Humanities question bank

HUMANITIES QUESTION BANK
3rd year, semester VI

HUMANITIES QUESTION BANK
1. URBANIZATION AT THE GLOBAL LEVEL AND IN INDIA-
Urbanization refers to the proportion of people living in cities and also to the process in which rural populations
move to urban areas.
 Indian cities are expanding on a larger scale and at a faster pace than ever before.
 If managed poorly, India’s cities will fall further into decay and gridlock and if handled well, this urban
expansion will be the key to India’s continuing economic success.
 A lack of effective policies to manage urbanization could jeopardize India’s GDP growth rate. If the country
makes the right policy choices, it could boost the annual GDP by 1 to 1.5%.
 Problems- source of lighting: percentage of households having an electric source of energy is much higher
than in the rural areas and they have to depend on kerosene. Unemployment, housing, slums, water supply
and sanitation , pollution and transport are other issues.
Availability of educational facilities: the poorer sections of society find it hard to have the basic educational
facilities.
Healthcare facilities: lack of good healthcare facilities is also an area of serious concern. More than half of
India’s urban poor children are underweight and the state of under-nutrition in urban areas is worse than in
the rural areas. There are serious gaps in the availability of infrastructure facilities in urban areas like- roads
are getting congested with more and more traffic.
 ‘urban’ in India is defined as a human settlement with a minimum population of 5000 persons, with 75% of
the male working population engaged in non-agricultural activities and a population density of at least 400
persons per sq. kilometers.
 Amongst the first countries to get urbanized was, Great Britain and some European countries. Their
urbanization was relatively slow, allowing governments the time to plan and provide for the needs of
increasing urban populations.
 In South Africa the apartheid had made the problems of urbanization complex since urbanization became
difficult for the black people who were forced to live in areas far from the main cities. Pass laws made it
illegal for many black people to live in the white cities, so they would often live in a shack because of their
illegal status.
 The 10 largest urban cities are- Tokyo, Delhi, Sao Paulo, Mumbai, Mexico city, New York, Shanghai, Kolkata,
Dhaka and Karachi.
1. SMART CITIES- A developed urban area that creates sustainable economic development and high quality of life
by excelling in multiple key areas; economy,mobility, environment, people, living, and government is called a
Smart city. Excelling in these key areas can be done so through strong human capital, social capital, and/or ICT
infrastructure.
 A city that can use its natural resources smartly - be it water or even garbage - and is sustainable and equitable
to all its residents, can be labeled a 'smart city'. Eg: Smart City Kochi is an IT Special Economic Zone under
construction in Kochi, Kerala in India. This project would be specially for IT allied services and is aimed to create
90,000 direct jobs.
2. INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT- Infrastructure is a major sector that propels overall development of the
Indian economy.
 The Secretariat for Infrastructure in the Planning Commission is involved in initiating policies that would ensure
time-bound creation of world class infrastructure in the country. This section focuses on power, bridges, dams,
roads and urban infrastructure development.

 Details of the projects, organizations, policies, timelines, schemes, spending on infrastructure are provided for
the user.
 The city of Mumbai, financial capital of India, is recognized in the World as commercial and industrial hub. The
city also enjoys a numero uno status as far as India and State's economy is concerned. However, the lack of
world class infrastructure facilities, growing vehicular population and the never ending traffic congestion is
hampering city's progress and affecting local life. With a view to improve transportation and communication,
the Government of Maharashtra and Railway Ministry – with the financial assistance from World Bank –
undertook the Mumbai Urban Transport Project. The thrust of this project was to improve suburban railway
system. However, considering the present day infrastructure facilities and the future needs it was also necessary
to introduce a project that would complement road network. The Mumbai Urban Infrastructure Project was
undertaken to improve East-West and North-South connectivity in the city.
 Objectives of the Project:
 Prepare a traffic dispersal model for efficient mobility and connectivity
 Develop North-South road links in the suburbs including a Mass Rapid Transit connectivity
 Strengthen/augment East-West connectivity in the suburbs
 Provide efficient / fast public transport corridors
 Facilitate safe and convenient movement for pedestrians (Subways/FOBs/Footpaths including Skywalks)
 Provide high capacity uninterrupted road connection to both the Airports
 Remove level crossing in Mumbai
 Provide bus terminal / bus depots and to create facilities for passengers
 The Master Plan of the proposed projects under MUIP includes -
 Improvements / provision of DP roads
 Elevated Roads
 Flyovers
 ROBs
 Vehicular and Pedestrian Subways
 Skywalks for the Eastern and Western Suburbs and the Island City
3. Explain the characteristics of ideal open public spaces- Urbanization is ever increasing.
Urban sprawls are eating away much of open spaces and environmental degradation continues to be a major
problem in many cities as the open spaces available per capita are decreasing.
 Open spaces play a critical role in creating ‘urban sustainability’, meaning the pursuit and maintenance of urban
form that synthesizes land development and nature preservation.
 Open spaces in urban systems include parks, gardens and road/street side planting.
 Open space can be categorized in three levels: at the regional level, at city level and at neighborhood level.
 Following are the Characteristics of ideal open public spaces:
Should be Open to the sky
Should have mixed use for all the diversified age groups
Should be a Perennial city/town feature
Should play the role of circulation and accessibility between the buildings/structures.
Should be in harmony with the surrounding (includes buildings, trees, water bodies etc.)
Should try to conserve the natural resources as well as heritage in the respective areas.
Should create a sense of community.
4. Explain the patterns of India’s Urbanization- The basic features or patterns of India’s urbanization can be listed
as follows:
 Lopsided urbanization induces growth of only cities.

 Urbanization occurs without industrialization and strong economic base
 Urbanization is mainly a product of demographic explosion and poverty
 Induced rural - urban migration.
 Rapid urbanization leads to massive growth of slum followed by misery.
 Poverty, unemployment, exploitation, inequalities, degradation in the quality of urban life.
 Urbanization occurs not due to urban pull but due to rural push.
 Poor quality of rural-urban migration leads to poor quality of Urbanization.
 Distress migration initiates urban decay
6. What is the culture of Mumbai city?
Over the time Mumbai has turned from a primary fishing community and coastal culture to a cosmopolitan economically
vibrant city. It now inhabits residents of diverse culture and religion.
 The residents of Mumbai prefer to stay close to a railway station (or even a bus depot) for easy access to the
metropolis.
 The people of Mumbai lead a very fast paced life with less time for activities since most of their time is spent
daily on commuting.
 Every religion’s festivals are greatly and unitedly celebrated here.
 Mumbai is home to some of the finest art deco style buildings. For example, Marine Drive.
5. Explain the public housing in Mumbai.-Mumbai has housing structures known as Chawl. These are
the remnants of the once booming cotton mills which provided job opportunities and led to migration of people
to Mumbai.
 Chawls still occupy a large portion of the Mumbai residential area.
 CIDCO aims to prevent population influx into Mumbai, diverting it to the new town, Navi Mumbai, by
providing an urban alternative which will lure citizens wishing to relocate to a city of peace and comfort.
 It plans to provide basic civic amenities to all and elevate standards of living for people of all social and
economic strata.
 In order to achieve these goals, CIDCO started to develop land and provide the required physical
infrastructure such as roads, bridges, drainage and sewerage system, drinking water system and street
lights.
TRENDS AND PACE OF URBANIZATION IN INDIA
- India’s population base accounts for 67% of the total population of South Central Asia and 29% of that of Asia.
 the level of urbanization in the country increased from 27.7% in 2001 to 31.1% in 2011 i.e. an increase of 3.3
points.
 Economically advanced states more or less show higher levels of urbanization. All the southern states ,
including Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Maharashtra and West Bengal, have higher levels of urbanization. States
like U.P., Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand continue to have lower levels of
urbanization than the national average.
1. SLUM DEVELOPMENT-
Late in the 17th century, Gerald Aungier tried to attract traders and artisans to Bombay. As a result, the
population grew six-fold in the fourteen years between 1661 and 1675. Some of the more prosperous traders
built houses inside the British fort. The rest lived in crowded "native-towns" around the walls. These were

probably the first slums to grow in Bombay.The problem of overcrowding certainly remained through the 18th
century. A count made in 1794 found 1000 houses inside the fort walls and 6500 immediately outside.
 All over the world, the 19th century saw the growth of slums give the lie to the idea of progress brought on by
large-scale industrialisation and the understanding and control of diseases. Bombay was no exception. The
cotton boom, followed by the rapid growth of mills and shipping drew a large population from the rest of the
country into a city ill-equipped to deal with them. In the middle of the 19th century slums grew around the mills
and other places of employment.
 Slums have constituted an integral part of Mumbai's cityscape for several decades. With its potential to provide
employment to a vast multitude, the city attracts a large number of people. Many of them stay in slum colonies
for the lack of a better alternative.
 Slum-dwellers stay in shanty structures in unhygienic environment, not by choice but by compelling
circumstances as they were thrown out of the formal housing sector, the latter being expensive and much
beyond their income levels. It is imperative to enhance their standard of living and for which an authorized
dwelling unit is a first step in the right direction. This, in turn, will bring about a marked improvement in their
hygiene and health as well as raise the level of public hygiene which has fallen to very low ebb.
 TYPES AND ORIGINS OF SLUMS IN MUMBAI- a) chawls and patra chawls b) zopadpattis c) pavement dwellings
 Mumbai has housing structures known as Chawl. These are the remnants of the once booming cotton mills
which provided job opportunities and led to migration of people to Mumbai. These are characterized by typical
one room tenements along with small cooking spaces and shared common sanitation areas. While chawls were
meant for male migrants to the city, subsequently they began being occupied by families thus increasing the
densities.
 Pavement dwellings are shanties built on the footpaths alongside roads and pavements, close to the workplace.
Majority of the pavement dwellers are migrant labourers from the poorer regions of our country. These shanties
are not eligible for improvement schemes and often face demolition and harassment. The eviction of pavement
dwellers and their resettlement has been attempted with limited success due to their demand for resettlement
in the same area.
 Zhopadpattis are squatters in vernacular. These are the most predominant informal settlements in the category
of slums. Squatting began in Mumbai even before independence and has since been growing.
 The birth of slums- Historically, slums have grown in Bombay as a response to a growth of population far beyond
the capacity of existing housing. Migrants are normally drawn to the city by the huge disparity between urban
and rural income levels. Usually the residents of these densely populated enclaves live close to their place of
work. The residential area itself does not provide employment.
 Bombay knows another reason for the formation of slums. As the city grew, it took over land that was
traditionally used for other purposes. The Koli fishermen were displaced during the development of the harbour
and port. Those driven out of the fishing villages improvised living space that was often far shabbier than before.
This process continues even now, at the end of the 20th century.
 On the other hand, some villages were encysted by the city growing around them. Dharavi, originally a village
with a small tanning industry, has become a slum in this fashion. Many of the older slums in Byculla and Khar
were initially separate villages, with their own traditional industries.

Effects of slums
• Absence of amenities- lack of essential amenities due to over crowding
• Health – prone to diseases due to unhealthy conditions
• Surrounding locality- working of intuitions is affected
• Undesirable spots- disturbs the appearance of good features of city plan
• Working condition- unsuitable working conditions due to noise, traffic, congestion, smoke, dust

Slum Improvement Scheme
 Grant of financial assistance by central government to sate government and union territories for slum
clearance and slum improvement projects
Objectives
 To bring down disparity in living standards of people of various classes
 To prevent the occurrence of epidemics in town or city
 To provide the absolute basic minimum standards of essential amenities for healthy living
 To remove the ugly spots or slums from the map of town or city
Two important principles on which the scheme is based are
 Minimum dislocation of slum,
 Rehouse on existing sites of the slum/ near by sites so that they are not uprooted from their fields of
employment.
 In order to keep the rents down within the paying capacity of the slum dweller, emphasis should be laid on
provision of minimum standards on environmental hygiene and essential services rather than construction of
elaborate structure.
2. MIGRATION
6. - Human migration is the movement by people from one place to another with the intention of settling
temporarily or permanently in the new location. The movement is typically over long distances and from one
country to another, but internal migration is also possible. Migration may be individuals, family units or in large
groups.
The region where people are leaving is referred to as the source region whereas the region to which people are
entering is known as destination
Rural -urban migration is the movement of people from rural areas (villages) to urban centres (cities
 Migration is a complex process and has been a feature of human societies for many centuries. There are many
reasons why people choose to migrate, including:
 Poverty
 Armed conflict
 Social strife
 Political turmoil
 Economic hardships
 Since the mid-twentieth century, however, the nature of migration has also become largely influenced by
globalization. Advances in communication and transportation technology have driven globalization forward,
allowing us to live in a world where distances between countries and travel time are no longer as significant an
obstacle.
 In this age of migration and globalization, the world's economies have become more integrated. As a result, it is
now common for migrants to send remittances to their home country and, not surprisingly, many developing
nations depend on these funds.
 Additionally, disparities between developing and developed nations have accelerated with globalization. In
1900, the ratio of the average income of the five richest countries in the world to the 5-10 poorest countries
was about 9:1. Today that ratio is 100:1.[2] These disparities among countries combined with limited

opportunities for employment that provides high enough wages to care for one's family has stimulated
increased migration from developing to developed nations.
 During 2000-2005, the more developed regions of the world gained an estimated 2.6 million migrants annually
from the less developed regions. This amounts to about 13.1 million migrants over the whole period. Northern
America[3] gained the most from net migration: 1.4 million migrants annually.
Internal migrants
 those who move within national boundaries - are several times moresignificant in terms of the numbers
involved compared to those who move across countries, but fail to receive the attention international
migration receives from researchers, international organizations and funding agencies
 According to the UNDP Human Development Report 2009, the number of those who moved across the
major zonal demarcations within their countries was nearly four times larger (740 million) than those who
moved internationally (214 million)
 In Asia, Africa and Latin America, approximately 40 per cent of urban growth results from internal migration
from rural to urban areas
• India’s total population Census 2011, stands at 1.21 billion. Internal migrants in India constitute a large
population of 309 million internal migrants or 30 percent of the population (Census of India, 2001),
• States of internal migrants include Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Uttarakhand and Tamil Nadu, whereas key destination areas are Delhi,
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Karnataka
Migration and Causes of urban growth
 Urban growth is the result of a number of factors besides net rural-urban migration, including natural increase,
net increase in new towns and jurisdictional changes.
 In India for instance, about 60 per cent of growth in the urban population is due to natural increase,
while rural–urban migration has contributed to about 20 per cent of increase in urban population
Issues of Rural urban migration
 Economic growth since 1990- 8% anually, creating job opportunities in global sector in and around the city,
boosting rural–urban (RU) migration
 Since many of these investments have been positioned either within or around the existing urban centres, it is
reasoned that they have given an impetus to the pace of urbanisation by causing a significant increase in
employment opportunities in the cities and strengthening the pull factors attracting migrants even when the
industrial units are located in neighbouring rural settlements, the latter would soon acquire urban status .
 The two obvious responses would be more inclusive population policies in the successful and large urban
centres, or more support for economic growth in smaller urban centres. The first is likely to face political
obstacles, as urban elites do not want to accommodate a large influx of low-income migrants.
 The second is likely to face economic obstacles, as it can be difficult to find good public investment opportunities
in smaller urban centres. However, without urban growth, the pursuit of both economic growth and equality will
eventually be compromised

Migration in India is primarily of two types:
(a) Long-term migration, resulting in the relocation of an individual or household and
(b) Short-term or seasonal/circular migration, involving back and forth movement between a source and destination.
Estimates of short-term migrants vary from 15 million (NSSO 2007–2008) to 100 million million (Deshingkar and Akter,
2009).
Reasons for migration
Causes:
• Lack of job opportunities:
• Mechanisation - as more machines take over the work on the farms, less work is available for the people living
on the farms and for the others in rural areas.
• Low wages for services
• A lack of infrastructure in the forms of health care and education in rural areas
• 'Bright lights' syndrome - young people feel that there is no entertainment or possibility of different career
opportunities, so they move to the cities.
• Natural calamities: flood, drought, un timely rains etc, leading to un profitable produce, also unable to pay loans.
• Land is subdivision among the heirs, too small unit to be economically viable.
Push and Pull factors
• Push and Pull factors are those factors which either forcefully push someone into migration or attract them to
migrate.
• A push factor is a forceful factor, and a factor which relates to the country the person is migrating from. It is
generally a problem which the results in people wanting to migrate.
• A pull factor is something concerning the country a person migrates to. It is generally a good thing that attracts
people to a certain place
• Push Factors
• Poor Medical Care.
• Not enough jobs.
• Few opportunities.
• Primitive Conditions
• Political fear
• Fear of torture and mistreatment
• Not being able to practice religion
• Loss of wealth
• Natural Disasters
Pull Factors
• Chances of getting a job
• Better living standards
• Education
• Better Medical Care
• Security
• Recreation
• Family Links

Effects/ consequences of migration
• Migrants are looked upon as ‘outsiders’ by the local host administration, and as a burden on systems and
resources at the destination
• Exclusion and discrimination against migrants take place through political and administrative processes, market
mechanisms and socio-economic processes, causing a gulf between migrants and locals
• Due to the lack of analytical refinement in the way that internal migration is defined, design and delivery of
services for migrants is hampered.
• Migrants continually face difficulties in becoming a full part of the economic, cultural, social and political lives of
society. Regulations and administrative procedures exclude migrants from access to legal rights, public services
and social protection programmes accorded to residents, on account of which they are often treated as second-
class citizens.
Challenges faced by the Internal migrants
 Marginalisation of migrants in the decision-making processes of the city, and exacerbates their vulnerabilities to
the vagaries of the labour market, poverty traps, and risks of discrimination and violence.
 Despite the fact that approximately three out of every ten Indians are internal migrants, internal migration has
been accorded very low priority by the government, and existing policies of the Indian state have failed in
providing legal or social protection to this vulnerable group. This can be attributed in part to a serious data gap
on the extent, nature and magnitude of internal migration
 Women migrants face double discrimination, encountering difficulties peculiar to migrants, coupled with their
specific vulnerability as victims of gender-based violence, and physical, sexual or psychological abuse,
exploitation and trafficking.
 Internal migrants, especially seasonal and circular migrants, constitute a “floating” population, as they alternate
between living at their source and destination locations, and in turn lose access to social protection benefits
linked to the place of residence. There remains no concerted strategy to ensure portability of entitlements for
migrants
Effects/ consequences of migration
 A permanent move to a new location, migration is a complex process that can be produce profound changes for
individuals and societies
 changes in population distribution
 mixing of different cultures and races, what often leads to negative social behaviors – tensions in society
between majorities and minorities, followed often by local struggles and racism and racial discrimination.
 Also criminality – growth of - can be caused.
 But effects in different societies can be different. It is possible also some positive cultural effects of migration,
for example exchange of cultural experience, new knowledge.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF THE CITIES DUE TO URBANIZATION, GLOBALIZATION, SLUMS
AND MIGRATION-
a) Slums- inadequate Access to basic services leads to environmental issues :
 Access to sanitation- a survey of the slums carried out as a part of the Mumbai Sewerage Development Project –
II revealed that about 50% of the slum population does not have adequate access to safe sanitation facilities.
About 73% depend on community toilets, 28% defecate in the open and 0.7% use paid toilets. Overuse and
poor maintenance makes them unhygienic thus spreading diseases.
 Solid waste management- only 36% slums have an organized system of garbage collection and clearance. This
has lead to increasing dumping grounds which spread diseases and cause various other environment impacts.
b) Migration- Migration of people from developing to developed countries will normally cause an absolute increase
in global emissions.
 Over the entire 19 years between 1991 to 2009, as a direct result of net migration, greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions from the UK increased by almost 190 million tonnes of CO2, equivalence. Taking into account the
indirect impact of immigration caused primarily by higher fertility amongst some groups of settled migrants, the
total increase in the ‘carbon footprint’ may be up to 285 million tonnes of carbon.
 Over the25 year period from 2008 to 2033, projected population growth in the UK arising from net migration
will add 7 million to the population, increasing the UK’s GHG emissions by almost 40 million tonnes of carbon
dioxide in the five years to 2015, by over 125 million tonnes by 2020, and by almost 515 million tonnes by 2033.
 As a result of the population increase, emissions in 2033 will be 33 million tonnes higher at a time when
emissions must be reduced by 240 tonnes a year to achieve the government’s target enshrined in legislation.
Thus the costs of mitigation will be significantly higher, with negative impacts on public expenditure and
economic competitiveness
 Migration is a key driver of international aviation growth and countries which have sent the biggest numbers of
immigrants to the UK in recent years have seen the fastest growth in passenger journeys to and from the UK.
GHG emissions from aviation are projected to grow strongly over the next few decades.
 England is already one of the most densely populated countries in Europe. Increasing population pressures will
disproportionately impact England where population is projected to increase by 18 per cent, with densities
projected to be 465 persons per square kilometre by 2033.
 In the South East of England by 2033, population densities are projected to increase by 20 per cent, to a level
one third higher than those of the Netherlands now
 If all the increase in population was going to be accommodated in urban areas, we would have to build 60 towns
the size of Slough, or 20 cities the size of Leicester, or alternatively urbanize areas equivalent in area to Surrey or
Warwickshire
 Such a loss of countryside would inevitably cause loss of wildlife habitats, damage the UK’s biodiversity and have
a detrimental impact on the ‘amenity’ that people derive from the rural environment and contact with nature.
c) Urbanization- Fueled by the desire to become more westernized, countries around the world are turning into
industrialized nations at a rate not yet seen before. With such internal growth, countries have seen an increase
in the demand for urbanized areas to cater to the increase in population, economic demands, and technological
advances. Urbanization causes an increase in the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere, a higher need to
clear lands, and a loss of biodiversity in virgin forests on a global scale.
 Complexity of environmental problems-Probably most of the major environmental problems of the next century
will result from the continuation and sharpening of existing problems that currently do not receive enough
political attention. The problems are not necessarily noticed in many countries or then nothing is done even the
situation has been detected. The most emerging issues are climate changes, freshwater scarcity, deforestation,
fresh water pollution and population growth.

 Overpopulation-The major cause of most environmental problems is the rapidly growing human population.
About 90 million babies are born each year. At this rate, by the year 2050, global population will reach 10 billion.
The current world population is on average very young and has many years of reproductive life ahead. Because
of this the population will grow even the fertility rate seems to decrease. The population growth takes mostly
place in developing countries. These countries are in charge of 90 per cent of current population growth. It has
been estimated that by the year 2025 even 84 per cent of the world’s people will live in developing regions.
 Growing demand for food and facilities-Due to the growing population, demands for water, food, housing, heat,
energy, clothing, and consume goods are increasing alarmingly. Rapid population growth not only lessens
available calorie supply from food per person but also risks the present food production with pollution.
Increasing demand forces farmers to exhaust the soil or to use marginal land. The only way to product food to
all this population is to create more effective agricultural production. Irrigation is the most important way,
because in the future the arable land is not increasing, probably decreasing, due to erosion and land
deterioration.
 Growing urbanization means more consumption and need of different products. The production of these needs
water and creates more pollutants. In developing countries where the urbanization is occurring most rapidly the
technology is not high enough to take responsibility of water treatment and clean production. Many Western
companies produce their products in developing countries because of more flexible environmental law and
cheaper production costs. This puts extra pressure on the environment of the developing countries.
 Problems to food production- Plants need water, solar energy and nutrients to grow. Humans can only change
few things to help plants to product more, the amount of water and fertilizer. In the areas where these are
needed there is also often uncertainty of water supply and lacking of capital for fertilizers. Water and food
availability is closely linked together because of the enormous need of green water. The quality of water is often
threatened in poor areas due to domestic and industrial wastes. Agriculture as well produces numerous side
effects to water resources, including erosion, leaching of nutrients, accumulation and wash off of pesticides and
heavy metals, increased salinity due to evaporation losses and spearing of various diseases such as malaria.
 Pollutants to air, soil and water- Even the industrialized countries, with higher standards of living and greater
numbers of cars, produce far more air pollution and greenhouse gases than developing countries, they can
reduce environmental hazards by using technology such as smokestack scrubbers, emission systems, and
wastewater treatment plants. Developing countries do not have this new technology or capacity to do so. The
consumption is far lower but the expensive energy-efficient or clean-up technologies are economically
impractical for these countries. For these reasons environmental problems occur more often in developed
countries.
 Air pollutants- In many cities the air is already so polluted that it has been causing illnesses and premature
deaths among elderly people and children. Studies show that disease rate rises when the air pollution level
increases. Air pollutants are also harmful for water and environment, for example, by causing acid precipitation
and acidity of waters. Most of the ambient air-pollution in urban areas comes from the fossil fuels industry,
motor vehicles, heating and electricity generation. In some cities the main air polluter is the domestic heating.
Many people heat their houses with firewood and cheap coal. This kind of heating method will decrease in the
future. Although, new heating methods can be even worse polluters. Instead of carbon dioxide the emissions
can include various toxic and carcinogenic chemicals, heavy metals, trace organic chemicals and fibers,
photochemical pollutants, lead and carbon monoxide, which are much more harmful to human health.
 Water pollutants- The lack of sanitation and sewage treatment is the biggest factor regarding water pollution.
Local water bodies are used as a dumping ground for untreated water from urban areas or industries. Chemical
discharge is also a widespread problem. For example, in Bangkok, 90 per cent of industrial wastes, including
hazardous chemicals, are discharged without treatment. On a positive note, many countries have introduced
legislation to combat the problem. Many rivers in developing countries are more like open sewers than rivers.

Most of the centers in these regions do not have drains or even service to collect the garbage. Fisheries are
often damaged and destroyed by liquid effluents from city-based industries. Thousands of people may lose their
livelihood, because of a large city situated close to the world’s productive fishing regions. The cities that are
close to the coast often dump untreated sewage to the sea. Most of the coastal cities have serious problems
with dirty, contaminated beaches and water which is a serious health risk to the bathers and for the whole city.
 Solid wastes- Solid waste management means proper collection, transfer, recycling and disposal of solid wastes.
In many cities the solid waste disposal is inefficient or non-existing. Even more problematic than household
wastes are the industrial, hospital and institutional wastes, which often contains hazardous and toxic chemicals,
not to mention viruses and bacteria. These chemicals need special care when changing, storing, transposing and
disposing them. Still they are allowed to go directly the water bodies from where they can contaminate the
whole water cycle. The disposal of the solid wastes is often similar than with the liquid ones. They end up to the
illegal dump on streets, open spaces, wastelands, drains or rivers. Sometimes they are collected to the land sites
but the protection of water bodies and groundwater is not active. If solid wastes are left in the open spaces,
wasteland and streets serious environmental problems
will follow. With the rainwater much of this waste ends up swept into water bodies. This can lead to the
pollution of ground- and surface waters because of leaching. Solid wastes are sometimes used for landfill but
decomposed solid waste can similarly pollute groundwater through seepage, particularly in humid tropics. This
can have enormous health impacts in developing countries where the use of well water as drinking water is
common. The garbage combustion creates yet another environmental problem. People want to get rid of the
wastes and they burn them in their backyards. The gases produced by burning can cause different respiratory
diseases. Uncollected waste spoils also the aesthetic outlook of the city. The volume of per capita of waste is
increasing with the income level due to higher consumption.
This is a big problem in rapidly growing cities where it is really hard to keep up with the waste
production. In the big cities the daily amount of waste can be enormous and hard to handle. In the lower-
income countries the amount of waste is not so big but the problems have more to do with the collection
system. The agencies that are responsibility for the collection and disposal of solid wastes are often
understaffed and underfunded. Also the lack of equipment, like collection trucks, makes the service unefficient.
Because many cities also have poor sanitation, wastes contain a lot of faecal matter. The risk from the
uncollected waste is obvious for small children playing in the streets and for waste pickers. Many city authorities
face enormous challenges managing solid waste mountains. The collection and disposal of the solid waste needs
effective co-operation with vendors and collectors. In developing countries it is normal that less than one-half of
the solid wastes are collected. In some poor countries, for example in West Africa, only 10 per cent of the solid
wastes are collected. Even the city provides waste service it is often spatially concentrated, leaving some parts
of the city unserved.
 Noise- In the urban environment there are many sources of noise. The most serious sources are aircrafts,
industrial operations, highway traffic and construction activities. Current noise levels harm hundreds of millions
people and create serious health treats to tens of millions. Sleep disturbance, loss of hearing, stress, poorer
work performance and increased anxiety are effects from noise. The noise levels that the inhabitants have to
suffer, varies between cities and also between different areas in the city. Especially in every mega-city people
are under constant stress from noise, which has harmful effects on their health and level of living.

TYPES OF URBAN AREAS, TOWNS AND CITIES
For the Census of India 2011, the definition of urban area is as follows
STATUTORY TOWNS
• All places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or
• notified town area committee, etc.
• These towns are notified under law by the concerned State/UT Government and have local bodies like municipal
corporations, municipalities, municipal committees, etc., irrespective of their demographic characteristics as
reckoned on 31st December 2009. Examples: Vadodara (M Corp.), Shimla (MCorp.) etc.
CENSUS TOWN
• All other places which satisfied the following criteria:
• i) A minimum population of 5,000;
• ii) At least 75 per cent of the male main working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and
iii) A density of population of at least 400 persons
URBAN AGGLOMERATION
• Urban Agglomeration (UA): An urban agglomeration is a continuous urban spread constituting a town and its
adjoining outgrowths (OGs), or two or more physically contiguous towns together with or without outgrowths
ofsuch towns.
• An Urban Agglomeration must consist of at least a statutory town and its total population (i.e. all the
constituents put together) should not be less than 20,000 as per the 2001 Census. In varying local conditions,
there were similar other combinations which have been treated as urban agglomerations satisfying the basic
condition of contiguity.
• Examples: Greater Mumbai UA, Delhi UA, etc.
OUT GROWTHS (OG):
An Out Growth (OG) is a viable unit such as a village or a hamlet or an enumeration block made up of such village
or hamlet and clearly identifiable in terms of its boundaries and location.
• Some of the examples are railway colony, university campus, port area, military camps,etc., which have come up
near a statutory town outside its statutory limits but within the revenue limits of a village or villages contiguous
to the town.
• While determining the outgrowth of a town, it has been ensured that it possesses the urban features in terms of
infrastructure and amenities such as pucca roads, electricity, taps, drainage system for disposal of waste water
etc. educational institutions, post offices, medical facilities, banks etc. and physically contiguous with the core
town of the UA.
• Examples: Central Railway Colony (OG), Triveni Nagar (N.E.C.S.W.) (OG), etc.
• Each such town together with its outgrowth(s) is treated as an integrated urban area and is designated as an
‘urban agglomeration

SATTELITE CITIES-
7. satellite town or satellite city is a concept in urban planning that refers essentially to smaller metropolitan areas
which are located somewhat near to, but are mostly independent of larger metropolitan areas. Satellite cities
are smaller cities that are near to a large city that is the center of a metropolitan area. They are different from
suburbs, subdivisions and bedroom communities because they have their own centre. Satellite cities could be
separate cities outside of the larger metropolitan areas. However, working as part of a metropolis, a satellite city
gets "cross-commuting".
 CHARECTISTICS:
 predate the metropolis' suburban expansion
 are at least partially independent from that metropolis economically and socially
 are physically separated from the metropolis by rural territory or by a major geographic barrier such as a large
river; satellite cities should have their own independent urbanized area, or equivalent
 have their own bedroom communities
 have a traditional downtown surrounded by traditional "inner city" neighborhoods
 may or may not be counted as part of the large metropolis' Combined Statistical Area

8. TIER TWO AND TIER ONE CITIES- The cities in India are categorised on the basis of a grading structure devised by
the Government of India. This system helps the authorities to allot House Rent Allowance (HRA) to the
employees of the public sector, posted in different cities across the country.
 Following the recommendations of the Sixth Central Pay Commission of 2008, the cities are categorised under
sections X, Y and Z. The Union Cabinet of India had established the 6th CPC on 5 October 2006 with the objective
to edit and hike up the salaries of the public servants, serving the central government.
 Formerly, the division was made on the grounds of Compensatory City Allowance (CCA) and HRA. However, after
CPC 2008, the population of the city has been set as the criteria for the segregation. As per the changes, A-1 has

been renamed as X, while A, B-1 & B-2 as Y, and C & uncategorised cities as Z. The better known term for the
categories is Tier-I, Tier-II and Tier-III cities, respectively.
 As per media reports, there are about 8 Tier I cities, 26 Tier II cities, 33 Tier III cities and over 5,000 Tier IV towns,
while there are more than 638,000 villages in the country.The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) classifies centres into
6 tiers based on population.
 Tier II Cities- These are the next level down from Tier I, and are basically smaller cities, statistically 1 million in
population and are usually regional hubs such as state capitals or industrialized centres. Some examples include
Pune, Cochin, Mangalore, and Dehra Dun.
 Tier III Cities- This includes minor cities like Nasik, Baroda, Trichy, Madurai, etc. Tier III consist of cities with a
population of less than a million. In simpler terms, these comprise cities that are just beginning to wake up and
take form.
 Classification of centres (tier-wise):
Population classification Population (2001 Census)
Tier-1 100,000 and above
Tier-2 50,000 to 99,999
Tier-3 20,000 to 49,999
Tier-4 10,000 to 19,999
Tier-5 5,000 to 9,999
Tier-6 less than 5000
• >5,000,000- Megacity
• 1,000,000-4,999,999 - Metropolis
• 500,000-999,999 - Sub-Metropolis
 The issue with a Tier I city - when it comes to economic boom and investment – is that they are inundated with
burgeoning investments in the industrial and service sectors. Along with the boom of large-scale investments, so
too has the real estate sector. This creates congestion, which has arisen out of an increasing demand for
residential and commercial properties. This is where Tier II and Tier III cities come into play as congestion in
realty structures has forced the respective governments and many investment companies to seek out
alternative smaller cities.
URBAN SPRAWL
 Urban sprawl or suburban sprawl describes the expansion of human populations away from central
urban areas into previously remote and rural areas, often resulting in communities reliant upon heavy
automobile usage.


 Sprawl is low density, auto-dependent land development taking place on the edges of urban centers,
often leapfrogging away from current denser development node, to transform open, undeveloped land,
into single-family residential subdivisions and campus style commercial office parks and diffuse retails
uses.
 Sprawl consumes thousands of acres of forests and farmland, woodlands and wetlands. It requires
Government to spend millions extra to build new schools, streets, and water and sewer lines. In its wake
sprawl leaves boarded up houses, vacant storefronts, closed businesses, abandoned and often
contaminated industrial sites, and traffic congestion stretching miles from urban centers.


Towns and cities are expanding in certain pockets with a change in the land use along the highways and in the
immediate vicinity of the cities due to adhoc approaches in regional planning, governance and decision-making. This
outgrowth along highways and roads connecting a city and in the periphery of the cities is caused by the uncontrolled
and uncoordinated urban growth. This dispersed development outside compact urban and rural centres that is along
highways and in rural countryside is referred to as sprawl. Sprawl generally refers to some type of development with
impacts such as losses of agricultural lands, open spaces, and ecologically sensitive habitats in and around the urban
areas. These regions lack basic amenities due to the unplanned growth and lack of prior information and forecasts of
such growth during policy, planning and decision making.
Sprawl results in the engulfing of villages into peri-urban areas, peri-urban areas into towns and towns into cities.
Impact of Sprawl
 Deterioration of existing built-up areas (cities and first and second-ring suburbs)
 Environmentally sensitive land damage, including loss of wetlands, hillsides, habitats, historic, archaeological, cultural
and natural resources, and the depletion and degradation of the quality and quantity of water resources.
 Global Warming due to overutilization of carbon based energy, lack of renewable energy, greenhouse gas emissions
from excessive vehicle miles traveled and failure to utilize green development techniques for the man made
environment.
 Fiscal insolvency, transportation congestion, infrastructure deficiencies and restrictions on funding health care and
educational programs through tax-payer initiative
 Agriculture and open space land conversion
 Mortgage foreclosure and real estate collapse due to lack of affordable housing available to low and moderate income
families.

URBAN DECAY


9. GENETRIFICATION- Gentrification is any facet of urban renewal that inevitably leads to displacement of
the occupying demographic. This is a common and widespread controversial topic and term in urban planning. It
refers to shifts in an urban community lifestyle and an increasing share of wealthier residents and/or businesses
and increasing property values.
 Gentrification is typically the result of increased interest of external citizens to live in a certain environment.
Early "gentrifiers" may belong to low income artists or boheme communities, which increase the attractiveness
and flair of a certain quarter. Further steps are increased investments in a community by real estate
development businesses, local government, or community activists and more economic development, increased
attraction of business and lower crime rates. In addition to these potential benefits, gentrification can lead to
population migration.
 Gentrification is a general term for the arrival of wealthier people in an existing urban district, a related increase
in rents and property values, and changes in the district's character and culture. The term is often used
negatively, suggesting the displacement of poor communities by rich outsiders. But the effects of gentrification
are complex and contradictory, and its real impact varies.Many aspects of the gentrification process are
desirable.
 Gentrification has been the cause of painful conflict in many American cities, often along racial and economic
fault lines. Neighborhood change is often viewed as a miscarriage of social justice, in which wealthy, usually
white, newcomers are congratulated for "improving" a neighborhood whose poor, minority residents are
displaced by skyrocketing rents and economic change.
 Although there is not a clear-cut technical definition of gentrification, it is characterized by several changes:
 Demographics: An increase in median income, a decline in the proportion of racial minorities, and a reduction in
household size, as low-income families are replaced by young singles and couples.
 Real Estate Markets: Large increases in rents and home prices, increases in the number of evictions, conversion
of rental units to ownership (condos) and new development of luxury housing.
 Land Use: A decline in industrial uses, an increase in office or multimedia uses, the development of live-work
"lofts" and high-end housing, retail, and restaurants.
 Culture and Character: New ideas about what is desirable and attractive, including standards (either informal or
legal) for architecture, landscaping, public behavior, noise, and nuisance.
 CONSEQUENCES- In certain respects, a neighborhood that is gentrified can become a "victim of its own success."
The upward spiral of desirability and increasing rents and property values often erodes the very qualities that
began attracting new people in the first place. When success comes to a neighborhood, it does not always come
to its established residents, and the displacement of that community is gentrification's most troubling effect.
No one is more vulnerable to the effects of gentrification than renters. When prices go up, tenants are pushed
out, whether through natural turnover, rent hikes, or evictions. When buildings are sold, buyers often evict the
existing tenants to move in themselves, combine several units, or bring in new tenants at a higher rate. When
residents own their homes, they are less vulnerable, and may opt to "cash them in" and move elsewhere. Their
options may be limited if there is a regional housing shortage, however, and cash does not always compensate
for less tangible losses.
The economic effects of gentrification vary widely, but the arrival of new investment, new spending power, and
a new tax base usually result in significant increased economic activity. Rehabilitation, housing development,
new shops and restaurants, and new, higher-wage jobs are often part of the picture. Previous residents may
benefit from some of this development, particularly in the form of service sector and construction jobs, but
much of it may be out of reach to all but the well-educated newcomers. Some local economic activity may also
be forced out — either by rising rents or shifting sensibilities. Industrial activities that employ local workers may
be viewed as a nuisance or environmental hazard by new arrivals. Local shops may lose their leases under
pressure from posh boutiques and restaurants.

Physical changes also accompany gentrification. Older buildings are rehabilitated and new construction occurs.
Public improvements — to streets, parks, and infrastructure — may accompany government revitalization
efforts or occur as new residents organize to demand public services. New arrivals often push hard to improve
the district aesthetically, and may codify new standards through design guidelines, historic preservation
legislation, and the use of blight and nuisance laws.
The social, economic, and physical impacts of gentrification often result in serious political conflict, exacerbated
by differences in race, class, and culture. Earlier residents may feel embattled, ignored, and excluded from their
own communities. New arrivals are often mystified by accusations that their efforts to improve local conditions
are perceived as hostile or even racist.
Change — in fortunes, in populations, in the physical fabric of communities — is an abiding feature of urban life.
But change nearly always involves winners and losers, and low-income people are rarely the winners. The
effects of gentrification vary widely with the particular local circumstances. Residents, community development
corporations, and city governments across the country are struggling to manage these inevitable changes to
create a win-win situation for everyone involved.
CHANGES IN WORKFORCE STRUCTURE AND THEIR IMPACT ON URBANISATION
India has come to enjoy a distinct advantage in its labour market compared to some developed and less
developed countries due to the fast-changing age distribution of its population. It is a late entrant in the process
of demographic transition. Its annual population growth remained stable between 2.1 and 2.2 per cent during
the first four decades after Independence, then reduced to below 2 per cent during the 1990s. Because of
fertility decline, the country has a high percentage of population in the working age group (15–59 years) and this
is likely to go up further in the next three or four decades. Further, the worker/population ratio in the adult age
groups has been rising in recent years, as discussed below. Consequently, the country will enjoy significant
demographic dividends during the next few decades
10. TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT- A transit-oriented development (TOD) is a mixed-use
residential and commercial area designed to maximize access to public transport, and often incorporates
features to encourage transit ridership. A TOD neighborhood typically has a center with a transit station or stop
(train station, metro station, tram stop, or bus stop), surrounded by relatively high-density development with
progressively lower-density development spreading outward from the center. TODs generally are located within
a radius of one-quarter to one-half mile (400 to 800 m) from a transit stop, as this is considered to be an
appropriate scale for pedestrians, thus solving the last mile problem.
 TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT is the exciting fast growing trend in creating vibrant, livable communities.
Also known as Transit Oriented Design, or TOD, it is the creation of compact, walkable communities centered
around high quality train systems. This makes it possible to live a higher quality life without complete
dependence on a car for mobility and survival.
 Transit oriented development is a major solution to the serious and growing problems of peak oil and climate
change by creating dense, walkable communities connected to a train line that greatly reduce the need for
driving and the burning of fossil fuels.
11. REAL ESTATE BOOM- According to industry estimates, the value of domestic Indian real estate market is about
US$ 14 billion. Again, in the current financial year, 2006-07, it is estimated that the total FDIs will be worth
nearly US$ 8 billion and the share of FDI influx in the India Real Estate Market 2007 will be about 26.5%. The
boom in India Real Estate is observed in all sectors like the residential, commercial, retail, and recreational
projects.

 Factors responsible for the boom in India Real Estate: In recent years, India real estate has been in a burgeoning
stage in not only the A1-tier cities of India, but also in other Indian cities. Some of the leading factors responsible
for this are:
 the increase in the population level
 the growth of the software IT based companies in India
 the accumulated resource capital with the new young generation working in the IT companies
 the presence of NRIs and their interest in investing in the Indian real estate market
 the liberalization policies taken up by the Indian government to encourage the 100% FDI participation
 the introduction of the Real Estate Investment Trust and the Real Estate Mutual Funds
 the development of the Special Economic Zones all over India into real estates
 the increase in the concept of nuclear families
 the rise in the tourism industry of India
12. PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEMS- The difference between rural and urban indiactors of health status and
the wide interstate disparity in health status are well known. Clearly the urban rural differentials are substantial
and range from childhood and go on increasing the gap as one grows up to 5 years. Sheer survival apart there is
also known under provision in rural areas in practically all social sector services. For the children growing up in
rural areas the disparities naturally tend to get even worse when compounded by the widely practiced
discrimination against women, starting with foeticide of daughters. In spite of overall achievement it is a mixed
record of social development specially failing in involving people in imaginative ways. Even the averaged out
good performance ides wide variations by social class or gender or region or State. The classes in may States
have had to suffer the most due to lack of access or denial of access or social exclusion or all of them. This is
clear from the fact that compared to the riches quintile, the poorest had 2.5 times more IMR and child mortality,
TFR at double the rates and nearly 75% malnutrition - particularly during the nineties. Not only are the gaps
between the better performing and other States wide but in same cases have been increasing during the
nineties. Large differences also exist between districts within the same better performing State urban areas
appear to have better health outcomes than rural areas although the figures may not fully reflect the situation in
urban and peri-urban slums with large in migration with conditions comparable to rural pockets. It is estimated
that urban slum population wilt grow at double the rate of urban population growth in the next few decades.
India may have by 202 a total urban population of close to 600 million living in urban areas with an estimated
145 million living in slums in 2001.
CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO URBAN ARCHITECTURE-
During modern era of human development, growth of towns and cities displayed a separation between nature
and human activities. This was not the case in premodern times, when human settlements either integrated or
co-existed peacefully with the nature. There are many examples of this city—nature relationship in Old Iranian
cities like Isfahan, Shiraz and even Tehran; The Garden Cities of Sir Ebenezer Howard in England, Kilwa coastal
towns in what is now present day Tanzania, Teotenango, Mexico, as other few examples.
 After the arrival of modernism and the growth urbanism, modern homes and high rise habitats replaced
gardens. Fast growing populations and changes in lifestyle contributed to the destruction of garden cities.
 The modern city is a recent phenomenon. The growth of modern industry from the late 18th century onward led
to massive urbanization and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new
opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In the United States
from 1860 to 1910, the invention of railroads reduced transportation costs, and large manufacturing centers
began to emerge, thus allowing migration from rural to city areas.

 Before the rapid expansion in human population that began after the Industrial Revolution, cities were relatively
small, few in number and their impact on the natural world was limited. There had been human-induced
extinctions of wildlife caused by hunter-gatherers, the deforestation caused by the introduction to fire as a
means of cooking and heating, but for the most part, the ecological footprint of human settlements was light
because they were embedded bio regionally and their size permitted provisioning by the immediate surrounding
natural environment.
 These developments were made possible by the large-scale exploitation of fossil fuel resources (especially
petroleum), which offered large amounts of energy in an easily portable form, but also caused widespread
concerns about pollution and long-term impact on the environment. In the USA, cheap gas and anti-urban
policies led to sprawl which destroyed rural areas and replaced many farms and open space with low rise
housing developments, landfills and shopping malls.
 Urban dwellers became increasingly disconnected from nature, so that nowadays many of us no longer
understand the connection of a healthy ecosystem and healthy cities. Landscapes on and around our buildings
and infrastructure can be more than an optional ornamental extra but a multi-functional layer of soil and
vegetation that controls surface water, provides food and wildlife habitat and keeps us cool, fit and sane. To
make this transformation from grey to green will require panoramic, trans-disciplinary thinking and coordinated
action.
 Particularly in modern and semi modern cities today, the dominance of buildings against natural environment is
undeniable.
1. DEMOGRAPHY
2. SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND SIZE
3. LAND USE
4. ECONOMIC PROFILE
5. TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
6. INSTITUTIONAL INFRASTRUCTURE
7. BUILT FABRIC
8. ENVIRONMENT
9. GARDENS AND RECREATIONAL SPACE
10. INFRASTRCUTURE NETWORK
11. HERITAGE AND CULTURE
12. URBAN GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORK
1.DEMOGRAPHY/POPULATION
The pattern in the population growth largely contributes to the urban economics. Population growth could be natural
growth or due to migration. Population also largely contributes s to the density of the city that becomes an important
critetia for deterring the urban area and land uses. Few parameters of urban population are
Work Force- at least 75% people are engage in non agricultural pursuit.
Sex Ratio, Literacy Rate, House Hold size, Population Distribution over certain geographical limit

3. ECONOMY
Urban areas have always been the largest contributor of the national Gross Domestic Product ( GDP) Urban areas
account for more than 60% of Gross National Product (GDP).The employment sectors and the average income per capita
varies largely compared to the rural area. The emerging sectors of growth and employment contributes largely to the
the urban form in terms of spatial clustering and land use.( growth of industrial , commercial and financial districts, IT
and ITE parks, SEZs ect.).
Real Estate Market: The demand and supply for the developable land in the urban area has lead to increase in land
values and at the same time making the real estate market a large participator in the financial market. Thus speculative
activities and constraint in land supply has led to strong group of real estate developers and builder to contribute to the
soaring real estate prices.

4. TRANSPORT & COMMUNICATION
Cities and urban areas- centre for economic activities
In India 30% population urban population, future projection 473 million, 820 million in year 2021 and 2051
respectively. To support economic activities- need of easy and sustainable ways of moving people and goods. Thus
transport infrastructure and road networks and linkages become the omportant factors of urban social and
economic development.
Mumbai still being the most important centre for employment, facilities and residential functions,
the inter linkages between Greater Mumbai and MMR are vital for the future. Rail and Road are the
major existing networks that structure Greater Mumbai and extend to MMR and beyond.
Some contributing factors to transportation are : Transport and Road Network- both existing and proposed
networks.Various Modes of Urban Transport- multiple options of transport modes both for public and intermediate
public transport and private vehicles. Traffic Volume on major roads – both entering the city and exiting the city.
4. PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
Water Supply ,Sewerage System , Storm Water Drainage , Solid Waste
Provision of basic physical infrastructure in terms of water, sewerage, storm water collection, solid waste disposal
systems and equitable access to these services are fundamental to achieve a better quality of life for citizens.
Increasing population inevitably places these services under pressure leading to disparities in terms of access and
inadequacies.
Provision of these facilities is entirely depends on the population density and availability of land for the allocation of
facilities like water treatment plant, pumping stations, recycling plants for waste water, sewage treatment plants,
common effluent treatment plants(CETP) with supportive distributive infrastructure, Power generation plants, power
distribution system, dumping grounds, incineration grounds etc.
5.SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE
The quality of life in any urban centre depends upon the availability of and accessibility to quality social infrastructure.
Social infrastructure can be looked at in terms of the facilities indicated in the City Level Master Plan, and Community
Facilities, which are indicated at the layout plan level in various use zones. Together, these include social infrastructure
facilities pertaining to health, education, sports facilities, socio-cultural activities, communications, security and safety,
and other community facilities pertaining to recreation, religious activities, social congregations and community events,
cremation / burial grounds etc. These are generally planned in terms of population norms with stipulated permissibility
conditions and development controls
6. ENVIRONMENT
The city environment is more vulnerable to pollution and waste disposal. An environment sensitive approach should be
taken as a part urban planning. We need to assess the Environmental Impacts on Livelihoods and Economy and adhere
it in the planning process.
7. FSI AND DENSITY.
Density of any particular area in the urban region is is directly related to the Floor Space Index .
FSI means Floor Space Index, which is the ratio between the built up area allowed and plot area available.
FSI are is a development tool and regulatory instrument in defining built zones within the city. The urban form
depends on the prevailing FSI in that particular zone or in the existing land use.

8. LAND USE
Land use is the human use of land. Land use involves the management and modification of natural
environment or wilderness into built environment such as settlements and semi-natural habitats
such as arable fields, pastures, and managed woods. It also has been defined as "the
arrangements, activities and inputs people undertake in a certain land cover type to produce,
change or maintain it.
In order to control the development, the urban areas have been designated into use zones and land
uses. These zones can be classified into various land use categories,
namely Residential, Commercial, Industrial,Recreational, Transportation, Utility, Government, Public
& Semi - Public Facilities and Agriculture & Water Body etc.

URBAN CULTURE
HERITAGE AND CONSERVATION
13. BUILT HERITAGE-
14. Built heritage is the unique and irreplaceable architecture with historic background that merits preservation for
future generations. These can be individual old buildings of historic importance such as houses, churches,
castles, military fortifications and other types of buildings, monuments or areas of built heritage value e.g. town
squares, harbours and churchyards). In broadest sense, built heritage does refer not only to ancient history, but
also to modern period.
 Architectural conservation describes the process through which the material, historical, and design integrity of
humanity's built heritage are prolonged through carefully planned interventions. The individual engaged in this
pursuit is known as an architectural conservator. Decisions of when and how to engage in an intervention are
critical to the ultimate conservation of the immovable object. Ultimately, the decision is value based: a
combination of artistic, contextual, and informational values is normally considered. In some cases, a decision to
not intervene may be the most appropriate choice.
 According to the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 :- "Ancient Monument"
means any structure, erection or monument, or any tumulus or place of interment, or any cave, rock sculpture,
inscription or monolith which is of historical, archaeological or artistic interest and which has been in existence
for not less than 100 years and includes:
 remains of an ancient monument;
 site of an ancient monument;

 such portion of land adjoining the site of an ancient monument as may be required for fencing or covering in or
otherwise preserving such monument, and
 the means of access to, and convenient inspection of an ancient monument.
 However, for the purpose of documentation of Built Heritage under National Mission, the scope has been
enhanced by defining any structure that belongs to pre-independence period and 1950 has been considered as
the cut off date. This has been decided considering/ realising the fact that heritage structures during pre-
Independence period show the influence of colonial architecture and sometimes the typical traditional
architecture of a region that are no more in continuity. Hence these are unique to our present architectural
tradition. Further, such built heritage will be considered for documentation that is architecturally, historically,
archaeologically or aesthetically significant for reconstruction of regional history.
 The built heritage and sites identified so far is only a fraction of the total wealth of the country. An even smaller
figure is under the protection and care of the central and state governments. So far only 3667 monuments and
sites are protected by the Archaeological Survey of India and approximately 3500 monuments and sites are
protected by the State Governments. Unfortunately this unprotected heritage is fast disappearing previously
undreamt of a pace without any record because of lack of public awareness on heritage and sustainable
developmental projects.
 List of built heritage sites in India-
 Agra Fort (1983)
 Ajanta Caves (1983)
 Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi (1989)
 Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park (2004)
 Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus) (2004)
 Churches and Convents of Goa (1986)
 Elephanta Caves (1987)
 Ellora Caves (1983)
 Fatehpur Sikri (1986)
 Great Living Chola Temples (1987)
 Group of Monuments at Hampi (1986)
 Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (1984)
 Group of Monuments at Pattadakal (1987)
 Hill Forts of Rajasthan (2013)
 Humayun's Tomb, Delhi (1993)
 Khajuraho Group of Monuments (1986)
 Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya (2002)
 Mountain Railways of India (1999)
 Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi (1993)
 Rani-ki-Vav (the Queen’s Stepwell) at Patan, Gujarat (2014)
 Red Fort Complex (2007)
 Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (2003)
 Sun Temple, Konârak (1984)
 Taj Mahal (1983)
 The Jantar Mantar, Jaipur (2010)


 Issues affecting Conservation in India
 Most historic buildings are “living” and in use as opposed to monuments
 Lack of public funding for privately owned buildings or monuments
 Extreme pressure of development for transport, housing, retail, recreation and tourism

PROMOTES
TOURISM
MARKET
OPPORTUNITY
EMPLOYMENT

15. NATURAL HERITAGE-
16. Natural heritage refers to the sum total of the elements of biodiversity, including flora and fauna and ecosystem
types, together with associated geological structures and formations.

Natural heritage
Natural Heritage presents a Kaleidoscope of geographical and environmental features which,
a. Includes natural features such as high lofty mountains and hills, mighty rivers to small rivers, rivulets and
streams , dense forest , desert and a long coastline.
b. Variations in climatic conditions ranging from temperate to extreme hot or extreme cold, arid areas and
areas with abundant rainfall.
c. Different types of soils, rocks, minerals, plants and animal life with regional variations. II ) Natural features
have influenced in creation of unique cultural tradition and heritage of our nation. III) Uniqueness is the result
of close interrelationship between nature environment and the people.
Biodiversity is valued for its own sake, offers resources that can help us respond to environmental challenges
such as climate change, is a source of medical discoveries, and provides economic opportunities.
Ecology and nature conservation
Ecology is the scientific study of the interrelationships between living organisms and their environment, e.g.
climate, soils and topography. Nature conservation is concerned with maintaining the diversity and character
of the countryside's wildlife communities, viable populations of wildlife species, and important geological and
physical features.
Development schemes can have many detrimental impacts upon ecology and nature conservation.
They are the cause of a direct loss of wildlife habitats. 9 Embankments and cuttings create barriers across
wildlife habitats, and animals are killed crossing roads to traditional foraging areas.
 Changes to the local hydrology may affect wetland sites, both locally and some distance away.
 Local watercourses may be polluted by oil, deicing salts, particulates, and spillages. 9 Road lighting can
adversely affect invertebrates and disorientate birds.
 Certain flora specimens are at risk from particular emissions from vehicles
Why conserve our natural heritage places?
17. A natural heritage place is one that we believe we should keep for the future. It may be part of a coast, desert,
mountain or bush land that we gaze at and see as ‘home’ — a place which connects us to our country and helps
us to define our distinctive identity. It is part of our life support system. It may also be somewhere that we know
is important because of what it is and what it can tell us scientifically. This place could be a desert mound spring,
a fossil site, an ancient watercourse or a marine or bush habitat rich with life. We want to keep it because by
doing so we will be protecting biodiversity, geodiversity and ecosystem processes. This helps us and future
generations to better understand the nature of our physical world and how we might live within its means. Our
natural heritage places are those we would want to inherit if we were to be born one hundred or one thousand
years from now. By keeping our natural environment healthy we are investing in our own well-being, protecting
the essence of a country and its unique character and securing an irreplaceable gift for the generations ahead

 An important site of natural heritage or cultural heritage can be listed as a World Heritage Site by the World
Heritage Committee of UNESCO. The UNESCO programme, catalogues, names, and conserves sites of
outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of humanity. As of March 2012, there are
936 World Heritage Sites: 725 cultural, 183 natural, and 28 mixed properties, in 153 countries.
 List of Natural heritage sites in India-
 Great Himalayan National Park Conservation Area (2014)
 Kaziranga National Park (1985)
 Keoladeo National Park (1985)
 Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (1985)
 Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks (1988)
 Sundarbans National Park (1987)
 Western Ghats (2012)
URBANIZATION AND DEFINITIONS
18. METROPOLIS- A metropolis is a large city or urban area which is a significant economic, political, and cultural
center for a country or region, and an important hub for regional or international connections, commerce, and
communications. The term is Greek and means the "mother city" of a colony (in the ancient sense), that is, the
city which sent out settlers. This was later generalized to a city regarded as a center of a specified activity, or any
large, important city in a nation.
 In India, there are 47 metropolitan cities. As of 2014 Census India, the top ten metropolitan cities based on their
population are Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Bengaluru, Chennai, Ahmedabad, Lucknow, Pune, Kochi,
Surat, Jaipur,Guwahati etc. Residents of these cities are also entitled to a higher house-rent allowance. The
Census Commission defines the qualification for metropolitan city as, "the cities having a population of more
than one million and above" and Megacity as, "the cities having a population of more than four million and
above".
19. POPULATION DENSITY- is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume; it is a quantity of type
number density. It is frequently applied to living organisms, and particularly to humans.
 For humans, population density is the number of people per unit of area, usually quoted per square kilometer or
square mile. Commonly this may be calculated for a county, city, country, another territory, or the entire world.
 Several of the most densely populated territories in the world are city-states, microstates, and dependencies.
These territories have a relatively small area and a high urbanization level, with an economically specialized city
population drawing also on rural resources outside the area, illustrating the difference between high population
density and overpopulation.
 Cities with high population densities are, by some, considered to be overpopulated, though this will depend on
factors like quality of housing and infrastructure and access to resources. Most of the most densely populated
cities are in southern and eastern Asia, though Cairo and Lagos in Africa also fall into this category.
 City population and especially area are, however, heavily dependent on the definition of "urban area" used:
densities are almost invariably higher for the central city area than when suburban settlements and the
intervening rural areas are included, as in the areas of agglomeration or metropolitan area, the latter including
sometimes neighboring cities.
20. DORMETRY TOWN- A commuter town is a town whose residents normally work elsewhere, although they live
and sleep in these neighborhoods. The name also suggests that these communities have little commercial or
industrial activity beyond a small amount of retail, oriented toward serving the residents.

 A commuter town may also be known as an exurb (short for "extra-urban"), or a bedroom community (Canada
and northeastern U.S. usage), bedroom town or bedroom suburb (U.S. usage), a dormitory town or dormitory
suburb (UK Commonwealth and Ireland usage also sometimes Canadian), or less commonly a dormitory village.
 Suburbs and commuter towns are often the same place, but sometimes not. As with college town, resort town,
and mill town, the term commuter town describes the place's predominant economic function. A suburb in
contrast is a community of lesser size, density, political power and/or commerce than a nearby community.
Economic function may change, for example when improved transport brings commuters to industrial suburbs
or railway towns in search of suburban living. Some suburbs, for example Teterboro, New Jersey and Emeryville,
California remain industrial when they become surrounded by commuter towns. Many commuters work in such
industrial suburbs but few reside; hence, they are not commuter towns.
 As a general rule, suburbs are developed in areas adjacent to main employment centres, such as a town or a
city, but may or may not have many jobs locally, whereas bedroom communities have few local businesses and
most residents who have jobs commute to employment centers some distance away. Commuter towns may be
in rural or semi-rural areas, with a ring of green space separating them from the larger city or town.
Where urban sprawl and conurbation have erased clear lines among towns and cities in large metropolitan
areas, this is not the case.
 Commuter towns can arise for a number of different reasons. Sometimes, as in Sleepy Hollow, New York or
Tiburon, California, a town loses its main source of employment, leaving its residents to seek work elsewhere. In
other cases, a pleasant small town, such as Warwick, New York, over time attracts more residents but not large
businesses to employ them, requiring them to commute to employment centers. Another cause, particularly
relevant in the American South and West, is the rapid growth of once-small cities. Owing largely to the earlier
creation of the Interstate Highway System, the greatest growth was seen by the sprawling metropolitan areas of
these cities. As a result many small cities were absorbed into the suburbs of these larger cities.
 Often, however, commuter towns form when workers in a region cannot afford to live where they work and
must seek residency in another town with a lower cost of living.
 In some cases, commuter towns can be the result of negative economic impact.
 Where commuters are wealthier and small town housing markets weaker than city housing markets, the
development of a bedroom community may raise local housing prices and attract upscale service businesses in a
process akin to gentrification. Long-time residents may be displaced by new commuter residents due to rising
house prices. This can also be influenced by zoning restrictions in urbanized areas that prevent the construction
of suitably cheap housing closer to places of employment.
21. RURBAN- R-URBAN is a strategy of urban resilience in European cities involving the creation of a network of
locally closed ecological cycles linking a series of fields of urban activities.
 Flows, networks and cycles of production - consumption are formed across these fields, closing chains of need
and supply as locally as possible, but also in as many and as diversified ways as possible.
22. FRINGE- The rural–urban fringe, also known as the outskirts or the urban hinterland, can be described as the
"landscape interface between town and country", or also as the transition zone where urban and rural uses mix
and often clash. Alternatively, it can be viewed as a landscape type in its own right, one forged from an
interaction of urban and rural land uses.
 Its definition shifts depending on the global location, but typically in Europe, where urban areas are intensively
managed to prevent urban sprawl and protect agricultural land the urban fringe will be characterised by certain
land uses which have either purposely moved away from the urban area, or require much larger tracts of land.
 The city does not grow outwards in well-defined patterns. It sprawls haphazardly, making rapid advances at one
point, and hardly moving at all at another. This results into incoherent landscape which is the characteristics of
the fringe.

 Another characteristic and an unique quality is a wide mix of land uses ranging from a variety of commercial
develop-ments, including out-of-town shopping centres, to the city services and industries which are
conveniently located at the margins.
 Characteristics- (a) There is a vast usurpation of agricultural land by residential tracts of the suburbs including
commercial, educational uses, etc.
 (b) Industries have sporadically cropped up.
 (c) People of the fringe area are overburdened because of the heavy taxes incurred to manage urban amenities.
 (d) Land values have gone too high due to new constructions to be borne by medium-class population.
 (e) One could observe a social shift in the attitudes of people.
23. PRIMARY SECONDARY AND TERTIARY ECONOMIC SECTORS- Economic Change
Our nation's economy, like most modern world economies, has developed from one built on the extraction of
raw materials for consumption and sale to one that is now more dependent on revenue from services. This
economic shift is important to understand from a sociological standpoint because it impacts the proportion of
the population engaged in various activities that support the economy.
 the three types of sectors of an economy are : primary, secondary and tertiary. These sectors can be viewed as a
continuum, starting with the primary sector, which is the part of the economy generated by extracting raw
materials directly from the Earth for consumption or sale; moving next into the secondary sector, which is the
part of the economy that transforms the raw materials into goods for sale or consumption; and finally the
tertiary sector, which is the part of the economy that involves the sale or trade of services instead of goods.
 Primary Sector- The primary sector involves the extraction of raw materials from the Earth. This extraction
results in raw materials and basic foods, such as coal, wood, iron and corn. The types of workers in this sector
include farmers, coal miners and hunters.In the U.S. and similarly in most other modern world countries, there is
a decline in the proportion of the population that works in the primary sector. Currently, only 3% of our nation's
labor force is engaged in primary sector activity. This is a big change from the mid-19th century in which two-
thirds of the labor force was engaged in this sector.
 Secondary Sector-The secondary sector involves the transformation of raw materials into goods. This
transformation results in wood being made into furniture, steel being made into cars or textiles being made into
clothes, as examples. The types of workers in this sector include a seamstress, factory worker or craftsmen.The
development into this sector can be attributed to demand for more goods and food, which leads to
industrialization. Only so much can be done in the primary sector before there is a natural limit on how much
can be extracted. When an economy moves into the second sector, new farm techniques are used, and
industrialization changed how goods can be transformed, distributed and sold. Currently, 20% of the U.S. labor
force is involved in the secondary sector.
 Tertiary sector- Involves the supplying of services to consumers and businesses and international trade.
24. UDPFI GUIDELINES- This report has been formulated after taking into consideration the deficiencies of the
Constitution 74th Amendment Act 1992, the Master Plan approach identified during the National Workshop at
Delhi and the current policy of economic liberalisation. The report aims at providing guidelines to assist
administrators, municipal town planners and consultants for Urban Development Plans Formulation and
Implementation (UDPFI).
 The terms of reference of the study for formulation of guidelines included:
 Preparation of spatial development plans and resource mobilisation plans of small, medium and large size urban
centres
 Efficient implementation mechanism and innovative techniques for promotion of planned spatio-economic
development of urban areas
 Simplification of town planning laws and their amendments restructuring.

25. URBAN CULTURE- Urban cultures naturally focuses on their defining institution, the city, and the lifeways, or
cultural forms, that grow up within cities. Urban scholarship has steadily progressed toward a conception of
cities and urban cultures that is free of ethnocentrism, with broad cross-cultural and historical validity.
 A sociological analysis of urban community contains several salient features. They are as follows:
 Size: As a rule, in the same country and at the same period, the size of an urban community is much larger than
that of a rural community. In other words, urbanity and size of a community are positively correlated.
 Density of population: Density of population in urban areas is greater than in rural communities. Urbanity and
density are positively correlated.
 Family: So far as urban community is concerned, greater importance is attached to the individual than to the
family. Nuclear families are more popular in urban areas.
 Marriage: In case of urban community there is a preponderance of love marriages and inter-caste marriages.
One also comes across a greater number of divorces. Sons and daughters enjoy considerable freedom in
choosing their life partners.
 Occupation: In the urban areas, the major occupations are industrial, administrative and professional in nature.
Divisions of labour and occupational specialization are very much common in towns/cities/metropolises.
 A town and a city house the richest as well as the poorest of people. In a city, the slums of the poor exist
alongside the palatial bungalows of the rich, amidst the apartments of the middle class members. The most
civilized modes of behaviour as well as the worst racketeering are found in the cities.
 Social heterogeneity: If villages are the symbol of cultural homogeneity, the cities symbolize cultural
heterogeneity. The cities are characterized by diverse peoples, races and cultures. There is great variety in
regard to the food habits, dress habits, living conditions, religious beliefs, cultural outlook, customs and
traditions of the urbanites.
 Social distance: Social distance is the result of anonymity and heterogeneity. Most of one’s routine social
contacts in a town or city are impersonal and segmentary in character. In the urban community social responses
are incomplete and half-hearted. There is utter lack of personal involvement in the affairs of others.
 System of interaction: The circles of social contact are wider in the city than in the country. There is a wider area
of interaction system per man and per aggregate. This makes city life more complex and varied. The city life is
characterized by the predominance of secondary contacts, impersonal, casual and short-lived relations. Man, at
any rate, the man in the street, virtually loses his identity being treated as a “number” having a certain
“address”.
 Mobility: The most important feature of urban community is its social mobility. In urban areas the social status
of an individual is determined not by heredity or birth but by his merit, intelligence and perseverance. Urbanity
and mobility are positively correlated.
 Materialism: In the urban community the social existence of man revolves round wealth and material
possessions. The worth of an urbanite today is being judged not by what he is but by what he has. Status
symbols in the form of financial assets, salaries, costly home appliances count a lot for the urbanites.
 Individualism: The urbanites attach supreme importance to their own welfare and happiness. They hesitate to
think or act for the good of others.
 Rationality: In urban community there is emphasis on rationality. People are inclined to reason and argue. Their
relationship with others is governed, for the most part, by the consideration of gain or loss. Relationship takes
place on a contractual basis. Once the contract is over, human relationship automatically comes to a close.
 Anonymity: By virtue of its size and population, the urban community cannot be a primary group. Here nobody
knows anybody and nobody cares for anybody. The urbanites do not care for their neighbours and have nothing
to do with their miseries or pleasures.
 Norm and social role conflict: The urban community is characterized by norm and social role conflict. Factors
such as the size, density and heterogeneity of the population, extreme occupational specialisation and the class

structure prevalent in the urban context lead to such a state of affairs. In the absence of uniform and fixed
social norms, individuals or groups often seek divergent ends. This has a considerable share in causing social
disorganization.
 Rapid social and cultural change: Rapid social and cultural change characterize urban life. The importance
attached to traditional or sacred elements has been relegated to the background. The benefits of urban life
have effected changes in respect of norms, ideologies and behaviour patterns.
 Voluntary associations: The urban community is characterized by impersonal, mechanical and formal social
contacts occurring among the people. Naturally they have a strong desire for developing genuine social
relationships to satisfy their hunger for emotional warmth and sense of security. They form associations, clubs,
societies and other secondary groups.
 Formal social control: Social control in urban community is essentially formal in nature. Individual’s behaviour is
regulated by such agencies as police, jails, law courts etc.
 Secularization of outlook: In cities ritual and kinship obligations are diluted. Caste and community
considerations yield to economic logic. This results in secularization of outlook.
 Urban areas provide impulses for modernization in society as a whole.
26. SAFETY RELATED TO GENDER IN URBAN AREAS- Gender based urban development is about promoting cities
that respond equally to men and women. However, ‘because women experience cities differently’, meeting
women’s needs becomes critical to promoting sustainable/equitable urban development. In patriarchal
economies such as India, women’s interests have conventionally been under represented in policy and planned
development. Enhancing women’s role and participation in urban governance is vital in creating equitable cities
and will be a key measure of the success of JNNURM (Jawaharlal National Urban Renewal Mission).
 Gender mainstreaming is a well accepted strategy, world over, to promote gender equality. Mainstreaming is
about incorporating gender into all aspects of development programming - policy, dialogue, legislation,
structures and institutions, resource allocations and use, planning, implementation and monitoring. In the
context of JNNURM, gender mainstreaming will be about keeping the needs of women in mind when developing
urban infrastructure.
 Guarantee women’s right to the city: Approaches aim to strengthen women’s right to the city thereby
empowering them. This includes helping them to improve their levels of civic participation that provide them
with a greater feeling of security and safety. A rights-based approach to women’s safety highlights the fact that
women should have the right to access land and housing, be protected from homelessness and forced eviction,
have the right to freely and safely move within cities and receive access to basic services such as water,
sanitation, and hygiene. In Asia, for instance, the women’s network Jagori is an organisation with a rights-based
approach that focuses on water and service provision for women. In order to ensure the right to free and safe
movement in cities, many cities have launched women-only buses and taxi services.
 Gender-responsive budgeting: Similar to participatory budgeting, gender-responsive budgeting is used by
municipalities in many countries to sensitise elected officials about the specific needs of women. Involving
women in municipal budgeting processes increases their capacity to participate in public decision making
processes.
 Economic development for women: Many policy and programmatic initiatives aim to generate economic
opportunities for women, such as providing them with training to increase their chances of employability,
ensuring that jobs match women’s specific needs, and recognising that women should receive economic support
in the informal sector.
 Women’s safety audits: Women’s safety audits are one of the major methods of promoting women’s safety.
They rely on participatory tools, similar to participatory rural appraisals, in which a group of women walk
through a physical environment, evaluating how safe it feels to them and identifying solutions of increasing
safety. This approach is used world-wide by women’s groups to improve women’s safety.

HOUSING
27. HOUSING CRISIS IN CITIES- Overcrowding leads to a chronic problem of shortage of houses in urban areas. This
problem is specifically more acute in those urban areas where there is large influx of unemployed or
underemployed immigrants who have no place to live in when they enter cities/towns from the surrounding
areas.
 An Indian Sample Survey in 1959 indicated that 44 per cent of urban households (as compared to 34 per cent of
rural families) occupied one room or less. In larger cities the proportion of families occupying one room or less
was as high as 67 per cent.
 Moreover, the current rate of housing construction is very slow which makes the problem further complicated.
Indian cities require annually about 2.5 million new dWellings but less than 15 per cent of the requirement is
being constructed.
 The Census of India 2001 concluded the first ever and the largest survey of household amenities and assets
which points a never-before profile of problem relating to housing in India. The outcome is both instructive and
amusing. Taking India as whole, there are 179 million residential houses, i.e., about six people to each house.
 Thirty-nine per cent of all married couples in India (about 86 million) do not have an independent room to
themselves. As many as 35 per cent (18.9 million) urban families live in one-room houses.
 For about a third of urban Indian families, a house does not include a kitchen, a bathroom, a toilet—and in many
cases there is no power and water supply. Only 79 per cent (42.6 million) urban household live in permanent
(pucca) houses. 67 per cent (36 million) of the urban houses are owned by the households while 29 per cent (15
million) are rented.
 Several factors are responsible for the above mentioned sad state of affairs with respect to housing problems
faced by the urban people. The major factors are shortage of building materials and financial resources,
inadequate expansion of public utilities into sub-urban areas, poverty and unemployment of urban immigrants,
strong caste and family ties and lack of adequate transportation to sub-urban areas where most of the vacant
land for new construction is located.

National Housing Policy(1992)
Objectives
• To assist all people and in particular the houseless, the inadequately housed and the vulnerable sections, to
secure for themselves affordable shelter through access to developed land, building materials, finance and
technology.
• To create an environment for housing activity by various sections by eliminating constraints, and by developing
an efficient and equitable system for delivery of housing inputs
• To expand the provision of infrastructure facilities in rural and urban area in order to improve environment of
human settlements, increase the access of poorer households to basic services, and to increase the supply of
developed land for housing.
• To undertake , within the overall context of policies for poverty alleviation and employment, steps for improving
the housing situation of the poorest sections and vulnerable groups by direct initiative and financial support of
the state
• To assist all people and in particular the houseless, the inadequately housed and the vulnerable sections, to
secure for themselves affordable shelter through access to developed land, building materials, finance and
technology.
• To create an environment for housing activity by various sections by eliminating constraints, and by developing
an efficient and equitable system for delivery of housing inputs
• To expand the provision of infrastructure facilities in rural and urban area in order to improve environment of
human settlements, increase the access of poorer households to basic services, and to increase the supply of
developed land for housing.
• To undertake , within the overall context of policies for poverty alleviation and employment, steps for improving
the housing situation of the poorest sections and vulnerable groups by direct initiative and financial support of
the state.
28. TRANSPORTATION ISSUES IN URBAN AREAS- With traffic bottleneck and traffic congestion, almost all cities and
towns of India are suffering from acute form of transport problem. Transport problems increase and become

more complex as the town grows in size. With its growth, the town performs varied and complex functions and
more people travel to work or shop.
 As the town becomes larger, even people living within the built-up area have to travel by car or bus to cross the
town and outsiders naturally bring their cars or travel by public transport. Wherever, trade is important,
commercial vehicles such as vans and trucks will make problem of traffic more complicated.
 Since most of the commercial activities of the towns are concentrated in the Central Business District (C.B.D.),
the centres are areas of greatest congestion. However, other parts of the town are not free from traffic
congestion.
 Such areas include the roads leading to factories, offices, schools, etc., which will be thronged with people in
morning and evening; minor shopping centres which grow up in the suburbs; sporting arenas, entertainment
districts which will be busy at night, roads leading to residential and dormitory towns which will be busy when
commuters flock to the cities in the morning to work and return home in the evenings.
 Such congestion becomes greater when the centre is built up in tall skyscraper blocks whose offices sometimes
employ thousands of workers, because at the end of the office hours everyone leaves the building within a short
space of time to make their way home.
 This puts tremendous pressure on public transport and causes journeys to take much longer period than they
normally would. In most cities the rush hour or peak traffic hour lasts for about two hours and during that
period buses and trains are crammed to capacity, roads are overcrowded with vehicles and the movement of
traffic becomes very slow.
 In other towns, the narrowness of the streets, which were built long before the motorised transport and lack of
parking facilities are the main cause of congestion. Cars may be parked along the edges of the roads restricting
movement to a narrow lane and the multiplicity of narrow streets, sharp comers and waits to turn into lanes of
traffic may slow down the movement and thus create even greater congestion.
 The traffic scenario in almost all the Indian cities presents a pathetic picture with Mumbai still having the best
city transport system and Chennai, Ahmedabad and Pune being reasonably well served by local transport
system. In all other cities, if one does not own a personal vehicle, great hardship is experienced in moving about
in the city.
 Apart from that, the level of incomes and affordability of Indian masses is very low and the citizens are not able
to pay an economic fare for use of public transport system. Therefore, all city bus services sustain such heavy
losses that they cannot really expand or even maintain a fleet adequately to meet the city needs.
 Moreover, mixture of vehicles causes uncontrollable chaos on the roads. Free movement of stray cattle and
domestic animals on the roads adds to traffic problem and often cause accidents. Heavy traffic and congestion
leads to slow movement of traffic, fuel wastage environmental pollution and loss of precious time.
 A study of traffic problem in Delhi will acquaint us to traffic scenario in the rest of urban India. Already there are
44 lakh vehicles on Delhi roads (in 2004) which will almost double by 2021 when the next Master Plan will be
implemented. The road length, however, has not increased proportionately.
 The road length per vehicle was 3 km in 1971 which reduced to 2 km in 1981, 1.3 km in 1991, 0.68 km in 1998
and 0.23 km in 2004. Figure 14.7 depicts different aspects of transport infrastructure in Delhi. Urban planners
say that by 2021, going in a car will take longer time than walking.
 The guidelines for Delhi Master Plan 2021, allowing mixed land use, multi-storeyed structures and regularisation
of 24 industrial estates will add to the city’s already congested roads. Disturbing trends have also been indicated
in the Status Report for Delhi, 2021 prepared by the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests.
 Planning Department of Delhi Government also States that despite roads occupying 21 per cent of the total area
of the city, the increase of traffic on arterial roads is resulting in lower speeds, congestion, intersection delays
and higher pollution level during peak hours.

 Some relief is expected with the completion of metro rail. But experts fear that by the time the metro rail
becomes fully operational, the demand for transport facilities will outpace the capacity of both road and rail
transport.
 Similar conditions prevail in most of the Indian cities. In Kolkata, metro rail and Vivekanand Setu were
constructed to ease traffic flow. But traffic congestion in several old localities and near Haora bridge is almost a
daily routine. In Ahmedabad, the speed of vehicles comes down to 5 km/hr on Gandhi Marg and several other
roads due to congestion and overcrowding.

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