve between two bounds a and b.
2) If the function is negative in some intervals, the integral is the sum of the areas of regions where the function is positive minus the areas where it is negative.
3) The fundamental theorem of calculus relates the definite integral to antiderivatives.
This document discusses methods for calculating arc flash hazards to help select proper personal protective equipment (PPE). It describes three primary calculation methods: 1) Ralph Lee's theoretical model from 1982, 2) equations and tables in NFPA 70E-2004, and 3) the comprehensive equations presented in IEEE Std 1584-2002. The document provides guidelines for determining which calculation method is correct for a given situation, such as verifying the method applies to the system voltages and fault currents and using device-specific equations over general equations. It also summarizes types of PPE defined in NFPA 70E-2004 based on the degree of arc flash protection required.
This document discusses various grounding techniques for electrical systems. It begins by comparing different grounding methods such as ungrounded, solidly grounded, and resistance grounded systems. It then focuses on high resistance grounding and describes how HRG limits fault currents while allowing systems to continue operating after ground faults. The document provides examples of applying HRG to generators, variable frequency drives, and paralleled power sources. It discusses component ratings, fault currents, harmonics, and coordination of protection devices for HRG systems.
Using High Resistance Grounding to Mitigate Arc Flash Hazardsmichaeljmack
Using High Resistance Grounding to Mitigate Arc Flash Hazards
Presenter: Ajit Bapat, P.E.
I-GARD's HRG systems can detect ground faults, signal alarms, and locate affected circuits to remove personnel from arc flash dangers. I-GARD's FALCON provides fast arc flash mitigation in under 1ms through adjustable light sensitivity to reduce arc flash energy. I-GARD's arc flash analysis calculates risk using IEEE and NFPA equations to develop comprehensive protection plans for a safer work environment.
This document discusses various sources of transient over-voltages on power systems including capacitor switching and lightning. It describes how capacitor switching can cause oscillations that generate transient over-voltages. Lightning can also directly or indirectly introduce surges into power systems. The document outlines issues like magnification of transients at customer locations and ferroresonance that can occur. It discusses principles of overvoltage protection like limiting voltage and diverting surge current. Protection devices like surge arresters and transient voltage surge suppressors are described.
Tank Grounding for safe operating conditions to ensure proper dissipation of transient electrical currents, static electricity, and lightning dispersion.
This document is a student's final report on testing the earthing system of a 10 MVA power transformer at a substation in Palembang, Indonesia. The student defines a final report and the purpose of their report. The background discusses how electricity usage is increasing with technology, requiring reliable distribution systems. Earthing systems are important for protecting equipment from short circuits and leakage currents. The objectives are to determine the electrode type used and grounding impedance. Benefits include preventing disturbances, maintaining power distribution, and protecting workers from electrical shock. The student thanks the reader for their attention.
Transient voltages, also called surges or spikes, are momentary changes in voltage or current that occur over a short period of time, usually less than 1/60th of a second. They are generated by both external sources like lightning and utility switching and internal sources like motor starts and static discharge. Transients can travel through a facility's electrical system and affect electronic equipment, causing erratic operation, lock ups, premature failure or decreased efficiency. Effective transient voltage suppression equipment can significantly increase the life of electrical and electronic systems and provide a strong return on investment.
Electrical fault is the deviation of voltages and currents from nominal values or states. Under normal operating conditions, power system equipment or lines carry normal voltages and currents which results in a safer operation of the system.
The document provides an overview of different protection systems, including power system protection, lightning protection systems, and train protection systems.
Power system protection aims to isolate faults or overloads to prevent damage and injuries. It uses components like current transformers, voltage transformers, protective relays, circuit breakers and batteries. Coordination ensures protective devices operate in the optimal timed sequence.
Lightning protection systems provide a low impedance path for lightning to ground to reduce structural damage risks. Devices include lightning arresters, rods and detectors.
Train protection systems ensure safe operation in the event of human error. Early inductive systems transmitted data magnetically between tracks and locomotives. Modern cab signalling systems constantly update drivers on train positions and speeds
This document discusses overcurrent circuit protectors, including the differences between current cutoffs and current limiters. It describes various types of overcurrent protectors such as fuses, circuit breakers, PPTCs, CPTCs, LFRs, and ECLs. It provides details on thermal, magnetic, and thermal-magnetic circuit breakers. The document discusses important parameters for selecting protectors such as agency approvals, physical size, current and voltage ratings. It also covers fuse design details such as elements, materials, and I-t curves.
The document discusses different types of grounding systems used in high voltage systems, including: equipment grounds which connect metal parts to earth to protect from electric shock; system grounds which connect one point of an electrical circuit to earth to protect equipment and aid fault detection; and solidly grounded systems where the neutral is directly connected to ground without impedance. It notes factors like voltage level, equipment type, and safety that influence grounding method selection.
This document discusses transient problems related to load switching that can cause nuisance tripping of adjustable speed drives (ASDs). It notes that ASDs use voltage source inverters with capacitors in the DC link, making them sensitive to overvoltage transients from utility capacitor switching or load switching. Such transients from load switching can generate high frequency impulses when energizing inductive loads like relays or contactors. Simultaneously energizing large transformers and capacitor banks can also cause dynamic overvoltage problems if system resonances occur. Protection methods include electrical separation of sensitive equipment, as well as using filters, isolation transformers, and shielding.
This document is a technical seminar report submitted for the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering. It discusses short circuit study in electrical technology. Short circuit calculations are required to ensure equipment ratings are adequate to withstand fault currents. No substation equipment can be purchased without knowledge of complete short circuit values. Short circuit studies deliver short circuit calculations highlighting underrated equipment and suggested modifications. They also include protective device setting and coordination studies. Regularly maintaining and updating short circuit calculations helps protect equipment and safety.
The document discusses area of vulnerability (AoV) for predicting voltage sags. It defines AoV as the zone where a short circuit could cause a voltage dip or interruption based on electrical distance from the fault location. It describes methods to simulate faults using power flow and short circuit analysis to determine AoV and voltage sag magnitude and duration. The key steps involve creating models of the network, running load flow, and simulating single line-to-ground and three phase faults at different points to record voltage values and identify the AoV. Case studies and further analysis of AoV are needed to better understand vulnerabilities and develop preventative solutions.
digital testing of high voltage circuit breakerRenuka Verma
The document discusses digital testing of high voltage circuit breakers. Digital testing involves developing a software model of a circuit breaker using measurements from standard laboratory tests. This allows evaluation of circuit breakers' performance in different scenarios without full-scale testing. Some advantages are reducing testing costs and time, estimating interrupting limits, and accelerating circuit breaker design development. Applications include analyzing the influence of parallel capacitance and current line length. Digital testing provides precise information about circuit breakers' performance.
This presentation gives detailed information about power quality i.e. how poor power quality is caused? what are the parameters on which we measure power quality? how can we solve the problem of poor power quality? this presentation will give you all the answers.
The document discusses power electronics and regulators. It covers topics such as semiconductors, doping, PN junctions, transistors, silicon controlled rectifiers, zener diodes, and regulator circuits. The key points are:
- Semiconductors like silicon can be doped to create N-type or P-type materials which form the basis of diodes and transistors.
- A PN junction is formed when P-type and N-type materials are joined, creating a depletion region.
- Transistors involve two PN junctions and have three terminals - base, collector, emitter. Darlington transistors have very high current gain.
- Zener diodes
This document outlines the marine electrical standard requirements for electrical machinery and systems on ships. It discusses SOLAS regulations regarding main and emergency electrical power sources. Equipment like generators, circuit breakers, switchboards, cables, and motors are subject to periodic surveys to check they are maintained according to classification standards. The objectives are to understand general requirements for electrical power provision and ensure safety.
This document summarizes a paper presented at the International Conference on Marine Technology in Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia from October 20-22, 2012. The paper discusses a study that performed hydrodynamic model testing and simulation of a mooring system for a very large floating offshore aquaculture system used for ocean plantation of seaweed for biomass. The study aimed to determine coefficients required for designing and simulating the mooring system to ensure the system's reliability and safety. The results of the hydrodynamic testing were used to model the static and dynamic behavior of the mooring system under different environmental conditions.
The document discusses rules of integration, including:
1) The definite integral calculates the area under a curve between two bounds a and b.
2) If the function is negative in some intervals, the integral is the sum of the areas of regions where the function is positive minus the areas where it is negative.
3) The fundamental theorem of calculus relates the definite integral to antiderivatives.
This document summarizes key aspects of marine electrical systems including:
1) Electrical safety hazards such as electric shock, overcurrent, and thermal hazards.
2) Common electrical instruments for measurement such as ammeters, voltmeters, and ohmmeters.
3) Procedures for testing continuity, resistance, and insulation of wiring, cables, and equipment.
4) Types of tests including current injection, pressure, and earthling testing to evaluate electrical system integrity and performance.
This document describes a preliminary design and prototype testing of an offshore floating structure for seaweed ocean farming. Seaweed farming has economic potential but existing cultivation systems are not suitable for deep or open waters. The paper outlines a design for a floating structure based on improving the existing long line cultivation method. Key factors considered in the design include determining hydrodynamic coefficients through static and dynamic model tests to inform the design of the mooring system, which is needed to prevent excessive movement of the floating structure.
Baltimore is a city located in Maryland known for industries like shipbuilding, aircraft construction, and automobile manufacturing. It was established in 1729 and named after the Barons Baltimore, founders of the colony of Maryland. Commerce and shipping brought the city prosperity. The national anthem "The Star Spangled Banner" was inspired by the sight of the American flag still flying over Fort Henry after bombardment. Popular attractions in Baltimore include the Walters Art Museum, Oriole Park at Camden Yards, and the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
This document summarizes a paper presented at an international conference on marine technology in Malaysia in 2012. The paper discusses quantifying greenhouse gas emissions from ships to support decision making and rulemaking by the International Maritime Organization. Specifically, it measures the concentrations of carbon dioxide and nitrogen dioxide emitted from a university research vessel during different operating modes to validate models for calculating emissions. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions from shipping is important because the industry accounts for a growing share of global emissions.
This document discusses the need to maintain navigation channels to accommodate increasingly large container ships. It focuses on the case of Port Tanjung Pelepas (PTP) in Johor, Malaysia. Ship sizes have been rapidly increasing, with some now over 18,000 TEU, but navigation channels have not been maintained accordingly. Without proper maintenance dredging, siltation reduces channel depths and poses risks to ship safety. The document analyzes trends in ship sizes, risks of groundings and collisions if channels are not deep enough, and environmental impacts of dredging and disposal of contaminated sediments. It argues for sustainable, frequent maintenance dredging to balance growing ship sizes with safe navigation in restricted waters like the Strait of Malacca near
This document outlines a course on engineering mathematics that covers integration. The course aims to provide students with the fundamentals of calculus required for engineering problems and solutions. Specifically, it will cover integration as the reverse of differentiation, integrating common functions, evaluating constants of integration, definite integrals, and applications of integration like finding areas, volumes, work, and centroids. The course will be 40 hours long and cover these topics through lectures and practice assessments, evaluating students with three class assessments and a final exam.
This document discusses modeling collision risk frequency for inland waterways. It proposes a safety, environmental risk, and reliability model for collision accident frequency that considers factors like vessel characteristics, traffic characteristics, environmental conditions, operator skill, and quality of information available to operators. The probability of collision per year predicted by the model is acceptable in maritime industries but may be high for waterways with less traffic. Providing measures like traffic separation and vessel traffic management could help maximize sustainable use of the waterway by restoring safety. The goal is to develop a fundamental, sustainable transit risk model to support decision-making around reliable and sustainable inland water transportation development and regulation.
This document discusses a risk and reliability analysis study of offshore aquaculture ocean plantation systems. The study aims to qualitatively assess system risks and quantify mooring failure probability, forces, and required mooring numbers. Offshore aquaculture is an emerging industry that could help meet growing seaweed demand. However, reliability studies are needed to ensure offshore floating structures can withstand harsh ocean environments. The study will evaluate risks through methods like FMEA, FTA, and HAZID to recommend safety measures and integrity levels for mooring structures.
This document summarizes key aspects of marine electrical systems including:
1. Electrical safety hazards such as electric shock, overcurrent, and thermal hazards.
2. Common electrical instruments for measurement such as ammeters, voltmeters, and ohmmeters.
3. Procedures for testing continuity, resistance, and insulation of wiring, cables, and equipment.
4. Types of tests including continuity tests to check current paths, resistance tests for equipment windings, and insulation resistance tests to check insulation quality.
The document discusses marine electrical systems and electric propulsion systems for ships. Key points include:
- Marine electrical systems include power generation, distribution, and consumption of electric power on various vessels. Electric propulsion has increased for vessels with multiple large power consumers like cruise ships.
- Electrical transmission consists of mechanical energy converted to electrical energy by generators, electrical energy converted to mechanical energy by motors, and power conversion in between via converters.
- Electric propulsion provides advantages over conventional systems like increased efficiency and flexibility in component placement. Integrated electric drive propulsion with advanced technologies can further improve efficiency.
- High voltage distribution systems above 440V are needed to reduce cable sizes as power demands on ships increase. Components
This document discusses maritime law as it relates to cargo documentation for the carriage of goods by sea. It begins by outlining key areas of maritime law and then focuses on objectives related to familiarizing marine engineers with legal aspects of cargo documentation. It defines important terms, describes various cargo documents like bills of lading and waybills. It also discusses the Hague-Visby Rules and Hamburg Rules which provide international regulations for carriage of goods and bills of lading. The document closes by outlining requirements for issuing and contents of bills of lading.
Shipbuilding activity in Russia is centered in St. Petersburg, where 40 shipbuilding companies are located. Russian shipbuilding is forecast to order 70 new vessels between 2015-2020, with Sovcomflot ordering 30 vessels. Major shipbuilding projects in Russia include construction at the Kerch Bay, Bolshoi Kamen, Severnaya Verf, Baltiyski Zavod, and the Zvezda Shipyard. The United Shipbuilding Corporation (USC) owns most of Russia's major shipyards and designs and builds military and civilian ships. Business opportunities exist for Finnish suppliers to the modernization of Russian shipyards and in providing equipment and components.
Thunderstorms are localized storms that produce lightning, thunder, heavy rain, hail and strong winds. They typically last 30 minutes and are 5 km in diameter. There are two types - air mass storms which result from surface heating and are self-destructive, and steady-state storms associated with weather systems. Thunderstorms require moisture, unstable warm air that can rise rapidly, and a mechanism to initiate their formation. They go through developing, mature and dissipating stages in their life cycle. Thunderstorms can produce dangerous conditions like heavy rain that causes flooding, lightning which is a giant spark that makes thunder, tornadoes which are powerful rotating columns of wind, hail which is chunks of ice, and microbur
This document discusses electrical safety and protection on ships. It notes that most merchant ships have a 440V 3-phase 3-wire power system. Larger loads require higher voltage systems. Switchboards distribute power and include open and dead front types. Safety requirements to prevent electric shock are described, including types of neutral connections and operational considerations when connecting to shore power.
This document provides an overview of ship construction and outlines a 7-week course on the topic. It will cover ship structure, types of ships, construction processes, regulatory bodies, and key components. Students will learn about structural members, terminology, and framing systems. The document lists learning objectives and navigation for the course, which will cover construction overview, the construction process, ship dimensions and forms, development of ship types, ship structure, outfitting, and a final assignment project.
1) Lightning strikes on power lines cause steep voltage surges that can damage equipment if not protected. The waveforms of lightning surges rise very quickly over 1-5 microseconds.
2) There are two main categories of overvoltages: internal causes like switching operations and insulation failures, and external causes like lightning strikes. Lightning discharge occurs when the potential gradient in air due to charged clouds builds up and causes a pilot leader streamer that travels toward the ground.
3) Different types of lightning arrestors like rod gaps, sphere gaps, horn gaps, and modern valve/thyrite/lead oxide types are used to protect equipment by diverting lightning surges to ground.
This document discusses various causes of over voltages in electrical power systems, including both external and internal causes. External causes include lightning strikes, which can induce over voltages through direct strikes or electromagnetic induction. Lightning forms when charge accumulates between clouds or between clouds and the ground, with potentials reaching millions of volts. Internally, over voltages occur during switching operations due to phenomena like the Ferranti effect or transient voltages caused by energizing transformers or transmission lines. Protection methods aim to mitigate over voltage risks from both lightning and switching events.
Surge arrestors are protective devices that limit voltage spikes and surges from damaging electrical equipment. They work by diverting excess current during events like lightning strikes or power faults to ground. When voltage increases, the resistor inside the arrestor decreases in resistance, allowing extra current to drain out and prevent voltage from increasing in protected equipment. Surge arrestors are installed at substations and near transformers to shield sensitive equipment from voltage transients. They parallel arrangement allows surges to be discharged without propagating through the system.
Overvoltages can be caused by both external and internal factors in power systems. Switching surges are now the dominant design factor for EHV and UHV systems, while lightning surges are less important. Switching surges are generated by events like energizing lines, load rejection, and fault clearing. They take the form of traveling waves on the lines. Temporary overvoltages can last from cycles to seconds and are caused by events like load rejection, the Ferranti effect, and ground faults. Overvoltages can be controlled by phase-controlled switching, use of resistors, reactors, and draining trapped charges. Surge arresters like zinc oxide varistors protect equipment by conducting current during an overvoltage and limiting
The document defines and describes different types of overvoltages that can occur on power systems, including temporary, transient, lightning, and switching overvoltages. It explains that overvoltages are caused by both internal factors like switching and insulation failures, as well as external lightning strikes. The mechanism of lightning is then described in detail, including how charge separation in storm clouds leads to the formation of stepped leaders and streamers, completing an ionized conductive path between the cloud and earth.
Transient over-voltages can be caused by lightning, switching operations, or resonance effects. Lightning is a large spark that produces voltages of 200 MV with currents of 40 kA that stresses insulation. Switching can cause voltages from changes in circuit conditions like breaking inductive circuits. Resonance can produce very high voltages between capacitive and inductive elements. Proper insulation coordination and lightning protection devices like rod gaps, horn gaps, and arresters are required to coordinate insulation levels and protect equipment from transient over-voltages.
A switchgear or electrical switchgear is a generic term which includes all the switching devices associated with mainly power system protection. It also includes all devices associated with control, metering and regulating of electrical power system. Assembly of such devices in a logical manner forms a switchgear. This is the very basic definition of switchgear.
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https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC2SvKI7eepP241VLoui1D5A
This document provides an overview of the topics covered in the high voltage engineering course 19EE702. It discusses the need for high voltages in power transmission and laboratories. It also covers breakdown phenomena in gases, including ionization processes. Townsend's theory of gas breakdown and limitations are explained. The document discusses insulation types and applications of high voltages in components like cables and bushings. It also covers electrical breakdown mechanisms and time lags associated with breakdown.
Circuit breakers are switching devices that can make, carry, and break electric currents under both normal and abnormal circuit conditions. They contain fixed and moving contacts that remain closed during normal operation but open automatically during faults to interrupt the fault current. When contacts open under fault conditions, an arc is produced that must be quickly extinguished. Different circuit breakers use various mediums like oil, air, vacuum, or SF6 gas to rapidly quench the arc through cooling and increasing dielectric strength between contacts. Common types of circuit breakers include oil, vacuum, air blast, and SF6 breakers that vary based on voltage level, switching speed, maintenance needs, and arc quenching method.
POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION
Protection Devices and the Lightning,. protection,
Lightning protection, Introduction
Air Break Switches
Disconnect switches
Grounding switches
Current limiting reactors
Grounding transformers
Co-ordination of protective devices
Grounding of electrical installations
Electric shock
Lightning protection
Lightning Arrestor
The document discusses different types of switchgears used in power systems, including their definitions, examples, and working principles. It focuses on circuit breakers, describing four main types - oil circuit breakers, air-blast circuit breakers, SF6 circuit breakers, and vacuum circuit breakers. For each type, it provides details on the arc quenching medium used, construction, working, advantages and disadvantages. Key terms like arc voltage, restriking voltage and recovery voltage related to circuit breakers are also explained.
Lightning is an abrupt electrostatic discharge that occurs between clouds or from clouds to the earth. It is accompanied by a flash. Charges build up in clouds during storms and separate, with negative charges near the ground and positive charges higher up. When enough charge builds up, electrons move toward the positive charges, ionizing the air and allowing discharge along a path of least resistance in a zigzag pattern. Upward and downward leaders form until they meet, causing a stroke and releasing a large amount of heat and producing the flash and thunder. Lightning arrestors safely guide the current from a strike to ground to dissipate the energy.
in this presentation i have completely described the basic constriction and working of Surge Arresters so that you will find it easy to understand and it can be easily delivered to the listeners
HVE UNIT I OVER VOLTAGES IN ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM.pptMuthuKumar158260
High voltages are used in power systems, industry, and research for applications like power transmission over long distances. Overvoltages in electrical power systems can be caused by external sources like lightning or internal sources during switching operations. Lightning occurs due to buildup and discharge of electric charges between clouds or from clouds to the ground. Switching surges are generated internally during the connecting or disconnecting of transmission lines and equipment. Methods to control overvoltages include using resistors during line energization, phase-controlled switching, draining trapped charges before reclosing lines, and installing surge arresters.
Earthing systems are designed to protect people and equipment from electric shock by providing an alternative path for fault currents to flow safely into the earth. The document discusses different earthing methods like plate, pipe, rod and strip earthing. It explains that a good earthing system must have low resistance to allow sufficient current to flow and trigger overcurrent protection devices. The purposes of earthing include protecting humans from electric shock, preventing overvoltages on equipment, and dissipating lightning currents.
An electromagnetic field is produced by moving electrically charged objects and affects other charged objects near it. It is one of the fundamental forces of nature and results from a combination of electric and magnetic fields. Electromagnetism underlies many daily phenomena and is governed by four main laws. Electric fields arise from voltage while magnetic fields arise from current flow. Electromagnets have many uses including in electric bells, sorting scrap metal, and speakers. Transformers change voltage levels in power transmission lines to reduce energy losses. Exposure to electromagnetic fields is increasing due to modern technology but typically does not pose health risks.
The document discusses electrical hazards in marine environments. It classifies hazardous zones into Zone 0, 1, 2 and non-hazardous based on the likelihood of explosive gas-air mixtures being present. It describes the protection schemes of flameproof (Exd), intrinsically safe (Exi), pressurized (Exp), and increased safety (Exe) equipment suitable for different zones. The document also provides definitions and maintenance considerations for these protection schemes.
The document discusses watchkeeping duties and responsibilities in marine engineering. It provides an overview of relevant maritime law conventions like STCW and details of engine room watch systems. A typical engineering crew is listed, with chief, assistant, and junior engineers as well as qualified ratings. Watchkeeping involves monitoring machinery, making rounds, and being alert to changes to prevent problems. Normal watch rotations at sea and in port are described.
The STCW establishes standards for watchkeeping on ships. It requires the chief engineer to assign watchkeeping duties and establish standards. It aims to improve training requirements and make countries accountable for enforcing training standards. Countries must provide information to IMO about their training programs and are subject to quality assurance requirements to ensure the proper implementation of the Convention.
The document discusses maritime law relating to facilitation of international maritime traffic and documents required to be carried onboard ships. It provides background on problems with excessive paperwork requirements that led IMO to adopt the Convention on Facilitation of International Maritime Traffic (FAL Convention) to standardize and reduce documentation. The FAL Convention aims to prevent unnecessary delays by establishing maximum information requirements for key documents like cargo and crew manifests. It also provides a list of certificates and documents required to be carried onboard ships.
- International regulations and agreements are needed to properly regulate the global shipping industry. Key organizations that set standards include the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and International Labour Organization (ILO).
- The IMO establishes minimum standards for ship construction, operation, safety, and environmental protection. It adopts conventions through a lengthy process of proposals, committee review, adoption, and ratification.
- The ILO focuses on working conditions, labor standards, and social protections for seafarers. It has adopted numerous conventions and recommendations covering issues like minimum age, hours of work, wages, and accident prevention. Compliance depends on ratification and national implementation.
The document discusses emissions to air from ships and strategies for reducing air pollution beyond regulatory compliance. It outlines various air pollutants emitted from ships, such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur oxides (SOx), and regulations from the International Maritime Organization (IMO) to limit these emissions. Methods for reducing ship emissions are discussed, including using low-sulfur fuel, exhaust gas cleaning systems, and operational measures like slow steaming. The document emphasizes that reducing emissions requires approaches throughout the combustion process, from fuel preparation to exhaust cleaning.
The document discusses developing a predictive and reliability based collision risk model for inland waterways, specifically for Malaysia's Langat River. It aims to estimate collision frequency based on waterway variables and risk factors. The analysis considers dimensions of the waterway as well as factors like vessel characteristics, traffic, environment, and operator skills. Based on the available data for Langat River, the estimated collision frequency is 5.3 accidents in 10,000 years. While acceptable for maritime industry standards, it is considered high for a waterway with less expected traffic. Implementing safety measures like traffic separation could help optimize sustainable use of the channel.
This document summarizes a study on installing Magneto Electric Co-generator Plants (MECPs) on a marine vessel to reduce fuel usage. MECPs would be located on the propeller shaft and main engine flywheel to harvest rotational energy. Numerical modeling was used to analyze the power generated. MECP1 on the propeller shaft produced 3.74 kW, enough to power auxiliaries and reduce fuel usage by 1054 liters/hour. MECP2 on the flywheel produced more power due to higher rotational speed. Overall, MECPs could save costs while reducing carbon dioxide emissions and supporting the maritime industry's climate change commitments.
This document summarizes a research article that presents a collision aversion model and cost benefit analysis for inland water transportation.
The key points are:
1. The model analyzes collision risk for inland waterways by estimating collision probability and quantifying consequences like damage, loss of life, and economic losses.
2. It applies the model to Langat River in Malaysia to estimate historical collision rates and predictive costs for implementing collision avoidance measures.
3. The cost benefit analysis compares costs of safety measures to reduced risks and economic benefits to evaluate options for improving safety and environmental protection for sustainable inland water transportation.
This document discusses the use of simulation for enhancing training in engineering fields such as maritime academies. It argues that simulation provides opportunities for training that traditional instruction cannot by allowing students to experience complex real-world scenarios. The maritime industry has institutionalized the use of simulation in training programs to develop competent ship personnel and meet safety standards. Simulation is becoming a central part of maritime competency-based education to provide knowledge, understanding, application and integration required for outcome-based learning. The document examines how simulation has been incorporated in maritime training in Malaysia and discusses challenges to further developing simulation-based training programs.
This document discusses the utilization of simulation for enhancing training in engineering fields such as maritime studies. It provides an overview of how simulation has been adopted in maritime training to improve competency-based education and meet safety and environmental goals. The document also describes ALAM's investment in advanced simulators certified by DNV, including a full mission ship simulator and engine room simulator. These simulators are used to train maritime cadets by replicating real-world tasks in a safe environment and helping to close the gap between theory and practice. Simulation is seen as a valuable tool for competency-based education across many fields by providing realistic, interactive learning experiences.
This document summarizes a review on the potential for waste-recycled based bioenergy for marine systems. It discusses how biomass has the potential to influence the marine industry. The use of waste biomass to generate power could allow ships to power onboard systems and even dump waste ashore to power coastal infrastructure. The paper also examines trends in biomass development, classification of biomass sources, and best practices from other industries utilizing biomass.
This document presents a study on modeling gas turbine co-propulsion engines to improve the sailing speed of ecotourism vessels. Thermodynamic properties of diesel engines, simple gas turbines, and regenerative gas turbines are modeled and their thermal efficiencies are calculated. Numerical calculations are performed to determine the appropriate power rating of a gas turbine co-propulsion engine needed to achieve a maximum speed of 35 knots. Results from the modeling and calculations will provide support for deciding whether to implement a gas turbine co-propulsion engine on ecotourism vessels.
This document summarizes a study on the potential for using solar energy as a supplemental power source for the diesel engines on landing craft. The study analyzed the reduction in fuel usage and diesel exhaust that could result from adding solar panels, and performed an economic analysis. Data was collected on the power needs, solar radiation levels, and fuel costs for a specific landing craft. Calculations were made to determine the power output from solar panels over different seasons and reductions in generator use. Tables show estimates of generator output and fuel savings in kilowatt-hours per year from using solar to partially meet power demands. The economic analysis considered costs of the solar system versus operating costs without it.
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
إضغ بين إيديكم من أقوى الملازم التي صممتها
ملزمة تشريح الجهاز الهيكلي (نظري 3)
💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀
تتميز هذهِ الملزمة بعِدة مُميزات :
1- مُترجمة ترجمة تُناسب جميع المستويات
2- تحتوي على 78 رسم توضيحي لكل كلمة موجودة بالملزمة (لكل كلمة !!!!)
#فهم_ماكو_درخ
3- دقة الكتابة والصور عالية جداً جداً جداً
4- هُنالك بعض المعلومات تم توضيحها بشكل تفصيلي جداً (تُعتبر لدى الطالب أو الطالبة بإنها معلومات مُبهمة ومع ذلك تم توضيح هذهِ المعلومات المُبهمة بشكل تفصيلي جداً
5- الملزمة تشرح نفسها ب نفسها بس تكلك تعال اقراني
6- تحتوي الملزمة في اول سلايد على خارطة تتضمن جميع تفرُعات معلومات الجهاز الهيكلي المذكورة في هذهِ الملزمة
واخيراً هذهِ الملزمة حلالٌ عليكم وإتمنى منكم إن تدعولي بالخير والصحة والعافية فقط
كل التوفيق زملائي وزميلاتي ، زميلكم محمد الذهبي 💊💊
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
THE SACRIFICE HOW PRO-PALESTINE PROTESTS STUDENTS ARE SACRIFICING TO CHANGE T...indexPub
The recent surge in pro-Palestine student activism has prompted significant responses from universities, ranging from negotiations and divestment commitments to increased transparency about investments in companies supporting the war on Gaza. This activism has led to the cessation of student encampments but also highlighted the substantial sacrifices made by students, including academic disruptions and personal risks. The primary drivers of these protests are poor university administration, lack of transparency, and inadequate communication between officials and students. This study examines the profound emotional, psychological, and professional impacts on students engaged in pro-Palestine protests, focusing on Generation Z's (Gen-Z) activism dynamics. This paper explores the significant sacrifices made by these students and even the professors supporting the pro-Palestine movement, with a focus on recent global movements. Through an in-depth analysis of printed and electronic media, the study examines the impacts of these sacrifices on the academic and personal lives of those involved. The paper highlights examples from various universities, demonstrating student activism's long-term and short-term effects, including disciplinary actions, social backlash, and career implications. The researchers also explore the broader implications of student sacrifices. The findings reveal that these sacrifices are driven by a profound commitment to justice and human rights, and are influenced by the increasing availability of information, peer interactions, and personal convictions. The study also discusses the broader implications of this activism, comparing it to historical precedents and assessing its potential to influence policy and public opinion. The emotional and psychological toll on student activists is significant, but their sense of purpose and community support mitigates some of these challenges. However, the researchers call for acknowledging the broader Impact of these sacrifices on the future global movement of FreePalestine.
Andreas Schleicher presents PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Thinking - 18 Jun...EduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher, Director of Education and Skills at the OECD presents at the launch of PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Minds, Creative Schools on 18 June 2024.
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
2. Slide navigation
• Overview and Source of overvolatge
• Nature of danger
• Lightening overvolatge
• Switching overvolatge
3. Overview and source of overvolatge
• When the voltage in a circuit or part of it is raised above its upper design
limit, this is known as over voltage.
• The conditions may be hazardous. Depending on its duration, the over
voltage event can be permanent or transient, the latter case also being
known as a voltage spike.
• Electronic and electrical devices are designed to operate at a certain
maximum supply voltage, and Considerable damage can be caused by
voltage that is higher than that for which the devices are rated.
• For example an electric light bulb has a wire in it that at the given rated
voltage will carry a current just large enough for the wire to get very hot
(giving off light and heat), but not hot enough for it to melt.
• The amount of current in a circuit depends on the voltage supplied: if the
voltage is too high, then the wire may melt and the light bulb has "burned
out".
• Similarly other electrical devices may stop working, or even maybe burst
into flames if an over voltage is supplied to the circuit of which these
devices are part.
4. Overview and source of overvolatge
• Natural -A typical natural source of transient over voltage events is
lightning.
• Man-made- sources are spikes usually caused by electromagnetic induction
when switching on or off inductive loads (such as electric motors or
electromagnets), or by switching heavy resistive AC loads when zero-
crossing circuitry is not used - anywhere where a large change of current
takes place.
• An important potential source of dangerous over voltages is electronic
warfare. There is intensive military research in this field, whose goal is to
produce various transient electromagnetic devices designed to generate
electromagnetic pulses that will disable an enemy's electronic equipment.
• A recent military development is that of the exploding capacitor designed to
radiate a high voltage electromagnetic pulse. Another intense source of an
electromagnetic pulse is a nuclear explosion.
5. Overview and source of overvolatge
• One of the purposes of electromagnetic compatibility
compliance is to eliminate such sources.
• Conduction path- The transient pulses can get into
the equipment either by power or data lines, or over
the air from a strong electromagnetic field change -
an electromagnetic pulse (EMP).
• Filters are used to prevent spikes entering or leaving
the equipment through wires, and the
electromagnetically coupled ones are attenuated by
shielding.
6. Overview and source of overvolatge
Power systems are always subjected to over voltages that have their
origin
in :
• Atmospheric discharges in which case they are called external or
lightning over voltages, or - The latter type are called internal
over voltages - This classes may be further subdivided into
(i) Temporary over voltages, if they are oscillatory of power
frequency or harmonics
Temporary over voltages occur almost without exception under no
load or very light load conditions.
whereas that of internal or switching overvoltages increases with
increasing the operating voltage of the system.
(ii) Switching over voltages, if they are heavily damped and of short
duration they are generated internally by connecting or
disconnecting the system, or due to the systems fault initiation or
extinction.
7. Overview and source of overvolatge
• The magnitude of the external or lightning over voltages
remains essentially independent of the system’s design, Hence,
with increasing the system’s operating voltage a point is
reached when the switching over voltages become the
dominant factor in designing the system’s insulation
• Because of their common origin the temporary and switching
over voltages occur together and their combined effect has to
be taken into account in the design of h.v. systems insulation.
• Up to approximately 300 kV, the system’s insulation has to be
designed to withstand primarily lightning surges.
• Above that voltage, both lightning and switching surges have
to be considered.
• For ultra. systems, 765 kV and above switching over voltages
in combination with insulator contamination become the
predominating factor in the insulation design.
8. Nature of danger
• The degree of hazard depends on circumstances.
• To minimize the chances of being struck by lightning
during thunderstorm, one should be sufficiently far
away from tall objects likely to be struck, remain
inside buildings or be well insulated.
• A direct hit on a human or animal is rare;
• they are more at risk from indirect striking, usually:
• (a) when the subject is close to a parallel hit or other
tall object,
• (b) due to an intense electric field from a stroke can
induce sufficient current to cause death, and
9. Nature of danger
• (c) when lightning terminating on earth sets up high
potential gradients over the ground surface in an
outwards direction from the point or object struck.
• The potential difference between the person’s feet
will be largest if his feet are separated along a radial
line from the source of voltage and
• will be negligible if he moves at a right angle to such
a radial line.
• In the latter case the person would be safe due to
element of chance.
10. Nature of danger
qualitatively the current distribution in the ground and the
voltage distribution along the ground extending outwards from
the edge of a building struck by lightning.
11. Traveling Wave on Transmission Line
Any disturbance on a transmission line or system such as a
sudden opening or closing of line, a short circuit or a fault results
in the development of overvoltage or overcurrent at that point.
This disturbance propagates as a traveling wave to the ends
of the line or to a termination, such as, a sub-station.
Usually these traveling waves are high frequency
disturbances and travel as waves. They may be reflected,
transmitted, attenuated or distorted during propagation until the
energy is absorbed.
Long transmission lines are to be considered as electrical
networks with distributed electrical elements.
12. Attenuation and Distortion of Traveling Waves
• As a traveling wave moves along a line, it suffers both attenuation
and distortion. The decrease in the magnitude of the wave as it
propagates along the line is called attenuation
• The elongation or change of wave shape that occurs is called
distortion. Sometimes, the steepness of the wave is reduced by
distortion. Also, the current and voltage wave shape become
dissimilar even though they maybe the same initially.
• Attenuation is caused due to the energy loss in the line and
distortion is caused due to the inductance and capacitance of the
line.
13. Reflection and Transmission of Waves at Transition Points
• Whenever there is an abrupt change in parameters of a
transmission line, such as an open circuit or a
termination, the traveling wave undergoes a transition,
part of the wave is reflected or sent back and only a
portion is transmitted forward.
• At the transition point, the voltage or current wave may
attain a value which can vary from zero to two times its
initial value.
• The incoming wave is called the incident wave and the
other wave are called the reflected and transmitted waves
at the transition point.
14. Lightening
• Physical manifestations of lightning have been noted in
ancient times, but the understanding of lightning is
relatively recent.
• The real incentive to study lightning came when electric
transmission lines had to be protected against lightning.
The methods include measurements of:
(i) lightning currents,
(ii) magnetic and electromagnetic radiated fields,
(iii) voltages,
(iv) use of high-speed photography and radar.
15. lightening
• Fundamentally, lightning is a manifestation of a very large
electric discharge and spark.
• In an active thunder cloud the larger particles usually possess
negative charge and the smaller carriers are positive.
• Thus the base of a thunder cloud generally carries a negative
charge and the upper part is positive, with the whole being
electrically neutral.
• There may be several charge centers within a single cloud.
Typically the negative charge centre may be located anywhere
between 500m and 10 000m above ground.
• Lightning discharge to earth is usually initiated at the fringe of
a negative charge centre together with the current to ground.
16. lightening
• The stroke is initiated in the region of the negative charge
centre where the local field intensity approaches ionization
field intensity (セD30 kV/cm in atmospheric air, or セ10 kV/cm
in the presence of water droplets).
• To the eye a lightning discharge appears as a single luminous
discharge - although at times branches of variable intensity
may be observed which terminate in mid-air - while the
luminous main channel continues in a zig-zag path to earth.
• High-speed photographic technique studies reveal that most
lightning strokes are followed by repeat or multiple strokes
which travel along the path established by the first stroke.
• The latter ones are not usually branched and their path is
brightly illuminated.
18. Lightening process
• The current in the return stroke is in the order of a few kA to
250 kA and the temperatures within the channel are 15 000ーC
to20 000ーC and are responsible for the destructive effects of
lightning giving high luminosity and causing explosive air
expansion.
• The return stroke causes the destructive effects generally
associated with lightning
• The return stroke is followed by several strokes at 10- to 300-
m/sec intervals. The leader of the second and subsequent
strokes is known as the ‘dart leader’ because of its dart-like
appearance.
• The dart leader follows the path of the first stepped leader with
a velocity about 10 times faster than the stepped leader. The
path is usually not branched and is brightly illuminated.
19. Representation of various stages of lightning stroke
between cloud and ground
• A diagrammatic representation of the various stages of the lightning stroke development from
cloud to ground in Figs 8.2(a) to (f) gives a clearer appreciation of the process involved.
• In a cloud several charge centres of high concentration may exist. In the present case only two
negative charge centres are shown.
• In (a) the stepped leader has been initiated and the pilot streamer and stepped leader
propagate to ground, lowering the negative charges in the cloud. At this instance the striking
point still has not been decided;
• in (b) the pilot streamer is about to make contact with the upwards positive streamer from
earth;
• in (c) the stroke is completed, a heavy return stroke returns to cloud and the negative charge
of cloud begins to discharge;
• in (d) the first centre is completely discharged and streamers begin developing in the second
charge centre;
• in (e) the second charge centre is discharging to ground via the first charge centre and dart
leader, distributing negative charge along the channel. Positive streamers are rising up from
ground to meet the dart leader;
• (f) contact is made with streamers from earth, heavy return stroke proceeds upwards and
begins to is charge negatively charged space beneath the cloud and the second charge centre in
the cloud.
23. Distribution of times to crest of lightning stroke
currents
The data on lightning strokes and voltages has formed
the basis for establishing the standard impulse or
lightning surge for testing equipment in laboratories.
24. Energy in lightning
•Based on many
investigations the
AIEE Committee8
has produced the
frequency
distribution of
current
magnitudes, this
is often used for
performance
calculations.
Cumulative distributions of lightning stroke current
magnitudes: After AIEE Committee.
25. Energy in lightning
• To estimate the amount of energy in a typical lightning discharge let us
assume a value of potential difference of 107 V for a breakdown between a
cloud and ground and a total charge of 20 coulombs.
• Then the energy released about 55 kWh in one or more strokes that make
the discharge.
• The energy of the discharge dissipated in the air channel is expended in
several processes.
• Small amounts of this energy are used in ionization of molecules,
excitations, radiation, etc. Most of the energy is consumed in the sudden
expansion of the air channel.
• Some fraction of the total causes heating the struck earthed objects. In
general, lightning processes return to the global system the energy that was
used originally to create the charged cloud.
26. Over voltage Due to Switching Surges, System Faults and
Other Abnormal Condition
• Unlike the lightning voltages, the switching and other
type of overvoltages depend on the normal voltage of the
system and hence increase with increased system
voltage.
• In insulation coordination, where the protective level of
any particular kind of surge diverter is proportional to
the maximum voltage, the insulation level and the cost of
the equipment depends on the magnitudes of these
overvoltages.
• In the EHV range, it is the switching surge and other
types of overvoltages that determine the insulation level
of the lines and other equipment and consequently, they
also determine their and costs.
27. Origin of Switching Surge
• The making and breaking of electric circuits with switch
gear may results in abnormal overvoltage in power
systems having large inductance and capacitances.
• The overvoltages may go as high as 6 times the normal
power frequency voltage.
• In circuit breaking operation, switching surges with a
high rate of rise of voltage may cause repeated restricting
of the arc between the contacts of a circuit breaker,
thereby causing destruction of the circuit breaker
contacts.
28. Control of Over voltages Due to Switching
• Insertion of Resistors
• Phase Controlled Switching
• Drainage of Trapped Charge
• Shunt Reactor