how hardware and software works together
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shows how hardware and software works together, and define the parts involved in the interaction between HW and SW
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Software and hardware
Software consists of programs that run on a computer to perform functions, while hardware refers to the physical components. There are two main types of software: system software that manages computer resources, and application software for specific tasks. Hardware includes basic components needed for operation like RAM and ROMs, as well as complementary components like webcams. Common hardware components are networks, hard disks, USB drives, processors, keyboards, and monitors. Together, software and hardware allow computers to function and be used by people.
Power supply
The document discusses different power supply standards for PCs, including AT, ATX, and BTX. It provides details on the connectors, pinouts, and voltages associated with each standard. It also addresses questions about compatibility between different form factors and how to identify a defective power supply.
Random access memory
This document provides an overview of random access memory (RAM). It discusses that RAM is a type of volatile memory used to store running programs and data. The document outlines the history, technologies, components, types (SRAM and DRAM), capacities, manufacturers, and advantages/disadvantages of RAM. It also includes diagrams of a RAM block and the positioning and structure of RAM modules.
Presentation on storage device
This presentation discusses different types of storage devices. It begins by introducing storage capacity and properties of storage units like access time and cost. The main types covered are optical storage devices like CDs, DVDs, and Blu-Ray discs which can store large amounts of data but are fragile. Magnetic storage devices discussed are floppy disks with small capacity and hard disks which are the primary computer storage. Solid state flash memory and memory sticks are also covered as portable options.
Memory & storage devices
The document discusses the differences between computer memory and storage. It defines memory as temporary data storage that exists on chips, while storage refers to long-term data storage on tapes or disks. It describes primary memory (RAM) as volatile memory that allows quick access to data but must be constantly powered, while secondary storage (hard disks, optical disks) allows permanent long-term storage but is slower to access. The document provides examples of different types of memory chips (ROM, RAM) and storage devices (hard disks, optical disks).
Ram & rom memories
This document provides information on different types of computer memory, including ROM and RAM. It discusses the main characteristics and uses of ROM types like PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM (including EAROM and flash memory). It also covers the basics of RAM like SDRAM, and specific types like SDR-SDRAM, DDR-SDRAM, and RDRAM. The document is intended to explain the differences between read-only and random access memory.
Hardware software and firmware
Hardware includes the physical components of a computer system that can wear out over time. Software includes sets of instructions that allow user inputs and interaction. Firmware acts as an intermediary between hardware and software, and is designed for single-purpose systems like printers. Examples given are computer processing units, memory, and hard drives for hardware; internet browsers, operating systems, and antivirus for software; and BIOS and EFI for firmware.
Random Access Memory ppt
RAM allows stored data to be accessed directly in any random order. There are two main types: static RAM and dynamic RAM. Static RAM keeps data without refreshing but is more expensive, while dynamic RAM needs refreshing but is cheaper. RAM is a temporary memory that does not store data permanently once power is turned off. Future RAM technologies aim to provide smaller, faster, and cheaper memory chips compared to today's options like DDR3 RAM.
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Software and hardware
Software consists of programs that run on a computer to perform functions, while hardware refers to the physical components. There are two main types of software: system software that manages computer resources, and application software for specific tasks. Hardware includes basic components needed for operation like RAM and ROMs, as well as complementary components like webcams. Common hardware components are networks, hard disks, USB drives, processors, keyboards, and monitors. Together, software and hardware allow computers to function and be used by people.
Power supply
The document discusses different power supply standards for PCs, including AT, ATX, and BTX. It provides details on the connectors, pinouts, and voltages associated with each standard. It also addresses questions about compatibility between different form factors and how to identify a defective power supply.
Random access memory
This document provides an overview of random access memory (RAM). It discusses that RAM is a type of volatile memory used to store running programs and data. The document outlines the history, technologies, components, types (SRAM and DRAM), capacities, manufacturers, and advantages/disadvantages of RAM. It also includes diagrams of a RAM block and the positioning and structure of RAM modules.
Presentation on storage device
This presentation discusses different types of storage devices. It begins by introducing storage capacity and properties of storage units like access time and cost. The main types covered are optical storage devices like CDs, DVDs, and Blu-Ray discs which can store large amounts of data but are fragile. Magnetic storage devices discussed are floppy disks with small capacity and hard disks which are the primary computer storage. Solid state flash memory and memory sticks are also covered as portable options.
Memory & storage devices
The document discusses the differences between computer memory and storage. It defines memory as temporary data storage that exists on chips, while storage refers to long-term data storage on tapes or disks. It describes primary memory (RAM) as volatile memory that allows quick access to data but must be constantly powered, while secondary storage (hard disks, optical disks) allows permanent long-term storage but is slower to access. The document provides examples of different types of memory chips (ROM, RAM) and storage devices (hard disks, optical disks).
Ram & rom memories
This document provides information on different types of computer memory, including ROM and RAM. It discusses the main characteristics and uses of ROM types like PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM (including EAROM and flash memory). It also covers the basics of RAM like SDRAM, and specific types like SDR-SDRAM, DDR-SDRAM, and RDRAM. The document is intended to explain the differences between read-only and random access memory.
Hardware software and firmware
Hardware includes the physical components of a computer system that can wear out over time. Software includes sets of instructions that allow user inputs and interaction. Firmware acts as an intermediary between hardware and software, and is designed for single-purpose systems like printers. Examples given are computer processing units, memory, and hard drives for hardware; internet browsers, operating systems, and antivirus for software; and BIOS and EFI for firmware.
Random Access Memory ppt
RAM allows stored data to be accessed directly in any random order. There are two main types: static RAM and dynamic RAM. Static RAM keeps data without refreshing but is more expensive, while dynamic RAM needs refreshing but is cheaper. RAM is a temporary memory that does not store data permanently once power is turned off. Future RAM technologies aim to provide smaller, faster, and cheaper memory chips compared to today's options like DDR3 RAM.
Motherboard Components
A motherboard is the main circuit board in a computer that connects the central processing unit and RAM to other components like expansion cards and ports. It contains chipsets to interface with peripherals and components like the CPU socket, memory slots, expansion slots for graphics and other cards, and front panel connectors. Key factors in motherboards include the form factor like ATX or Mini-ITX and components like the northbridge and southbridge chips that connect different parts of the system.
BIOS basic input output system
The BIOS is the basic input/output system that is built into a computer. It determines what the computer can do without an operating system and is the first software run when a computer is powered on. When turned on, the BIOS initializes hardware components, performs self-tests, and determines which devices can be used to boot the operating system. Modern BIOS also include user interfaces to configure hardware settings and select boot devices.
Microprocessor
The document provides an introduction to microprocessors. It defines a microprocessor as an electronic circuit that functions as the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer, providing computational control. It then discusses the key components of a microprocessor including the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit, registers, cache memory, bus interface, and address and data buses. The microprocessor reads instructions from memory, performs operations specified by those instructions on data, and stores results back to memory or outputs devices.
Embedded system
This document discusses embedded systems, including their definition, characteristics, and applications. It notes that embedded systems are designed to perform specific tasks, like in MP3 players or aircraft navigation systems. They have limited hardware and software compared to general purpose computers. Embedded systems are used in various applications at home, in vehicles, and industry. They are characterized by being designed for specific tasks, storing software in ROM, and providing low power consumption. The document also compares embedded systems to personal computers and discusses microprocessors, microcontrollers, assembly language, C language, and operating systems in the context of embedded systems.
Bios
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) is low-level software that controls hardware and provides an interface between the operating system and hardware. It consists of device drivers stored in read-only memory on the motherboard and some expansion cards. The BIOS performs essential startup tasks like power-on self-tests and loading the operating system bootloader from disk. It provides an abstraction layer so operating systems and applications do not need device-specific knowledge.
Secondary storage devices
This section of the memory is also referred to as backup storage.
The storage capacity of primary storage is not sufficient to store the large volume so secondary storage.
Secondary storage also know as external memory or auxiliary storage not directly accessible by the CPU.
Memory / Storage Devices
This presentation is developed by Girl student of ADE Batch 2017-18 of Government Elementary College of Education Badin
Computer architecture
This document provides an overview of the history and development of computer architecture. It begins with some of the earliest computing devices like the abacus and ENIAC, the first general-purpose electronic digital computer. It then discusses the evolution of CPU and memory architecture from vacuum tubes to integrated circuits and microprocessors. The document outlines different bus architectures like ISA, EISA, MCA, PCI, and AGP that were used to connect components. It also reviews memory hierarchies and I/O interfaces like IDE, SCSI, serial ports, USB, and parallel ports. The presentation aims to trace the progression of computer hardware technology over time.
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Booting
The document provides information about booting of a computer system. It discusses that booting is required because the hardware does not know where the operating system resides or how to load it. A bootstrap loader, such as BIOS, is needed to locate the kernel and load it into memory.
The boot process begins with a reset event that loads instructions into the instruction register from a predefined memory location containing a jump to the bootstrap program stored in ROM. The bootstrap program then runs diagnostics, loads device drivers and initializes memory before locating and loading the operating system kernel to start the system startup process.
Eprom 3
This document defines and compares different types of programmable read-only memory (PROM), including EPROM. It states that EPROM can be erased and reprogrammed using ultraviolet light, as UV exposure causes the stored charge on the floating gate to dissipate, erasing the entire memory at once. The document provides details on the structure, working, erasing process, and disadvantages of EPROM compared to other types of PROM like ROM, PROM, and EEPROM.
Types and components of computer system
The document discusses the main components of a computer system. It describes hardware components like the monitor, keyboard, and mouse. It also discusses software components like operating systems, application software for specific tasks, and system software that enables hardware. The core components of a computer system are described as the input and output devices, secondary storage, and the processor and internal memory devices like the CPU, RAM, ROM and internal hard drive. The operating system is software that enables users to communicate with and control the computer system.
Motherboard, It's Functions and It's Components
The motherboard is the main circuit board in a computer that holds crucial components like the CPU and memory. It provides connections and interfaces between these components and peripherals like graphics cards, network cards, and storage drives. Key components of the motherboard include the chipset, which controls data transfer and component interfaces, as well as expansion slots, memory slots, input/output ports, and connectors for components. The motherboard establishes the architecture of the system and allows for upgrading and expansion of capabilities.
Primary and secondary storage devices
This document presents information on primary and secondary storage devices. It discusses random access memory (RAM), which includes dynamic RAM and static RAM, as the primary storage device. It also discusses various types of read-only memory (ROM) like PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM. The document outlines different secondary storage devices such as hard disks, floppy disks, compact disks, tape drives, and USB storage. It provides details on the storage capacity, usage, and key features of each secondary storage type.
Device Drivers
The document discusses device drivers and their modeling for real-time schedulability analysis. It provides an overview of device drivers, their design and how they interact with hardware and operating systems. It then discusses challenges device drivers pose for real-time systems, where all tasks must complete within specified time constraints. It presents an analysis of the Linux e1000 network interface driver as a case study and references additional resources on the topic.
Smps
SMPS (switch mode power supply) converts AC voltage to DC voltage to power computer components. It uses a fan to dissipate heat. SMPS has input sockets for AC power and sometimes provides output AC power to monitors. It supplies DC power to devices through connectors on the motherboard and peripherals like ATX, peripheral, floppy drive, and Molex connectors. Splitters are sometimes used to provide additional power connections when there are not enough built-in connectors.
Memory units
The document summarizes the different types of computer memory. It describes primary memory (RAM and ROM) and secondary storage. RAM is volatile and temporarily stores active data and programs, while ROM is non-volatile and stores permanent instructions. RAM types include SRAM and DRAM, while ROM types are PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM. Secondary storage is non-volatile and stores long-term data at a lower cost than primary memory.
Bios
The document provides information about the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) including what it does, its components, and setup. It discusses that the BIOS performs basic functions to start the computer like checking setup information, loading drivers and interrupt handlers, and performing POST (Power-On Self-Test). It also outlines the typical boot sequence, components of the setup utility, and some beep codes used for fault finding.
computer hardware
Rajat Singla presented on computer hardware. He discussed that computer hardware includes components like the case, monitor, keyboard and mouse. He then explained the central processing unit, memory, storage devices, input devices and output devices that make up computer hardware. Storage devices store instructions and data and include magnetic and optical storage options.
Computer Hardware
Computer hardware includes all the physical parts of a computer system. A simple computer system has a processor that acts as the brain to carry out billions of instructions per second, memory made up of millions of storage locations used to store programs and data, and both RAM and ROM types of memory - RAM for temporary storage that is lost on shutdown and ROM for permanent storage of startup instructions.
In out system
This document provides an overview of operating system I/O subsystems. It discusses I/O hardware, including devices, buses, controllers and device drivers. It describes how operating systems handle I/O requests through mechanisms like interrupts, DMA, polling, blocking/non-blocking I/O and asynchronous I/O. The document also outlines kernel data structures for managing I/O and discusses STREAMS, performance optimization techniques, and the life cycle of an I/O request from the application to hardware.
Ch12 io systems
This document discusses operating system I/O systems. It covers I/O hardware including devices, ports, buses and controllers. It describes how operating systems manage I/O through techniques like interrupts, DMA, blocking/non-blocking I/O, buffering and caching. The kernel I/O subsystem handles requests, scheduling, error handling and protection. Interfaces like STREAMS provide communication between processes and devices. I/O performance is important to overall system performance.
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Motherboard Components
A motherboard is the main circuit board in a computer that connects the central processing unit and RAM to other components like expansion cards and ports. It contains chipsets to interface with peripherals and components like the CPU socket, memory slots, expansion slots for graphics and other cards, and front panel connectors. Key factors in motherboards include the form factor like ATX or Mini-ITX and components like the northbridge and southbridge chips that connect different parts of the system.
BIOS basic input output system
The BIOS is the basic input/output system that is built into a computer. It determines what the computer can do without an operating system and is the first software run when a computer is powered on. When turned on, the BIOS initializes hardware components, performs self-tests, and determines which devices can be used to boot the operating system. Modern BIOS also include user interfaces to configure hardware settings and select boot devices.
Microprocessor
The document provides an introduction to microprocessors. It defines a microprocessor as an electronic circuit that functions as the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer, providing computational control. It then discusses the key components of a microprocessor including the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit, registers, cache memory, bus interface, and address and data buses. The microprocessor reads instructions from memory, performs operations specified by those instructions on data, and stores results back to memory or outputs devices.
Embedded system
This document discusses embedded systems, including their definition, characteristics, and applications. It notes that embedded systems are designed to perform specific tasks, like in MP3 players or aircraft navigation systems. They have limited hardware and software compared to general purpose computers. Embedded systems are used in various applications at home, in vehicles, and industry. They are characterized by being designed for specific tasks, storing software in ROM, and providing low power consumption. The document also compares embedded systems to personal computers and discusses microprocessors, microcontrollers, assembly language, C language, and operating systems in the context of embedded systems.
Bios
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) is low-level software that controls hardware and provides an interface between the operating system and hardware. It consists of device drivers stored in read-only memory on the motherboard and some expansion cards. The BIOS performs essential startup tasks like power-on self-tests and loading the operating system bootloader from disk. It provides an abstraction layer so operating systems and applications do not need device-specific knowledge.
Secondary storage devices
This section of the memory is also referred to as backup storage.
The storage capacity of primary storage is not sufficient to store the large volume so secondary storage.
Secondary storage also know as external memory or auxiliary storage not directly accessible by the CPU.
Memory / Storage Devices
This presentation is developed by Girl student of ADE Batch 2017-18 of Government Elementary College of Education Badin
Computer architecture
This document provides an overview of the history and development of computer architecture. It begins with some of the earliest computing devices like the abacus and ENIAC, the first general-purpose electronic digital computer. It then discusses the evolution of CPU and memory architecture from vacuum tubes to integrated circuits and microprocessors. The document outlines different bus architectures like ISA, EISA, MCA, PCI, and AGP that were used to connect components. It also reviews memory hierarchies and I/O interfaces like IDE, SCSI, serial ports, USB, and parallel ports. The presentation aims to trace the progression of computer hardware technology over time.
Unit v: Device Management
Operating System
Device Management
Arnav Chowdhury
Prestige Institute of Management and Research, Indore
Booting
The document provides information about booting of a computer system. It discusses that booting is required because the hardware does not know where the operating system resides or how to load it. A bootstrap loader, such as BIOS, is needed to locate the kernel and load it into memory.
The boot process begins with a reset event that loads instructions into the instruction register from a predefined memory location containing a jump to the bootstrap program stored in ROM. The bootstrap program then runs diagnostics, loads device drivers and initializes memory before locating and loading the operating system kernel to start the system startup process.
Eprom 3
This document defines and compares different types of programmable read-only memory (PROM), including EPROM. It states that EPROM can be erased and reprogrammed using ultraviolet light, as UV exposure causes the stored charge on the floating gate to dissipate, erasing the entire memory at once. The document provides details on the structure, working, erasing process, and disadvantages of EPROM compared to other types of PROM like ROM, PROM, and EEPROM.
Types and components of computer system
The document discusses the main components of a computer system. It describes hardware components like the monitor, keyboard, and mouse. It also discusses software components like operating systems, application software for specific tasks, and system software that enables hardware. The core components of a computer system are described as the input and output devices, secondary storage, and the processor and internal memory devices like the CPU, RAM, ROM and internal hard drive. The operating system is software that enables users to communicate with and control the computer system.
Motherboard, It's Functions and It's Components
The motherboard is the main circuit board in a computer that holds crucial components like the CPU and memory. It provides connections and interfaces between these components and peripherals like graphics cards, network cards, and storage drives. Key components of the motherboard include the chipset, which controls data transfer and component interfaces, as well as expansion slots, memory slots, input/output ports, and connectors for components. The motherboard establishes the architecture of the system and allows for upgrading and expansion of capabilities.
Primary and secondary storage devices
This document presents information on primary and secondary storage devices. It discusses random access memory (RAM), which includes dynamic RAM and static RAM, as the primary storage device. It also discusses various types of read-only memory (ROM) like PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM. The document outlines different secondary storage devices such as hard disks, floppy disks, compact disks, tape drives, and USB storage. It provides details on the storage capacity, usage, and key features of each secondary storage type.
Device Drivers
The document discusses device drivers and their modeling for real-time schedulability analysis. It provides an overview of device drivers, their design and how they interact with hardware and operating systems. It then discusses challenges device drivers pose for real-time systems, where all tasks must complete within specified time constraints. It presents an analysis of the Linux e1000 network interface driver as a case study and references additional resources on the topic.
Smps
SMPS (switch mode power supply) converts AC voltage to DC voltage to power computer components. It uses a fan to dissipate heat. SMPS has input sockets for AC power and sometimes provides output AC power to monitors. It supplies DC power to devices through connectors on the motherboard and peripherals like ATX, peripheral, floppy drive, and Molex connectors. Splitters are sometimes used to provide additional power connections when there are not enough built-in connectors.
Memory units
The document summarizes the different types of computer memory. It describes primary memory (RAM and ROM) and secondary storage. RAM is volatile and temporarily stores active data and programs, while ROM is non-volatile and stores permanent instructions. RAM types include SRAM and DRAM, while ROM types are PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM. Secondary storage is non-volatile and stores long-term data at a lower cost than primary memory.
Bios
The document provides information about the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) including what it does, its components, and setup. It discusses that the BIOS performs basic functions to start the computer like checking setup information, loading drivers and interrupt handlers, and performing POST (Power-On Self-Test). It also outlines the typical boot sequence, components of the setup utility, and some beep codes used for fault finding.
computer hardware
Rajat Singla presented on computer hardware. He discussed that computer hardware includes components like the case, monitor, keyboard and mouse. He then explained the central processing unit, memory, storage devices, input devices and output devices that make up computer hardware. Storage devices store instructions and data and include magnetic and optical storage options.
Computer Hardware
Computer hardware includes all the physical parts of a computer system. A simple computer system has a processor that acts as the brain to carry out billions of instructions per second, memory made up of millions of storage locations used to store programs and data, and both RAM and ROM types of memory - RAM for temporary storage that is lost on shutdown and ROM for permanent storage of startup instructions.
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This document discusses operating system I/O systems. It covers I/O hardware including devices, ports, buses and controllers. It describes how operating systems manage I/O through techniques like interrupts, DMA, blocking/non-blocking I/O, buffering and caching. The kernel I/O subsystem handles requests, scheduling, error handling and protection. Interfaces like STREAMS provide communication between processes and devices. I/O performance is important to overall system performance.
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An operating system controls application programs and acts as an interface between applications and hardware. It provides services like program development, execution and resource management. An OS allows for convenient, efficient and evolvable use of computer systems. It masks hardware details from users and programs. An OS manages resources like processors, memory, storage and I/O devices.
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The document provides an introduction to computer hardware components and how they work together. It discusses that hardware needs software to function and operates using binary numbers. The main hardware components include input/output devices, the motherboard containing the CPU and memory, storage devices like hard drives and CD drives, and expansion cards. The motherboard uses buses and communication standards to connect these various components and allow them to exchange data and instructions. BIOS firmware stored on the motherboard helps initialize devices and manage basic functions upon startup.
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The document discusses several key roles and components of an operating system:
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2. The booting process involves loading initial instructions from ROM, detecting the operating system and hardware, and starting essential applications.
3. Operating systems allow for better computer usage and come in command-oriented and graphical versions like Windows, Linux, and Mac.
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1. The operating system manages the processor, memory, input/output, execution of applications, authorizations, and file system.
2. The booting process involves loading initial instructions from ROM, detecting the operating system and hardware, and starting essential applications.
3. Operating systems allow for better computer usage and come in command-oriented and graphical versions like Windows, Linux, and Mac.
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how hardware and software works together
- 1. How Hardware and Software Work Together Zainab Almugbel Community College Imam AbdulRahman Bin Faisal University
- 2. You Will Learn… • How hardware and software interact • How system resources help hardware and software communicate • The steps involved in booting your computer
- 4. Categories of PC Software • BIOS (basic input/output system) and device drivers • Operating system (OS) • Application software
- 5. Categories of BIOS (Firmware) • System BIOS – To control I/O devices • Startup BIOS – To control startup of computer • CMOS setup – To change setup information
- 6. Device Drivers • Small programs stored on hard drive that tell computer how to communicate with an I/O device • Necessary for communication between OS and more complex devices
- 7. Operating System (OS) • Works with system BIOS and device drivers to provide instructions to hardware to perform tasks
- 8. System Resources • Tools used by hardware or software to communicate with the other: – Memory addresses – I/O addresses – Interrupt request numbers (IRQs) – Direct memory access (DMA) channels • All four types depend on certain lines on a bus on the motherboard
- 10. ISA Slot Stands for "Industry Standard Architecture." ISA is a type of bus used in PCs for adding expansion cards. For example, an ISA slot may be used to add a video card, a network card, or an extra serial port
- 12. IRQs
- 13. Use Device Manager to See How IRQs Are Assigned
- 14. Use Device Manager to See How IRQs Are Assigned
- 15. Memory Addresses • Hexadecimal numbers, often written in segment/offset form, assigned to RAM and ROM so that the CPU can access both
- 16. How Memory Addresses Are Assigned • CPU has fixed number of memory addresses, determined by CPU and the bus it is using • They can be assigned to any type of physical memory in the system that needs to be addressed by the CPU • Once addresses have been assigned (usually during boot process), CPU sees physical memory as a single list that can be accessed using memory addresses • Number of memory addresses partly depends on size of memory bus
- 17. I/O Addresses • Numbers the CPU can use to access hardware devices, in much the same way it uses memory addresses to access physical memory • Also called port addresses or ports
- 18. I/O Addresses
- 19. DMA Channels • Provide shortcut method so an I/O device can send data directly to memory, bypassing the CPU • A chip on the motherboard contains DMA logic and manages the process
- 20. Booting up Your Computer • Refers to the computer bringing itself up to an operable state without user intervention • Hard boot (cold boot) – Involves initially turning on power with on/off switch – More stressful than soft boot because of initial power surge through equipment • Soft boot (warm boot) – Uses OS to reboot – Faster than hard boot
- 21. Functions Performed During the Boot 1. Startup BIOS tests essential hardware components (power-on self test or POST) 2. Setup information is used to configure both hardware and software 3. Hardware components are assigned system resources they will later use for communication continued…
- 22. Functions Performed During the Boot 4. Startup BIOS finds the OS, which is loaded, configured, and executed 5. Hardware devices are matched up with the BIOS and device drivers that control them 6. Some application software may be loaded and executed
- 23. Summary • How hardware and software work together • What happens when a PC is turned on OS is loaded • System resources – Interrupt request number (IRQ) – Memory addresses – I/O addresses – DMA channels • Booting up the computer