HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
JAI NARAIN VYAS UNIVERSITY, JODHPUR
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR:- ASHWIN SINGH
CHOUHAN
DEPARTMENT:- PHARMACOLOGY
E-mail:- anshukavya1993@gmail.com

JNVU PHARMACY, JODHPUR
Reproduction is the process by which organisms make
more organisms like themselves. But even though the
reproductive system is essential to keeping a species
alive, unlike other body systems, it's not essential to
keeping an individual alive.
In the human reproductive process, two kinds of sex
cells, or gametes (GAH-meetz), are involved. The male
gamete, or sperm, and the female gamete, the egg or
ovum, meet in the female's reproductive system. When
sperm fertilizes (meets) an egg, this fertilized egg is
called a zygote (pronounced: ZYE-goat). The zygote
goes through a process of becoming an embryo and
developing into a fetus.
HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system and the female
reproductive system both are needed for reproduction.
Humans, like other organisms, pass some
characteristics of themselves to the next generation. We
do this through our genes, the special carriers of human
traits. The genes that parents pass along are what make
their children similar to others in their family, but also
what make each child unique. These genes come from
the male's sperm and the female's egg.

FUNCTION OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Sexual reproduction requires a male and a female of the
same species to copulate and combine their genes in
order to produce a new individual who is genetically
different from his parents .
sexual reproduction relies on meiosis to shuffle the
genes , so that new combinations of genes occur in each
generation , allowing some of the offspring of survive in
the constantly – changing environment .
The male reproductive system produces , sustains , and
delivers sperm cells (spermatozoa) to the female
reproductive tract .
The female reproductive system produces , sustains ,
and allows egg cells (oocytes ) to be fertilized by sperm .
it also supports the development of an offspring
(gestation) and gives birth to a new individual
(parturition) .

The male reproductive system consists of a number
of sex organs that play a role in the process of human
reproduction. These organs are located on the outside of
the body and within the pelvis.
The main male sex organs are the penis and
the testicles which produce semen and sperm, which, as
part of sexual intercourse, fertilize an ovum in the
female's body; the fertilized ovum (zygote) develops into
a fetus, which is later born as an infant.
Male organs of reproduction: The sum total of all the
male genital organs, both internal and external, that are
concerned with reproduction, including:
The male external genitalia -- the penis, the male
urethra, and the scrotum; and
The male internal genitalia -- the testis, epididymis,
ductus deferens, seminal vesicle, ejaculatory duct,
bulbourethral gland, and the prostate.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

IMPORTANCE OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
Below mentioned are some of the prime functions of the
male reproductive organs:
Produce, conserve, and transport sperm (male sex cells)
as well as semen (protective fluid)
Discharge sperm in the female reproductive tract while
having sex
Produce and discharge sex hormones (male)
accountable for sustaining the male reproductive system
Unlike the female reproductive system, most of the
male reproductive system is located outside of the body.
These external structures include the penis, scrotum, and
testicles.

PARTS OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Scrotum

PENIS
You can call it the male organ which is upfront
during sexual intercourse. The penis consists of three
parts; namely, the root, the body and the glans. It is
important to note that, the glans or penis head is covered
with a movable layer of skin. This is called the foreskin
and is sometimes detached under a procedure termed as
circumcision.
Further, the urethra opening, the semen and urine
transport tube, is present at the penis tip. Also, the glans
of the penis do comprise of several sensitive nerve
endings.
FUNCTION OF PENIS:- its to deliver sperm to the
vagina for fertilization.

The penis holds a cylindrical shape and includes three
circular chambers. Each of these chambers is composed
of distinctive, sponge-like tissue. Do note that, this tissue
is made up of thousands of big spaces which are filled
with blood whenever the male is sexually aroused.
Once the penis gets filled with blood, it grows erect and
rigid; this allows or assists penetration while having a
sexual intercourse. Since the penis skin is loose, it helps
to accommodate variations in penis size in the course of
an erection.
The sperm or reproductive cells are contained in the
semen. It is ejaculated through the penis end when the
male reaches orgasm or sexual climax. It is interesting to
know that, the flow of urine tends to get blocked from the
passage of urethra whenever the penis is erect. Hence,
only semen is discharged at orgasm.

SCROTUM
The scrotum is the loose sac-like skin bag which hangs
below the penis. This part of the male reproductive
system holds the testes or testicles, along with
many blood vessels and nerves. Scrotum behaves like a
temperature control system in regard to the testes. In
order to achieve normal sperm development, it is
necessary that the temperature of the testes should be
somewhat cooler than the body temperature.
FUNCTION OF SCROTUM
houses and protect the testis.
Regulate testicular temperature ( no superficial fats).
It has thin skin with spare hairs and sweat gland.

TESTES OR TESTICLES
Testicles are oval organs which are almost the size of
bigger olives which are present within the scrotum. These
are secured at all ends by a structure termed as
spermatic cord. Usually, most men have two tests.
FUNCTION OF TESTES:- the testes is to make
testosterone (chief male sex hormone) and generate
sperm. In the interior of the testes you will find
seminiferous tubules, which are coiled tube masses. The
function of these tubes is to produce sperm cells.
EPIDIDYMIS
It is a coiled tube which is long and is placed on the rear
of each testicle.
FUNCTION OF EPIDIDYMIS:- Its to store and transport
sperm cells which is created in the testes.

EJACULATORY DUCTS
The ducts are formed due to the union of the seminal
vesicles and vas deferens.
FUNCTION OF EJACULATORY DUCTS:- Expels sperm
and the secretions from the seminal vesicles into the
urethra.
SEMINAL VESICLES
These are sac-like pouches which are linked to the vas
deferens close to the bladder base. The fluid contained in
the seminal vesicles are responsible for making up the
maximum volume of a male’s ejaculatory fluid.
FUNCTION OF SEMINAL VESICLES:- To Store sperms
and to secrete seminal fluid that makes the sperm active.

PROSTATE GLAND
It is a walnut-sized assembly which is present under the
urinary bladder.
THE FUNCTION OF THE PROSTATE GLAND is to
contribute additional fluid for ejaculation an secretes
alkaline fluid and nourishes sperm which is discharged
into the urethra.
BULBOURETHRAL GLAND
You can call them as pea-sized structures which are
present on the edges of the urethra right beneath the
prostate gland. Bulbourethral gland produces a slippery,
clear fluid which empties into the urethra.
FUNCTION OF BULBOURETHRAL GLAND ( COWPER’S
GLAND):- Its act to wash residual urine out of the
urethra when ejacuting seman – raises pH, neutralizes
acidity or urine.

URETHRA
It is a tube which carries urine starting from the bladder
to travel outside the body. Considering males, the
additional purpose of ejaculating semen at the time of
orgasm is managed by urethra. Whenever the penis gets
erect at the time of sex, the urine flow is blocked by the
urethra.
FUNCTION OF URETHRA:- Carry both urine and semen.
VAS DEFERENS
Vas deferens is basically a muscular, long tube which
initiates from the epididymis and travels to the pelvic
cavity. Transportation of mature sperm is managed by
vas deferens that leads to the urethra.
FUNCTION OF VAS DEFERENS:- carry sperm from the
epididymis to ejaculatory duct, uses its internal space to
store mature sperm, moves sperm by peristalsis.

SPERM
A male who has reached puberty will produce millions of
sperm cells every day. Each sperm is extremely small:
only 1/600 of an inch (0.05 millimeters long). Sperm
develop in the testicles within a system of tiny tubes
called the seminiferous tubules. At birth, these tubules
contain simple round cells, but during puberty,
testosterone and other hormones cause these cells to
transform into sperm cells. The cells divide and change
until they have a head and short tail, like tadpoles. The
head contains genetic material (genes). The sperm use
their tails to push themselves into the epididymis, where
they complete their development. It takes sperm about 4
to 6 weeks to travel through the epididymis.
FUNCTION OF SPERM:- to move and carry genetic
information to the egg.

The sperm then move to the vas deferens, or sperm duct.
The seminal vesicles and prostate gland produce a
whitish fluid called seminal fluid, which mixes with sperm
to form semen when a male is sexually stimulated. The
penis, which usually hangs limp, becomes hard when a
male is sexually excited. Tissues in the penis fill with
blood and it becomes stiff and erect (an erection). The
rigidity of the erect penis makes it easier to insert into
the female’s vagina during sexual intercourse. When the
erect penis is stimulated, muscles around the
reproductive organs contract and force the semen
through the duct system and urethra. Semen is pushed
out of the male’s body through his urethra — this process
is called ejaculation. Each time a guy ejaculates, it can
contain up to 500 million sperm.

When the male ejaculates during intercourse, semen is
deposited into the female’s vagina. From the vagina, the
sperm make their way up through the cervix and move
through the uterus with help from uterine contractions. If
a mature egg is in one of the female’s fallopian tubes, a
single sperm may penetrate it, and fertilization, or
conception, occurs.
This fertilized egg is now called a zygote and contains
46 chromosomes — half from the egg and half from the
sperm. The genetic material from the male and female
has combined so that a new individual can be created.
The zygote divides again and again as it grows in the
female’s uterus, maturing over the course of the
pregnancy into an embryo, a fetus, and finally a newborn
baby

The female reproductive system is made up of the
internal and external sex organs that function in
reproduction of new offspring. In humans, the female
reproductive system is immature at birth and develops to
maturity at puberty to be able to produce gametes, and
to carry a foetus to full term.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

IMPORTANCE OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
The primary function of the female reproductive system is
to produce the female egg cells which are essential
for reproduction. These are called as the ova or oocytes.
It is important to know that, the entire system is
designed for transporting the ova to the exact fertilization
site. Further, the fertilization process of an egg after
interaction with sperm usually happens in the fallopian
tubes.
The later phase of the fertilized egg is associated with
getting rooted into the uterus walls. This is counted as
the beginning of the early stages of pregnancy. In case
fertilization or implantation doesn’t occur, then the
system is aimed to menstruate. Moreover, the female
reproductive system is responsible for producing
female sex hormones which maintain the reproductive
cycle.

PARTS OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system comprises of parts which
are both internal and external to the body.
EXTERNAL REPRODUCTIVE PARTS
The external parts of the female reproductive system
include:
LABIA MAJORA: It protects and encloses the other
outside reproductive organs. The labia majora can be
tagged as outsized and fleshy and is analogous to the
male scrotum. It contains sweat as well as oil-secreting
glands. The labia majora gets covered with hair right
after puberty.
FUNCTION OF LABIA MAJORA:- Its protect the labia
minora, urinary meatus and vaginal introitus.

LABIA MINORA: These are translated as ‘small lips’,
and can be quite small close to 2 inches wide. Labia
minora rest just in the interior of labia majora. It
surrounds the primary opening of the vagina and urethra.
FUNCTION OF MINORA:- Protects to the vaginal
opening.
BARTHOLIN’S GLANDS: The location of these glands
rest beside the vaginal opening and is responsible to
manage a fluid discharge.
FUNCTION OF BARTHOLIN’S GLANDS:- Secrete
mucous for lubrication during intercourse.

CLITORIS: Both the labia minora encounter at the
clitoris, which is a small and delicate protrusion that is
analogous to the penis in the male reproductive system.
This part of the female reproductive system is covered by
a skin fold, termed as prepuce. Similar to the male penis,
the clitoris is sensitive to stimulus and can turn erect.
FUNCTION OF CLITORIS:-Sexual Stimulation.
INTERNAL REPRODUCTIVE PARTS
The internal parts of the female reproductive system
include:
VAGINA: It is a canal which joins the cervix to the
external portion of the body. You can even call it as the
birth canal.
FUNCTION OF VAGINA:- The vaginal provides the
passageway for childbirth and menstrual flow,it receives
the penis and semen during sexual intercourse.

WOMB OR UTERUS: It is a pear-shaped, hollow organ
which is ‘home’ for a developing fetus. Further, the uterus
separates into two parts; namely, the cervix, and the
corpus. The corpus easily enlarges for holding a
developing baby.
FUNCTION OF WOMB OR UTERUS:- receive fertilized
egg, site for growth and development of the fetus.
OVARIES: These are oval-shaped glands which are
small and are located on both side of the uterus. Ovaries
produce hormones and eggs.
FUNCTION OF OVARIES:- they produce oocytes (eggs)
for fertilisation and they produce the reproductive
hormones , oestrogen and progesteron.

FALLOPIAN TUBES: They are narrow tubes
which attach to the upper portion of the uterus. Fallopian
tubes act as tunnels for the egg cells. Therefore, they
transport the egg cells from the ovaries the to uterus.
FUNCTION OF FALLOPIAN TUBES
They are a passage way from the ovaries to the uterus.
The ovum travels down these tubes to the uterus.
Fertilisation takes place here.
Sperm swims up these tubes to reach the ovum.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Under the series of changes, every month the uterus
expands a new lining to act ready for receiving a fertilized
egg. If there is no fertilized egg to initiate a pregnancy,
then the uterus discards its lining. You can call it the
monthly menstrual bleeding or the menstrual cycle or the
menstrual period, which women experience from early
teen until menopause.
The menstrual cycle is counted from Day 1 of bleeding
and ranges until Day 1 of the next bleeding phase. Even
though the usual cycle is 28 days, it can be shorter or
longer without any major concern. The whole duration of
a menstrual cycle is segmented into four prominent
phases:
From day 1 to 5: Menstrual phase
From day 1 to 13: Follicular phase
Day 14: Ovulation phase
From day 15 to 28: Luteal phase

Girls typically start experiencing menstrual periods when
they are 11-14 years old. On the other
hand, women usually experience fewer periods when they
are in the age group 39-51 years. Interestingly, women
who are in their 40s and teens can have cycles which are
longer or vary a lot.

Flowchart of the hormonal control of the menstrual
cycle

PHASES OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
The menstrual cycle is divided into three stages: follicular
phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase.
FOLLICULAR PHASE
This phase starts on the first day of your period. During
the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, the following
events occur:
Two hormones, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH) are released from the brain and
travel in the blood to the ovaries.
The hormones stimulate the growth of about 15 to 20
eggs in the ovaries, each in its own shell called a follicle.
These hormones (FSH and LH) also trigger an increase
in the production of the female hormone estrogen.
As estrogen levels rise, like a switch, it turns off the
production of follicle-stimulating hormone. This careful
balance of hormones allows the body to limit the number
of follicles that will prepare eggs to be released.

As the follicular phase progresses, one follicle in one
ovary becomes dominant and continues to mature. This
dominant follicle suppresses all of the other follicles in the
group. As a result, they stop growing and die. The
dominant follicle continues to produce estrogen.
OVULATION
The ovulatory phase (ovulation) usually starts about 14
days after the follicular phase started, but this can vary.
The ovulatory phase falls between the follicular phase and
luteal phase. Most women will have a menstrual period
10 to 16 days after ovulation. During this phase, the
following events occur:
The rise in estrogen from the dominant follicle triggers a
surge in the amount of luteinizing hormone that is
produced by the brain.

This causes the dominant follicle to release its egg from
the ovary.
As the egg is released (a process called ovulation) it is
captured by finger-like projections on the end of the
fallopian tubes (fimbriae). The fimbriae sweep the egg
into the tube.
For one to five days prior to ovulation, many women will
notice an increase in egg white cervical mucus. This
mucus is the vaginal discharge that helps to capture and
nourish sperm on its way to meet the egg for fertilization.
LUTEAL PHASE
The luteal phase begins right after ovulation and
involves the following processes:
Once it releases its egg, the empty ovarian follicle
develops into a new structure called the corpus luteum.

The corpus luteum secretes the hormones estrogen and
progesterone. Progesterone prepares the uterus for a
fertilized egg to implant.
If intercourse has taken place and a man's sperm has
fertilized the egg (a process called conception), the
fertilized egg (embryo) will travel through the fallopian
tube to implant in the uterus. The woman is now
considered pregnant.
If the egg is not fertilized, it passes through the uterus.
Not needed to support a pregnancy, the lining of the
uterus breaks down and sheds, and the next menstrual
period begins.

MENSTRUAL PROBLEMS
A variety of menstrual problems can affect girls. Some of
the more common conditions are:
dysmenorrhea (pronounced: dis-meh-nuh-REE-uh),
when a girl has painful periods.
menorrhagia (pronounced: meh-nuh-RAH-zhuh),
when a girl has a very heavy periods with excess
bleeding.
oligomenorrhea (pronounced: o-lih-go-meh-nuh-REE-
uh), when a girl misses or has infrequent periods, even
though she’s been menstruating for a while and isn’t
pregnant.
amenorrhea (pronounced: a-meh-nuh-REE-uh), when
a girl hasn’t started her period by the time she is 16
years old or 3 years after starting puberty, has not
developed signs of puberty by age 14, or has had normal
periods but has stopped menstruating for some reason
other than pregnancy. JNVU PHARMACY, JODHPUR

FERTILIZATION AND PREGNANCY
If a female and male have sex within several days of the
female’s ovulation (egg release), fertilization can occur.
When the male ejaculates (which is when semen leaves a
man’s penis), between 0.05 and 0.2 fluid ounces (1.5 to
6.0 milliliters) of semen is deposited into the vagina.
Between 75 and 900 million sperm are in this small
amount of semen, and they “swim” up from the vagina
through the cervix and uterus to meet the egg in the
fallopian tube. It takes only one sperm to fertilize the
egg.
About a week after the sperm fertilizes the egg, the
fertilized egg (zygote) has become a multi-
celled blastocyst (pronounced: BLAS-tuh-sist). A
blastocyst is about the size of a pinhead, and it’s a hollow
ball of cells with fluid inside.

The blastocyst burrows itself into the lining of the
uterus, called the endometrium (pronounced: en-doh-
MEE-tree-um). The hormone estrogen causes the
endometrium to become thick and rich with blood.
Progesterone, another hormone released by the ovaries,
keeps the endometrium thick with blood so that the
blastocyst can attach to the uterus and absorb nutrients
from it. This process is called implantation.
As cells from the blastocyst take in nourishment,
another stage of development, the embryonic stage,
begins. The inner cells form a flattened circular shape
called the embryonic disk, which will develop into a baby.
The outer cells become thin membranes that form around
the baby.
The cells multiply thousands of times and move to new
positions toeventually become the embryo (pronounced:
EM-bree-o).

After approximately 8 weeks, the embryo is about the
size of an adult’s thumb, but almost all of its parts — the
brain and nerves, the heart and blood, the stomach and
intestines, and the muscles and skin — have formed.
During the fetal stage, which lasts from 9 weeks after
fertilization to birth, development continues as cells
multiply, move, and change. The fetus floats
in amniotic (pronounced: am-nee-AH-tik) fluid inside
the amniotic sac. The fetus receives oxygen and
nourishment from the mother’s blood via
the placenta (pronounced: pluh-SEN-tuh), a disk-like
structure that sticks to the inner lining of the uterus and
connects to the fetus via the umbilical (pronounced:
um-BIL-ih-kul) cord. The amniotic fluid and membrane
cushion the fetus against bumps and jolts to the mother’s
body.

Pregnancy lasts an average of 280 days — about 9
months. When the baby is ready for birth, its head
presses on the cervix, which begins to relax and widen to
get ready for the baby to pass into and through the
vagina. The mucus that has formed a plug in the cervix
loosens, and with amniotic fluid, comes out through the
vagina when the mother’s water breaks.
When the contractions of labor begin, the walls of the
uterus contract as they are stimulated by the pituitary
hormone oxytocin (pronounced: ahk-see-TOE-sin). The
contractions cause the cervix to widen and begin to open.
After several hours of this widening, the cervix is dilated
(opened) enough for the baby to come through. The baby
is pushed out of the uterus, through the cervix, and along
the birth canal. The baby’s head usually comes first; the
umbilical cord comes out with the baby and is cut after
the baby is delivered.

The last stage of the birth process involves the delivery
of the placenta, which is now called the afterbirth. After it
has separated from the inner lining of the uterus,
contractions of the uterus push it out, along with its
membranes and fluids.

DISORDERS OF HUMAN
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Disorders affecting the penis include:
Inflammation of the penis. Symptoms of penile
inflammation include redness, itching, swelling, and pain.
Balanitis is when the glans (the head of the penis)
becomes inflamed. Posthitis is foreskin inflammation,
usually due to a yeast or bacterial infection.
Hypospadias. In this disorder, the urethra opens on
the underside of the penis, not at the tip.
Phimosis. This is a tightness of the foreskin of the
penis and is common in newborns and young boys. It
usually eases without treatment. If it interferes with
urination, circumcision (removal of the foreskin) might be
recommended. measurements.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM DISEASES

Paraphimosis. This may develop when the foreskin of
a boy’s uncircumcised penis is retracted (pulled down to
expose the glans) and becomes trapped so it can’t be
returned to the unretracted position. As a result, blood
flow to the head of the penis can be affected, and a boy
may have pain and swelling. A doctor may use lubricant
to make a small incision so the foreskin can be pulled
forward. If that doesn’t work, circumcision might be
recommended.
Ambiguous genitalia. This is when a child is born with
genitals that aren’t clearly male or female. In most boys
born with this disorder, the penis may be very small or
nonexistent, but testicular tissue is present. In a small
number of cases, the child may have both testicular and
ovarian tissue.
Micropenis. This is a disorder in which the penis,
although normally formed, is well below the average size,
as determined by standard

DISORDERS OF THE SCROTUM, TESTICLES, OR
EPIDIDYMIS
Conditions affecting the scrotal contents may involve the
testicles, epididymis, or the scrotum itself.
Testicular trauma. Even a mild injury to the testicles
can cause severe pain, bruising, or swelling. Most
testicular injuries happen when the testicles are struck,
hit, kicked, or crushed, usually during sports or other
trauma. Testicular torsion, when one of the testicles
twists around, cutting off its blood supply, is also a
medical emergency that, thankfully, is not common.
Surgery is needed to untwist the cord and save the
testicle.
Varicocele. This is a varicose vein (an abnormally
swollen vein) in the network of veins that run from the
testicles. Varicoceles often develop while a boy is going
through puberty.

A varicocele is usually not harmful, but can damage the
testicle or decrease sperm production. Take your son to
see his doctor if he is concerned about changes in his
testicles area. It is treated with surgery.
Testicular cancer. This is one of the most common
cancers in men younger than 40. It occurs when cells in
the testicle divide abnormally and form a tumor.
Testicular cancer can spread to other parts of the body,
but if it’s detected early, the cure rate is excellent. Teen
boys should be encouraged to learn to perform testicular
self-examinations.
Epididymitis is inflammation of the epididymis, the
coiled tubes that connect the testes with the vas
deferens. It is usually caused by an infection, such as the
sexually transmitted disease chlamydia, and results in
pain and swelling next to one of the testicles.

Hydrocele. A hydrocele is when fluid collects in the
membranes surrounding the testes. Hydroceles may
cause swelling in the scrotum around the testicle but are
usually painless. In some cases, surgery may be needed
to correct the condition.
Inguinal hernia. When a portion of the intestines
pushes through an abnormal opening or weakening of the
abdominal wall and into the groin or scrotum, it is known
as an inguinal hernia. The hernia may look like a bulge or
swelling in the groin

Cryptorchidism – literally “hidden testicle.” A condition
of lack of descent of one or both testes into the scrotum.
If not corrected, usually by surgery, before puberty, can
lead to sterility and increased risk of testicular cancer.
Benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH) – swelling of
the prostate gland which surrounds the base of the male
bladder and urethra causing difficulty urinating, dribbling,
and nocturia (remember that word? See urinary system).
The bane of old men! BPH becomes more common as
men age.

Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP) –
the surgical cure for BPH. An instrument inserted through
the penile urethra is used to partially cut away the
prostate to relieve obstruction of the urinary tract.
Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) – PSA is a marker
protein for prostate cell secretions which can be detected
with a lab test. A rising PSA may be an early sign of
prostate cancer, although there may be other causes
including false positive tests. How often should men get a
PSA test? Check in with The Prostate Cancer Foundation.

Endometriosis – a condition involving colonization of
the abdominal/pelvic cavity with islands of endometrial
tissue. Endometrium is the lining layer of the uterus
which sloughs off with each menstruation. If endometrial
tissue flushes up the uterine tube and spills into the
abdomen (peritoneal cavity), the clots of endometrial
tissue can attach to abdominal organs such as the
bladder, rectum, intestinal loops and then cycle along
with the uterus in response to monthly changes in
ovarian hormones. Bleeding into the abdomen irritates
the lining membrane, the peritoneum, and causes
abdominal pain.
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) – although males
have a closed abdominal cavity, the female abdominal
cavity has a direct anatomical path from the outside
world via the female reproductive tract.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM DISEASES

Bacteria can make their way up the vagina, through the
uterus, and traverse the uterine tubes which open into
the abdominal cavity. Inflammation of the lining of the
abdominal cavity, the peritoneum, causes abdominal
pain. Although there are many potential causes of PID,
gonorrheal infection is one of them. Chronic Inflammation
of the uterine tubes can occlude them resulting in
infertility.
Prolapsed uterus – the uterus is almost directly above
the vagina. In fact, the cervix, the neck region, of the
uterus extends into the upper vagina. Ligaments hold the
uterus in proper position so that it does not prolapse or
herniate into the vagina. Severe prolapse can result in
the uterine cervix protruding from the vaginal opening.
Surgical repair is typically required to restore the uterus
to its proper anatomical position.

Obstetrician – literally “midwife” in Latin. A physician
specializing in the diagnosis and management of
pregnancy and delivering babies.
Gynecologist – a physician specializing in diseases of
the female reproductive system and surgery of this area.
Most physicians currently specialize in combined practice
of OB/GYN.
Episiotomy – a surgical procedure cutting into the
perineal area, the area between the vagina and anus in
order to prevent tearing of tissues when the baby’s head
traverses the vaginal opening.
Hysterosalpingogram – special X-rays of the uterus
and uterine tubes involving passing an opaque dye
backwards up through the uterus to determine if the
tubes are patent. Since the tubes are open into the
abdominal (peritoneal) cavity, if patent, dye should spill
out of the end of the tubes and be manifest on the X-ray.

Colposcopy – using a magnifying instrument to inspect
the interior of the vagina and cervix, the entrance to the
uterus.
Dilation and curettage (D & C) – dilating the cervix,
the entrance into the uterus, and passing instruments
that enable scraping off superficial layers of the
endometrium. May be done as an early therapeutic
abortion, or following a normal pregnancy to remove
residual tissue remaining in the uterus, or may be done
as a diagnostic procedure to examine lining tissue of the
uterus.
Mammoplasty – Surgical reconstruction of the breast
may involve breast enlargement or reduction or cosmetic
reconstruction after mastectomy. What are the risk
factors of developing breast cancer? Check out
this women’s health link for answers.

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Also called
sexually transmitted infections (STIs), these include
pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), human
immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (HIV/AIDS), human papillomavirus (HPV, or
genital warts), syphilis, chlamydia, gonorrhea, and
genital herpes (HSV). Most are spread from one person to
another by sexual contact.
Toxic shock syndrome. This uncommon but life-
threatening illness is caused by toxins released into the
body during a type of bacterial infection that is more
likely to develop if a tampon is left in too long. It can
produce high fever, diarrhea, vomiting, and shock.

Pudendal block – An anesthetic administered to block
sensation around the lower vagina and perineum. This
facilitates performing an episiotomy (see above) allowing
passage of the baby’s head while avoiding uncontrolled
tearing of tissues. By the way, pudendal, an ancient name
for external genitalia, means “that which we should be
ashamed of” in Latin. Even Adam and Eve wore fig
leaves!

HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

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