The document discusses six factors that influence architectural structures: geographical, geological, climate, religion, social/political, and historical. It provides examples of how each factor shapes architecture. Geography influences architecture based on the lay of the land. Geology influences the materials used based on natural resources available. Climate influences construction methods and protection needs. Religion shapes architecture through powerful priesthoods and traditions. Social/political structures enable large public works through available labor. Architecture reflects surrounding culture over time through historical influences.

1. 1) Explain the various factors that influence a structure? ( 6 influences of Bannister
Fletcher)
GEOGRAPHICAL :
 The civilization of every country has been , largely determined by its geographical
conditions. The characteristics of land in which any race dwells shapes their mode of
life and thus influence their intellectual culture.
 Geography infuences architecture because geography is the lay of the land.
 How the land is laid out which will determine what type of architecture will look the
best.
 It is about how natural surroundings affect the cultures and societies and how
human beings inturnentact change in the world around them.
 It includes topography based on which a structure can be constructed.
GEOLOGICAL:
 In this section though the volume of endevour will be made to trace that influence
on architecture style which the materials of land in each country had in its
development the natural products of a country such as wood, stone determine to a
large extent its style of art.
 The primary goal of geology is to use measurements of present day rock geometruies
to uncover information about the history of deformation in the rocks and ultimately
to understand the stress field resulted in the observed strain and geometries.
 Example , the abundance of limestone that existed in the north of Egypt, of
sandstone in the central region and of granite in the south.
CLIMATE :
 The climate is equable and even temperature, snow and frost are wholly unknown,
while storm, fog and even rain are rare,which accounts to a large extent for the good
preservation of the temples.
 The climate was thus of importance in developing the qualities of the architecture,
admitting of simplicity of construction, for though it demanded some protection
against heat.
RELIGION :
 A close connection between eligion and architecture is everywhere, the priesthood
was powerful possessed of almost unlimited authority and equipped with all the
learning of the age.
 The religious rites were traditional,unchangeable and mysterious.
 A multicity of gods was created by personifying natural phenomena such as the
sun,moon ,stars ,etc .as well as the brute creation.

2. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL
 A dense population was employed on public works, for which they received no other
pay but food, the state of cheap labous thus produced was immensely favourable to
the execution of great public works.
HISTORICAL
 Traditionally architecture simultaneously reflects and influences culture in a circle
that archs from natural expression through to neighbouhoods, workplace, and
educational establishments.
 A close connetion between architecture and religion is everywhere manifest at this
epoch.
2) Write a short note on Tenure of Land.
Land tenure is the relationship, whether legally or custmorilydefined,among people, as
individuals or groups, with respect to land. (For convenience, “land” is used here to
include other natural resources such as water and trees. ) Land tenure is an institution,
i.e. rules invented by societies to regulate behavior. Rules of tenure derfine how
property rights to land are to be allocated within societies. They derfine how access is
granted to rights to use, control, and transfer land, as well as associated responsibilities
and restrainsts. In simple terms, land tenure systems determine who can use what
resiurces for how long, and under what conditions.
Land tenure is an important part of social, political and economic structures. It is
multidimensional, bringing into play social, technical, economic, institutional, legal and
political aspects that are often ignored but must be taken into account. Land tenure
relationships may be well-defined and enforceable in a formal court of law or though
customary structures in a community. Alternatively, they may be relatively poorly
defined with ambiguities open to exploitation.
Land tenure is often categorized as :
Private :the assignment of rights to a private party who may be an individual, a married
couple, a group of people, or a corporate body such as a commercial entity or non-profit
organization. For example, within a community individual families may have exclusive
rights to residential parcels, agricultural parcels and certain trees. Other members of the
community can be excluded from using these resources without the consent of those
who hold the rights.
Communal : a right of commons may exist within a community where each member has
a right to use independently the holdings of the community. For example, members of a
community may have the right to graze cattle on a common pasture.

3. Openaccess : specific rights are not assigned to anyone and no-one can be excluded.
This typically includes marine tenure where access to the high seas is generally open to
anyone; it may include rangelands, forests, etc, where there may be free access to the
resources for all.( An important difference between open access and communal systems
is that under a communal system non-members of the community are excluded from
using the common areas.)
State : property rights are assigned to some authority in the public sector. For example,
in some countries, forest lands may fall under the mandate of the state, whether at a
central or decentralized level of government.
3) Explain governance and administration with respect to India.
British India – The history of the British Raj refers to the period of British rule on the
Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The systemof governance was instituted
in 1858 when the rule of the East India Company was transferred to the Crown in the
person of Queen Victoria. It lasted until 1947, when the British provinces of India were
partitioned into two sovereign dominion states: the Dominion of India and the Dominion
of Pakistan, leaving the princely states to choose between them. The two new
dominions later became the Republic of India and the Islamic republic of Pakistan. The
provience of Burma in the eastern region of the Indian Empire had been made a
separate colonyin 1937 and became independent in 1948.
Independent India 15th Aug 1947. The Indian Independence Act 1947 is an Act of the
Parliament of the United Kingdom that partitioned British India into the two new
independent dominions of India and Pakistan. The Act received the royal assent on 18
July 1947, and Pakistan came into being on 15 August at the same time as Indian
Independence. However, due to viceroy Lord Mountbatten’s need to be in New Delhi for
the transfer of power, Pakistan celebrated its formation a day ahead on 14 August 1947
to enable him to attend both events. The legislation was formulated by the government
of Prime Minister Clement Attlee and the Governor General of India Lord Mountbatten,
after representatives of the Indian National Congress, the Muslim League, and the Sikh
community came to an agreement with the Viceroy of India, Lord Mountbatte of Burma,
on what has come to be known as the 3 June Plan or Mountbatten Plan. This plan was
the last plan for Independence.
The Act’s most important provisions were :
 Division of British India into the two new and fully sovereign dominions of India and
Pakistan, with effect from 15 August 1947
 Partition of the provinces of Bengal and Punjab between the two new countries
 Establishment of the office of Governor- General in each of the two new countries,
as representatives of the Crown

4.  Conferral of complete legislate authority upon the respective Constituent Assemblies
of the two new countries
 Termination of British suzerainty over the princely states, with effect from 15 August
1947 and recognized the right of states to accede to either dominion
 Abolition of the use of the title “Emperor of India “ by the British monarch
After Republic India 26th Jan 1950 India is a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic
Republic with a Parliamentary form of Government which is federal in structure with
unitary features. There is a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister as its head to
advice the
4) What are the issues of consideration for the development of India.
Population and Employment- Every nook and corner of India is a clear display of
icreasing population. Whether you are in a metro station, airport, railway station, road,
highway, bus stop, hospital, shopping mall, market, temple, or even in a social/ religious
gathering, we see all these places are overcrowded at any time of the day. This is a clear
indication of overpopulation in the country.
According to the Indian census, carried out in 2011, the population of India was exactly
1,210,193,422 which means India has crossed the 1 billion mark. This is the second most
populous country of the world after China and the various studies have projected that
India will be world’s number 1 populous country, surpassing China, by 2025. Inspite of
the fact that the population policies, family planning and welfare programs undertaken
by the Govt. of India have led to a continuous decrease in the fertility rate, yet the actual
stabilization of population can take place only by 2050.
The two main common causes leading to over population in India are :
 The birth rate is still higher than the death rate. We have been successful in declining
the death rate but the same cannot be said for birth rates.
 The fertility rate due to the population policies and other measures has been falling
but even then it is much higher compared to other countries.
The above causes are interrelated to the various social issues in our country which are
leading to over population.
Early Marriage and Universal Marriage System: Even though legally the marriageable
age of a girl is 18 years, the concept of early marriage still prevails and getting married at
an young age prolongs the child bearing age. Also, in India, marriage is a sacred
obligation and a universal practice, where almost every woman is married at the
reproductive age.
Education : Another factor for the rapid growth of population is poverty. Impoverished
families have this nation that more the number of members in the family, more will be

5. them in their old age. Also hunger can be cause of death of their children and hence the
need for more children. Strange but true, Indian still lag behind the use of
contraceptives and birth control methods. Many of them are not willing to discuss or are
totally unaware about them. Illiteracy is thus another cause of over population
Age Old Cultural norm :sons are the bread earners of the families in India. This age old
thought puts considerable pressure on the parents to produce children till a male child is
born. More the better.
Illegal migration: Last but not the least, we cannot ignore the fact that illegal migration
is continuously taking place from Bangladesh, Nepal leading to increased population
density.
Effects of Over Population
Even after 67 years of independence, the scenario of our country is not good, due to
over population. Some major impacts of high population are as follows:
 Unemployment :Generating employment for a huge population in a country like
India is very difficult. The number of illiterate persons increases every year.
Unemployment rate thus showing an increasing trend
 Manpower utilization : The number of jobless people is on the rise in India due to
economic depression and slow business development and expansion activities.
 Pressure on infrastructure: Development of infrastructural facilities is unfortunately
not keeping pace with the growth of population. The result is lack of transportation,
communication, housing, education, healthcare etc. There has been an increase in
the number of slums, overcrowded houses, traffic congestion etc.
 Resource utilization : Land areas, water resources, forests are over exploited. There
is also scarcity of resources.
 Decreased production and increased costs: Food production and distribution have
not been able to catch up with the increasing population and hence the costs of
production have increased. Inflation is the major consequences of over population.
 Ineuitable income distribution : In the face of an increasing population, there is an
unequal distribution of income and inequalities within the country widen.
Development of Transport network –
1. As India is becoming urbanized, urban areas play a critical role in sustaining
economic growth. City efficiency largely depends upon the effectiveness of its
transport systems. Poor transport systems stifle economic growth and development.
Thus, transport is backbone of country’s development. Means of transportation in
city – private owned vehicles, government owned vehicles and intermediate vehicle
services.

6. 2. Motorized trips demand will continue to grow faster than the population due to
economic and motorization growth. Motorization is growing faster than the
population(more than 10% year for sale of cars and 2/3 wheelers over the past 5
years ). Traffic congestion and parking difficulties Accessing jobs, education,
recreation and similar activities is becoming increasingly time consuming. Billions of
man hours are lost with people ”stuck in traffic”.
3. Increased fuel consumption. Increasing levels of noise and air pollution cost of travel
safety issues.