This glossary defines over 100 soil science terms in 1-3 sentences each. Some key terms include:
- A horizon - The surface horizon with the most organic matter and biological activity.
- Argillic horizon - A subsurface horizon characterized by illuvial accumulation of clay.
- Base saturation percentage - The extent to which a soil's cation exchange capacity is occupied by cations other than hydrogen and aluminum.
- B horizon - A subsurface horizon characterized by accumulation of materials like clay, iron, aluminum, and humus.
This document summarizes research on symbiont-mediated protection in insect hosts. It discusses how endosymbionts can protect insects from microbial diseases, parasites, predators, antiherbivorous plant compounds, and insecticides through direct and host-mediated mechanisms. Examples are provided of endosymbionts protecting aphids, whiteflies, mosquitoes, flies, honeybees, termites, weevils and other insects. Some endosymbionts produce toxins or degrade compounds like fungicides, plant alkaloids and insecticides. Future applications include using symbionts to develop new biopesticides or combine antibiotics with pesticides to overcome resistance.
Tritrophic Interactions Mediated By Herbivore Induced Plant Volatiles: Their...Mudasir msr
1) The document discusses herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) and their role in tritrophic interactions between plants, herbivores, and natural enemies of herbivores.
2) Case studies show that β-glucosidase from caterpillar oral secretions can induce the production of HIPVs in cabbage plants that attract parasitic wasps. Volatiles induced from lima bean plants by different herbivores involve different hormone signaling pathways.
3) Within-plant signaling experiments demonstrate that HIPVs can be systemically transported within the same plant via air to prime indirect defenses in undamaged parts, such as increased extrafloral nectar secretion. Neighboring
This document discusses formulations of chemical pesticides. It defines formulation as the physical form in which a pesticide is marketed, consisting of active ingredients and adjuvants. Active ingredients are responsible for pesticidal effects, while adjuvants are non-toxic components that aid in application or pesticide effectiveness. Common formulations include dusts, wettable powders, soluble powders, granules, pellets, emulsifiable concentrates, ultra-low volume concentrates, aerosols, fumigants, and more. Each formulation has advantages and disadvantages regarding safety, equipment needs, and efficacy that must be considered for proper application.
Comparative sequence studies of the repeat elements in diverse insect species can provide useful information on how to make use of them for developing abundant markers that can be used in those species;
$ At the moment, a total of 8 species are in genome assembly stages and another 35 are in progress for genome sequencing;
$ Different molecular marker systems in the field of entomology are expected to provide new directions to study insect genomes in an unprecedented way in the years to come
1) Pheromones are chemicals released by insects that affect the behavior or physiology of other insects of the same species. They can be used to monitor and control insect pest populations.
2) Pheromone traps baited with sex pheromones are effective for detecting and trapping target insect pests like cotton bollworms, fruit flies, and moths.
3) Field studies show that pheromone application in crops can reduce fruit damage from insects and increase yields by disrupting insect mating and aggregation behaviors.
This document discusses nitrogen fixing genes in bacteria and cyanobacteria. It describes the nif gene which codes for proteins involved in fixing atmospheric nitrogen into a form available to plants. These genes are found in nitrogen fixing bacteria and cyanobacteria. It also discusses nodulin genes which encode proteins that establish root nodules and allow for symbiotic nitrogen fixation. These nitrogen fixing genes are classified into those involved in bacterial cell surfaces and those involved in nodulation. Location of these genes varies between fast and slow growing rhizobia.
This document summarizes research on symbiont-mediated protection in insect hosts. It discusses how endosymbionts can protect insects from microbial diseases, parasites, predators, antiherbivorous plant compounds, and insecticides through direct and host-mediated mechanisms. Examples are provided of endosymbionts protecting aphids, whiteflies, mosquitoes, flies, honeybees, termites, weevils and other insects. Some endosymbionts produce toxins or degrade compounds like fungicides, plant alkaloids and insecticides. Future applications include using symbionts to develop new biopesticides or combine antibiotics with pesticides to overcome resistance.
Tritrophic Interactions Mediated By Herbivore Induced Plant Volatiles: Their...Mudasir msr
1) The document discusses herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) and their role in tritrophic interactions between plants, herbivores, and natural enemies of herbivores.
2) Case studies show that β-glucosidase from caterpillar oral secretions can induce the production of HIPVs in cabbage plants that attract parasitic wasps. Volatiles induced from lima bean plants by different herbivores involve different hormone signaling pathways.
3) Within-plant signaling experiments demonstrate that HIPVs can be systemically transported within the same plant via air to prime indirect defenses in undamaged parts, such as increased extrafloral nectar secretion. Neighboring
This document discusses formulations of chemical pesticides. It defines formulation as the physical form in which a pesticide is marketed, consisting of active ingredients and adjuvants. Active ingredients are responsible for pesticidal effects, while adjuvants are non-toxic components that aid in application or pesticide effectiveness. Common formulations include dusts, wettable powders, soluble powders, granules, pellets, emulsifiable concentrates, ultra-low volume concentrates, aerosols, fumigants, and more. Each formulation has advantages and disadvantages regarding safety, equipment needs, and efficacy that must be considered for proper application.
Comparative sequence studies of the repeat elements in diverse insect species can provide useful information on how to make use of them for developing abundant markers that can be used in those species;
$ At the moment, a total of 8 species are in genome assembly stages and another 35 are in progress for genome sequencing;
$ Different molecular marker systems in the field of entomology are expected to provide new directions to study insect genomes in an unprecedented way in the years to come
1) Pheromones are chemicals released by insects that affect the behavior or physiology of other insects of the same species. They can be used to monitor and control insect pest populations.
2) Pheromone traps baited with sex pheromones are effective for detecting and trapping target insect pests like cotton bollworms, fruit flies, and moths.
3) Field studies show that pheromone application in crops can reduce fruit damage from insects and increase yields by disrupting insect mating and aggregation behaviors.
This document discusses nitrogen fixing genes in bacteria and cyanobacteria. It describes the nif gene which codes for proteins involved in fixing atmospheric nitrogen into a form available to plants. These genes are found in nitrogen fixing bacteria and cyanobacteria. It also discusses nodulin genes which encode proteins that establish root nodules and allow for symbiotic nitrogen fixation. These nitrogen fixing genes are classified into those involved in bacterial cell surfaces and those involved in nodulation. Location of these genes varies between fast and slow growing rhizobia.
This document discusses the use of plant-derived genes for insect resistance. It focuses on two proteins: cowpea trypsin inhibitor (CpTI) and alpha-amylase inhibitor. CpTI inhibits the enzyme trypsin in insect digestive systems, interfering with growth and potentially causing death. Alpha-amylase inhibitor provides resistance by targeting the amylase enzyme. The document outlines past research transferring these genes to other plants like tobacco and beans to develop insect-resistant crops without chemicals. It also discusses the need to identify new insecticidal genes and proteins from sources like bacteria to control pests in a sustainable manner over the long term.
Pheromones synthesis perception and reception in insectsRavindrenAgri
This document discusses pheromones in insects, including their synthesis, perception, and reception. It describes that pheromones are chemicals secreted by insects that elicit responses in other insects of the same species. They are classified as intraspecific or interspecific semiochemicals. The document outlines the major types of pheromones in insects and details their biosynthesis, locations of production, chemical characteristics, and roles in communication. It also examines pheromone perception via chemoreceptors and olfactory sensory neurons, as well as the involvement of pheromone binding proteins.
Transgenic techniques can be used to engineer male sterility by disrupting pollen development. The Barnase/Barstar system uses a cytotoxic barnase gene regulated by a tapetum-specific promoter to cause male sterility, while a co-expressed barstar gene allows fertility restoration. This dominant genetic male sterility system allows for easy hybrid seed production and elimination of male-fertile plants through herbicide selection. Other methods to induce and regulate male sterility include inducible and two-component systems that control sterility through chemical induction or combining genes from two parental lines.
This document provides an overview of biofertilizers from an Indian perspective. It defines biofertilizers as microbial inoculants supported on carriers that are designed to improve soil fertility and provide growth promoters. The document discusses various types of biofertilizers including Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, cyanobacteria, and phosphate solubilizing microorganisms. It also covers India's history with biofertilizers, factors affecting their performance, application methods, production process, constraints to the industry's growth, and marketing challenges.
Synthesis and Actions of Juvenile Hormones In Insect Development (MS Power…Saramita De Chakravarti
A morphogenetic hormone.
Has multiple functions and a primary role of JH in insect development is to modulate ecdysone action.
Maintains the current commitment of the tissues and cells whereas ecdysone causes both predifferentiative and differentiative cellular events that are necessary for the moult.
When JH is present, a moult to a larval stage ensures.
If JH is absent at the onset of the moult, morphogenesis occurs.
Further studies and researches are still going on that can elucidate new
major as well as minor viral disease of cereals, legumes, oil-crops, vegetables has been listed. The major research works done these diseases has been also included along with first report.
This document summarizes several common diseases that affect sunflower plants, including the causal pathogens, symptoms, survival and spread mechanisms, and management strategies. It describes Alternaria blight caused by Alternaria helianthi, which causes leaf spots and is spread by wind-borne spores. It is managed through crop rotation, resistant varieties, and fungicide application. It also discusses rust caused by Puccinia helianthi that produces pustules on leaves and is spread by wind; charcoal rot caused by Macrophomina phaseolina that causes stem and root rot through soilborne inoculum; and head rot caused by Rhizopus nigricans that causes head rot through insect vectors. Management includes sanitation, resistant
Defense Mechanism in Plants Against InsectsJayantyadav94
Plants and insects living together for more than 350 million years
Evolutionary between plants and insects resulted in the development of defence system in plants that has the ability to recognize signals from damaged cells
Activates the plant immune response against the insects
Plants have the ability to distinguish between herbivory and mechanical damage, such as hail and wind, as well as to recognize oviposition.
This feature is needed to avoid wasting expensive defence resources, since production and release of defence responses only benefits herbivore challenged plants.
This document provides an overview of integrated pest management (IPM). It defines IPM as a pest management approach that uses multiple control strategies, including cultural, mechanical, biological and chemical tactics, to keep pest populations below economically damaging levels while minimizing risks to human health and the environment. The key principles of IPM include understanding pest biology and crop-pest interactions, advanced planning, balancing control costs and benefits, and monitoring pest populations to inform management decisions. The document discusses various IPM strategies and their advantages for improving farm profitability, reducing pest resistance and environmental impacts compared to reliance on pesticides alone.
DEFINITION OF PHYLLOSPHERE
PARTS OF PHYLLOSPHERE
MICROORGANISM OF PHYLLOSPHERE
PHYLLOSPHERE MICROORGANISMS OF STEM (CAULOSPHERE)
PHYLLOSPHERE MICROORGANISMS OF LEAVES(PHYLLOPLANE)
PHYLLOSPHERE MICROORGANISMS OF FLOWER (ANTHOSPHERE)
PHYLLOSPHERE MICROORGANISMS OF FRUIT(CARPOSPHERE)
FACTORS INFLUENCING MICROBIAL GROWTH AND ACTIVITIES
POSITIVE EFFECT OF PHYLLOSPHERE MICROORGANISMS
NEGATIVE EFFECT OF PHYLLOSPHERE MICROORGANISMS
MAJOR PLANT PARASITIC NEMATODES OF INDIA THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND MANAGEMENTramya sri nagamandla
The document summarizes economically important plant parasitic nematodes found in India, including their distribution and impact. It discusses nematodes that affect crops such as rice, wheat, maize, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fibers, banana, citrus, grapes, spices and tubers. For each crop, it identifies key nematodes and estimates yield losses. Maps show the distribution of nematodes infecting different crops across India. The document is an overview of major nematode issues faced by Indian agriculture.
The document summarizes the order Hymenoptera. It belongs to the class Insecta and is characterized by membrane-winged insects including bees, ants, and wasps. Key characteristics include chewing mouthparts, modified thoraxes for flight, membranous and stiff wings coupled by hooklets, and an ovipositor modified for various functions. There are two suborders, Symphyta which includes sawflies and have caterpillar-like larvae, and Apocrita which are more behaviorally sophisticated and include parasitic wasps, bees, and ants. Many families are described including their distinguishing traits and examples of economic importance.
The document discusses Integrated Pest Management (IPM). It provides a brief history of IPM, noting that the concept originated in California in the 1940s and was adopted as national policy by the US in the 1970s. The basic components of an IPM system are then outlined as monitoring pest levels, preventative cultural practices, mechanical and biological controls, and responsible pesticide use. Requirements of IPM include reducing impacts of pesticides on human health and ecosystems through alternatives such as cultural, mechanical, biological and chemical methods.
Role of biotechnology - gene silencing in plant disease controlAshajyothi Mushineni
An overview of role of biotechnology especially gene silencing approach in plant disease control and success achieved so far and way forward and it's importance in developing countries
Importance of microorganisms in nutrient managementsanthiya kvs
The document discusses the important role of soil microorganisms in nutrient management and cycling. It explains that microbes are actively involved in decomposing organic matter, producing humus, and increasing the availability of nutrients like phosphorus. Certain microbes also support plant growth by producing vitamins, hormones, and stimulating natural defenses against pathogens. Microorganisms are key players in soil carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles through processes like nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification, and mineralization. The document also discusses different types of biofertilizers containing beneficial microbes.
Yellow Mosaic of Legume: Biology, Epidemiology & IDMSaurabh Sarode
The document summarizes a seminar presentation on yellow mosaic diseases of legumes. It discusses mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV) which affects several legume crops including mungbean, blackgram, mothbean, and soybean. MYMV is caused by begomoviruses transmitted by the whitefly Bemisia tabaci. It causes symptoms like yellowing, stunting and loss of yield. Factors like temperature and humidity influence disease spread. Integrated disease management approaches for MYMV include host plant resistance, insecticide application, and weed control. Tables show effects of different management methods on disease incidence and yield.
1. The document identifies and describes several major insect pests that damage cotton and sunnhemp crops. It provides details on the life cycles, damage symptoms, and control measures for defoliating pests like the cotton leaf roller and cotton semilooper.
2. It also discusses stem-boring and root-feeding pests such as the stem weevil, cotton shoot weevil, and cotton stem borer. Their damage causes swelling of stems and wilting/death of plants.
3. For sunnhemp, the major pests highlighted are the hairy caterpillar and capsids bug. The caterpillars cause defoliation while the bugs suck plant sap and damage leaves.
This document provides information about microbial biopesticides, specifically entomopathogenic bacteria, viruses, and fungi. It begins with an introduction to microbial control and defines entomopathogens. It then discusses the history, classification, mode of action, symptoms, and target pests of entomopathogenic bacteria including Bacillus thuringiensis. Next, it covers entomopathogenic viruses including classification, examples, and mode of action. Finally, it summarizes entomopathogenic fungi including some of the most common types, their history of use, mode of action, and toxins produced.
- The document discusses the classification of insects into orders. It describes the key characteristics of several major insect orders including Protura, Diplura, Collembola, Thysanura, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Plecoptera, Grylloblattoidea, Orthoptera, Phasmida, Dermaptera, Embioptera, Dictyoptera and others. Many orders are described in terms of their physical features, habitat, life cycle and behavior. The classification of insects into subclasses Apterygota and Pterygota is also summarized.
This document provides an introduction to the course PPATH 503: Epidemiology and Forecasting of plant disease. It defines key epidemiological concepts such as epidemic, epidemiology, monocyclic and polycyclic pathogens. It discusses how host, pathogen and environmental factors influence disease development. It also examines the history of epidemiology from ancient times to modern developments. Disease progress curves and mathematical modeling of epidemics are introduced.
This document defines and provides brief explanations of commonly used advertising techniques, including beauty appeal, celebrity endorsement, complimenting the consumer, escape, independence/individuality, intelligence, lifestyle, nurture, peer approval, rebel, rhetorical question, scientific/statistical claim, and unfinished comparison/claim. It also provides additional advertising techniques such as making a metaphor, promising a benefit, mentioning a problem, creating drama, exaggerating, using eye candy, making ads seem human, taking a position, and making an offer.
1. The document defines various linguistic terms related to syntax, semantics, morphology, and other areas of linguistics. It provides definitions and examples for terms like generative grammar, language acquisition, morphology, phonology, and others.
2. The document also defines terms specifically related to syntax and morphology, such as adjunct, adverb, affix, aspect, auxiliary verb, bound morpheme, clause, coordination, derivation, and others. Examples are provided for each term.
3. Finally, the document defines terms related to semantics and pragmatics, like antonymy, assertion, cancel an implicature, compositionality, connotation, contradiction, coreference, and others. Each term
This document discusses the use of plant-derived genes for insect resistance. It focuses on two proteins: cowpea trypsin inhibitor (CpTI) and alpha-amylase inhibitor. CpTI inhibits the enzyme trypsin in insect digestive systems, interfering with growth and potentially causing death. Alpha-amylase inhibitor provides resistance by targeting the amylase enzyme. The document outlines past research transferring these genes to other plants like tobacco and beans to develop insect-resistant crops without chemicals. It also discusses the need to identify new insecticidal genes and proteins from sources like bacteria to control pests in a sustainable manner over the long term.
Pheromones synthesis perception and reception in insectsRavindrenAgri
This document discusses pheromones in insects, including their synthesis, perception, and reception. It describes that pheromones are chemicals secreted by insects that elicit responses in other insects of the same species. They are classified as intraspecific or interspecific semiochemicals. The document outlines the major types of pheromones in insects and details their biosynthesis, locations of production, chemical characteristics, and roles in communication. It also examines pheromone perception via chemoreceptors and olfactory sensory neurons, as well as the involvement of pheromone binding proteins.
Transgenic techniques can be used to engineer male sterility by disrupting pollen development. The Barnase/Barstar system uses a cytotoxic barnase gene regulated by a tapetum-specific promoter to cause male sterility, while a co-expressed barstar gene allows fertility restoration. This dominant genetic male sterility system allows for easy hybrid seed production and elimination of male-fertile plants through herbicide selection. Other methods to induce and regulate male sterility include inducible and two-component systems that control sterility through chemical induction or combining genes from two parental lines.
This document provides an overview of biofertilizers from an Indian perspective. It defines biofertilizers as microbial inoculants supported on carriers that are designed to improve soil fertility and provide growth promoters. The document discusses various types of biofertilizers including Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, cyanobacteria, and phosphate solubilizing microorganisms. It also covers India's history with biofertilizers, factors affecting their performance, application methods, production process, constraints to the industry's growth, and marketing challenges.
Synthesis and Actions of Juvenile Hormones In Insect Development (MS Power…Saramita De Chakravarti
A morphogenetic hormone.
Has multiple functions and a primary role of JH in insect development is to modulate ecdysone action.
Maintains the current commitment of the tissues and cells whereas ecdysone causes both predifferentiative and differentiative cellular events that are necessary for the moult.
When JH is present, a moult to a larval stage ensures.
If JH is absent at the onset of the moult, morphogenesis occurs.
Further studies and researches are still going on that can elucidate new
major as well as minor viral disease of cereals, legumes, oil-crops, vegetables has been listed. The major research works done these diseases has been also included along with first report.
This document summarizes several common diseases that affect sunflower plants, including the causal pathogens, symptoms, survival and spread mechanisms, and management strategies. It describes Alternaria blight caused by Alternaria helianthi, which causes leaf spots and is spread by wind-borne spores. It is managed through crop rotation, resistant varieties, and fungicide application. It also discusses rust caused by Puccinia helianthi that produces pustules on leaves and is spread by wind; charcoal rot caused by Macrophomina phaseolina that causes stem and root rot through soilborne inoculum; and head rot caused by Rhizopus nigricans that causes head rot through insect vectors. Management includes sanitation, resistant
Defense Mechanism in Plants Against InsectsJayantyadav94
Plants and insects living together for more than 350 million years
Evolutionary between plants and insects resulted in the development of defence system in plants that has the ability to recognize signals from damaged cells
Activates the plant immune response against the insects
Plants have the ability to distinguish between herbivory and mechanical damage, such as hail and wind, as well as to recognize oviposition.
This feature is needed to avoid wasting expensive defence resources, since production and release of defence responses only benefits herbivore challenged plants.
This document provides an overview of integrated pest management (IPM). It defines IPM as a pest management approach that uses multiple control strategies, including cultural, mechanical, biological and chemical tactics, to keep pest populations below economically damaging levels while minimizing risks to human health and the environment. The key principles of IPM include understanding pest biology and crop-pest interactions, advanced planning, balancing control costs and benefits, and monitoring pest populations to inform management decisions. The document discusses various IPM strategies and their advantages for improving farm profitability, reducing pest resistance and environmental impacts compared to reliance on pesticides alone.
DEFINITION OF PHYLLOSPHERE
PARTS OF PHYLLOSPHERE
MICROORGANISM OF PHYLLOSPHERE
PHYLLOSPHERE MICROORGANISMS OF STEM (CAULOSPHERE)
PHYLLOSPHERE MICROORGANISMS OF LEAVES(PHYLLOPLANE)
PHYLLOSPHERE MICROORGANISMS OF FLOWER (ANTHOSPHERE)
PHYLLOSPHERE MICROORGANISMS OF FRUIT(CARPOSPHERE)
FACTORS INFLUENCING MICROBIAL GROWTH AND ACTIVITIES
POSITIVE EFFECT OF PHYLLOSPHERE MICROORGANISMS
NEGATIVE EFFECT OF PHYLLOSPHERE MICROORGANISMS
MAJOR PLANT PARASITIC NEMATODES OF INDIA THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND MANAGEMENTramya sri nagamandla
The document summarizes economically important plant parasitic nematodes found in India, including their distribution and impact. It discusses nematodes that affect crops such as rice, wheat, maize, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fibers, banana, citrus, grapes, spices and tubers. For each crop, it identifies key nematodes and estimates yield losses. Maps show the distribution of nematodes infecting different crops across India. The document is an overview of major nematode issues faced by Indian agriculture.
The document summarizes the order Hymenoptera. It belongs to the class Insecta and is characterized by membrane-winged insects including bees, ants, and wasps. Key characteristics include chewing mouthparts, modified thoraxes for flight, membranous and stiff wings coupled by hooklets, and an ovipositor modified for various functions. There are two suborders, Symphyta which includes sawflies and have caterpillar-like larvae, and Apocrita which are more behaviorally sophisticated and include parasitic wasps, bees, and ants. Many families are described including their distinguishing traits and examples of economic importance.
The document discusses Integrated Pest Management (IPM). It provides a brief history of IPM, noting that the concept originated in California in the 1940s and was adopted as national policy by the US in the 1970s. The basic components of an IPM system are then outlined as monitoring pest levels, preventative cultural practices, mechanical and biological controls, and responsible pesticide use. Requirements of IPM include reducing impacts of pesticides on human health and ecosystems through alternatives such as cultural, mechanical, biological and chemical methods.
Role of biotechnology - gene silencing in plant disease controlAshajyothi Mushineni
An overview of role of biotechnology especially gene silencing approach in plant disease control and success achieved so far and way forward and it's importance in developing countries
Importance of microorganisms in nutrient managementsanthiya kvs
The document discusses the important role of soil microorganisms in nutrient management and cycling. It explains that microbes are actively involved in decomposing organic matter, producing humus, and increasing the availability of nutrients like phosphorus. Certain microbes also support plant growth by producing vitamins, hormones, and stimulating natural defenses against pathogens. Microorganisms are key players in soil carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles through processes like nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification, and mineralization. The document also discusses different types of biofertilizers containing beneficial microbes.
Yellow Mosaic of Legume: Biology, Epidemiology & IDMSaurabh Sarode
The document summarizes a seminar presentation on yellow mosaic diseases of legumes. It discusses mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV) which affects several legume crops including mungbean, blackgram, mothbean, and soybean. MYMV is caused by begomoviruses transmitted by the whitefly Bemisia tabaci. It causes symptoms like yellowing, stunting and loss of yield. Factors like temperature and humidity influence disease spread. Integrated disease management approaches for MYMV include host plant resistance, insecticide application, and weed control. Tables show effects of different management methods on disease incidence and yield.
1. The document identifies and describes several major insect pests that damage cotton and sunnhemp crops. It provides details on the life cycles, damage symptoms, and control measures for defoliating pests like the cotton leaf roller and cotton semilooper.
2. It also discusses stem-boring and root-feeding pests such as the stem weevil, cotton shoot weevil, and cotton stem borer. Their damage causes swelling of stems and wilting/death of plants.
3. For sunnhemp, the major pests highlighted are the hairy caterpillar and capsids bug. The caterpillars cause defoliation while the bugs suck plant sap and damage leaves.
This document provides information about microbial biopesticides, specifically entomopathogenic bacteria, viruses, and fungi. It begins with an introduction to microbial control and defines entomopathogens. It then discusses the history, classification, mode of action, symptoms, and target pests of entomopathogenic bacteria including Bacillus thuringiensis. Next, it covers entomopathogenic viruses including classification, examples, and mode of action. Finally, it summarizes entomopathogenic fungi including some of the most common types, their history of use, mode of action, and toxins produced.
- The document discusses the classification of insects into orders. It describes the key characteristics of several major insect orders including Protura, Diplura, Collembola, Thysanura, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Plecoptera, Grylloblattoidea, Orthoptera, Phasmida, Dermaptera, Embioptera, Dictyoptera and others. Many orders are described in terms of their physical features, habitat, life cycle and behavior. The classification of insects into subclasses Apterygota and Pterygota is also summarized.
This document provides an introduction to the course PPATH 503: Epidemiology and Forecasting of plant disease. It defines key epidemiological concepts such as epidemic, epidemiology, monocyclic and polycyclic pathogens. It discusses how host, pathogen and environmental factors influence disease development. It also examines the history of epidemiology from ancient times to modern developments. Disease progress curves and mathematical modeling of epidemics are introduced.
This document defines and provides brief explanations of commonly used advertising techniques, including beauty appeal, celebrity endorsement, complimenting the consumer, escape, independence/individuality, intelligence, lifestyle, nurture, peer approval, rebel, rhetorical question, scientific/statistical claim, and unfinished comparison/claim. It also provides additional advertising techniques such as making a metaphor, promising a benefit, mentioning a problem, creating drama, exaggerating, using eye candy, making ads seem human, taking a position, and making an offer.
1. The document defines various linguistic terms related to syntax, semantics, morphology, and other areas of linguistics. It provides definitions and examples for terms like generative grammar, language acquisition, morphology, phonology, and others.
2. The document also defines terms specifically related to syntax and morphology, such as adjunct, adverb, affix, aspect, auxiliary verb, bound morpheme, clause, coordination, derivation, and others. Examples are provided for each term.
3. Finally, the document defines terms related to semantics and pragmatics, like antonymy, assertion, cancel an implicature, compositionality, connotation, contradiction, coreference, and others. Each term
The document provides an overview of key concepts in linguistics, including definitions of language, the stages of learning a language, and features that distinguish human and animal communication. It then describes the main branches of linguistics - phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. Specific linguistic concepts are defined, such as phoneme, morpheme, allomorph, morph, and their differences are explained. Theories around the linguistic sign and grammar are also introduced. The document serves as an introductory guide to fundamental terminology and topics within the field of linguistics.
This document provides information on two soil classification systems: the AASHTO and USCS systems. The AASHTO system classifies soils into eight groups (A-1 through A-8) based on particle size distribution, liquid limit, and plasticity index. The USCS system classifies soils into four categories (coarse-grained, fine-grained, organic, and peat) based on grain size, plasticity, and compressibility. Both systems use laboratory tests like sieve analysis and Atterberg limits to determine the soil classification group. The document describes the classification criteria and symbols used in detail for each system.
Structuralism analyzes underlying structures and relationships between units and rules that generate meaningful systems. Ferdinand de Saussure contributed key ideas to structuralism in linguistics, including that language uses a naming process where words associate with concepts. A linguistic sign combines a signifier (sound) and signified (concept). Signs take value from their relationships within the whole language system rather than individual word-concept pairs. Relations between linguistic units can be syntagmatic (linear combinations) or associative (mental groupings). Saussure's structuralism sees language as a systematic whole greater than parts defined through relational contrasts.
This document discusses the key components and formation of soil. It describes the six major components of soil as eroded rock, mineral nutrients, decaying organic matter, water, air, and living organisms. Soil forms through the weathering of bedrock and is influenced by physical, chemical, and biological factors. The document also outlines the horizons and properties of soil, such as texture and permeability, and explains their importance for supporting plant life. Various human impacts on and management of soil are also covered, such as erosion, conservation practices, and relevant legislation.
Chemistry and physics of submerged soilAnandhan Ctry
This document summarizes submerged soils. It discusses four main types: waterlogged (gley) soils, marsh soils, paddy soils, and subaquatic soils. It describes the characteristics of submerged soils, including the absence of oxygen, chemical changes that occur like reduction, and transformations of carbon, nitrogen, iron, manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, silicon and trace elements. Key points are that submerged soils become anaerobic, chemical elements shift to their reduced forms, and decomposition of organic matter produces gases like methane and hydrogen sulfide.
Soil is a complex mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids and organisms that supports plant life. It performs key functions like supporting plant growth, storing and purifying water, modifying the atmosphere, and providing a habitat for decomposers. Soil consists of solid and porous phases that hold gases, water and organisms. It contains layers including topsoil and subsoil. Soil contains minerals like clay in forms such as kaolinite and montmorillonite, which influence properties like cation exchange capacity. Organic matter in soil comes from dead plants and animals and their decomposers. Humus is highly decomposed organic matter that provides nutrients and texture to support plant growth. Climate strongly influences the production and breakdown of
Soil is formed from the weathering of underlying rock and organic material from dead plants and animals. It is composed of various horizons with organic material concentrated near the surface. The O horizon contains freshly fallen plant material while the A horizon contains more decomposed organic matter mixed with minerals. Deeper horizons like the B contain fewer organics that have been further broken down. The C horizon is mostly unchanged parent material. Soil quality indicates environmental quality as soil is essential for plant growth and supports many ecosystem processes. Maintaining soil quality through sustainable land management practices is important for long term agricultural productivity and environmental sustainability.
Soil formation and topography A Lecture By Allah Dad Khan Agri Expert KPK Mr.Allah Dad Khan
The document discusses several key factors that influence soil formation: climate, living organisms, parent material, topography, and time. It explains how each factor affects processes of soil development like mineral weathering, organic matter decomposition, and translocation of materials. Specifically, it outlines how climate influences these processes through precipitation levels and temperature, and how topography determines drainage and microclimates. The summary emphasizes that over long periods of time, climate becomes the dominant influence on soil properties.
39. soil formation and topography by Allah Dad KhanMr.Allah Dad Khan
The document discusses several key factors that influence soil formation: climate, living organisms, parent material, topography, and time. It explains how each factor affects processes like weathering, decomposition, leaching, and erosion that create distinct soil horizons and properties over long time periods. The dominant role of climate is emphasized, particularly how precipitation and temperature influence chemical reactions and biological activity in soils.
Oxisols are highly weathered soils found primarily in tropical regions. They have undergone intense chemical weathering, which leaves them low in nutrients. The document discusses the definition, classification, distribution, and characteristics of Oxisols. Key points include that Oxisols have bright red colors due to iron and aluminum oxides, contain little organic matter or humus, and support agriculture when fertilizers are added due to their inherent low fertility. They cover about 7.5% of the global ice-free land area, with the largest areas found in South America and Africa.
in this all the soil type and their characteristic are explain deeply. for the know lade of the student. son u dont need to go any where related to this topic you will be get each and every thing deeply.
This document discusses the composition and properties of soil. It describes soil as having three phases: solid, liquid, and gas. The solid phase contains minerals like quartz and clay minerals. Clay minerals are important due to their large surface area and ability to adsorb ions. The liquid phase is the soil solution and contains dissolved organic and inorganic components. The gas phase in soil contains lower oxygen and higher carbon dioxide than the atmosphere due to plant and microbial respiration. Organic matter in soil originates from plants and microbes and influences soil properties. Phyllosilicate clay minerals are described as having a permanent negative charge that influences cation retention and swelling behavior.
Oxisols are highly weathered tropical soils characterized by a deep subsurface horizon dominated by iron and aluminum oxides. They form under rainforest vegetation in areas with high rainfall and warm temperatures, causing intense chemical weathering that leaches most nutrients from the soil. Oxisols occupy about 8% of the world's land area, mostly in central Africa, northern South America, and southeast Asia. They require careful management and fertilization due to low fertility resulting from the weathering process.
This document provides information about soil in three sentences or less:
The document discusses what soil is, how it is formed through weathering of parent materials and accumulation of organic matter, and defines important terms like soil profile, texture, structure, density and porosity. Key points include that soil has four important functions, is formed through weathering processes over time, and can be classified based on its texture, structure, and other characteristics.
Soil colloids are very small organic and inorganic particles present in soil that determine its physical, chemical, and fertility properties. The four major colloid types are: 1) clay minerals like silicates, 2) iron and aluminum oxides, 3) allophane and amorphous clays, and 4) humus. Soil colloids influence soil properties through their large surface area, electric charge, and ability to undergo ion exchange with cations in the soil solution. The cation exchange capacity measures the ability of soil colloids to hold exchangeable cations and influences soil fertility and nutrient retention. Maintaining optimal soil pH through liming is important for nutrient availability and crop growth.
The document defines several elementary soil forming processes (ESP) that occur during pedogenesis. Biogenic-accumulative ESP involve accumulation of organic matter and litter. Hydrogenic-accumulative ESP result in accumulation of soluble salts, carbonates, and iron compounds from groundwater. Metamorphic ESP transform soil minerals without gains or losses. Eluvial ESP remove materials via leaching and podsolization. Illuvial-accumulative ESP deposit materials removed by eluvial processes. Pedoturbative ESP involve mixing of soil by freezing/thawing or bioturbation. Destructive ESP physically destroy soil through erosion.
This document provides an overview of soil profile and soil degradation. It begins by defining soil and its components. Soil formation is influenced by parent material, climate, organisms, topography, and time. A soil profile displays the vertical distribution of soil components in horizons. Major horizons include organic (O) and mineral (A, E, B, C, R) layers. Soil degradation occurs through physical, chemical and biological factors such as erosion, nutrient depletion, acidity/alkalinity, and reduced microbial activity. Common causes are deforestation, overgrazing, improper cultivation, and excessive or imbalanced fertilizer use. Water erosion, in particular, is a major driver of degradation globally and in India
The document provides an overview of key concepts regarding soil properties, formation, classification, chemistry, biology, and issues. It defines soil and describes its composition, properties like texture and structure. Factors in soil formation like climate, biology, parent material and time are outlined. Major soil orders are defined based on the USDA soil taxonomy system. Key processes in the nitrogen and carbon cycles performed by soil microbiota are summarized. Issues related to soil degradation, salinization, and loss of agriculturally viable land due to human activities are briefly described.
A soil profile is a vertical cross-section of the soil, made of layers running parallel to the surface. These layers are known as soil horizons. Also Read: Soil Teeming. The soil is arranged in layers or horizons during its formation. These layers or horizons are known as the soil profile.
Soil formation or pedogenesis is the combined effect of human impact on the environment, physical, chemical and biological processes working on soil parent material.
The document summarizes several natural cycles:
1) The carbon cycle involves carbon sinks like plants, forests and soil that absorb carbon, and carbon sources like combustion, respiration and decomposition that release carbon.
2) Nitrogen fixation converts inert nitrogen gas into bio-usable forms through atmospheric fixation by lightning or biological fixation by microbes and plants. Nitrification converts ammonia into nitrites and nitrates which plants can use but are soluble and can leach from soil.
3) The hydrological cycle describes the continuous movement of water above, on and below the Earth's surface, with the same amount of water circulating but individual molecules coming and going quickly.
its a presentation on the key aspects of Terrestrial Ecosystem. Its types, characters, soil horizon, soil microflora . Its curated specifically to help environmental microbiology students to ubderstand the key aspects of various Eco biomes . Hope it helps the students and faculties to grasp the knowledge and spread among people, the awareness to protect our precious Ecosystem .
The document discusses the history and development of artificial intelligence over the past 70 years. It outlines some of the key milestones in AI research from the early work in the 1950s to modern achievements in areas like machine learning, computer vision, and natural language processing. While progress has been steady, fully general human-level AI remains an ongoing challenge that researchers are still working to achieve.
This document contains a math exam with four sections. Section I has 5 multiple choice questions testing trigonometric identities and properties. Section II has 4 short answer questions defining trigonometric terms and solving equations. Section III contains 2 proof questions. Section IV has 2 problems, one finding trigonometric functions given one value and the other finding arc length given radius and central angle. The exam is one hour long and worth 35 marks.
This document contains an exam for a 9th grade subject test with two sections. The first section contains 9 questions testing knowledge of topics like the conditions before the Prophet Muhammad, qualities of patriots, and translating passages. The second section is an objective test with questions on grammar, vocabulary, and meanings of words. It tests things like verb forms, spellings, synonyms and identifying parts of speech. The exam covers material related to Islamic studies and the English language.
1. The document discusses various topics related to biochar including nitrogen fixation, nutrient volatilization during pyrolysis, and the effects of biochar on soil nitrification and sulfur cycling.
2. Key points include that ammonium fixation occurs in clay minerals, biological nitrogen fixation is carried out by organisms that convert N2 to ammonia, and carbon begins to volatilize at temperatures above 300°C while nitrogen volatilizes above 900°C.
3. Biochar can impact soil nitrogen processes like nitrification through effects on pH, aeration, and substrate availability. Addition of biochar to acidic soils may stimulate nitrification by increasing pH.
The document discusses biodiversity, environmental changes, and climate change. It defines biodiversity and explains its importance for human sustenance, health, well-being, and recreation. Six major environmental challenges are identified, including climate change. Climate change is defined as a change in average weather patterns like temperature and precipitation. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere cause the greenhouse effect and global warming. The document then discusses threats to biodiversity from climate change, including extinction of many plant and animal species. Specific examples of threatened species in Pakistan are provided. The document calls for conservation efforts and development of alternative energy sources to mitigate global warming.
This document discusses cation exchange capacity (CEC), which is the ability of soil to hold positively charged nutrient ions. CEC is influenced by soil properties like clay content, clay type, and organic matter. Different clay minerals and soil colloids contribute differently to CEC based on their inherent charge. CEC also varies with soil pH, as pH influences which cations are attached to the soil exchange sites. The document provides examples of calculating CEC based on the types and amounts of different colloids in a soil.
The document discusses farm mechanization, describing how the mechanization of farms through the use of machines has replaced traditional human and animal labor for agricultural operations like sowing, harvesting, threshing, and weeding. It provides details on the history of farm mechanization in Pakistan and outlines some common farm machinery that has been developed and commercialized, as well as constraints to farm mechanization like small farm sizes and lack of repair facilities. The document also covers engine parts and classifications of different engine types.
This document summarizes different types of grain storage. It discusses local storage methods like purl, patare, and pussa bins, which are containers made of tin, metal, clay or grass that protect grains from pests and rodents in homes. Commercial storage uses large stainless steel containers and air tight structures called guddams to store grains for commercial purposes.
Eutrophication is the process by which water bodies receive excess nutrients, typically nitrates and phosphates, which can come from natural sources like weathering and runoff or human sources like fertilizers and untreated sewage. This excess of nutrients stimulates algal growth and reduces dissolved oxygen, which can harm aquatic animals and plants. There are two types of eutrophication: natural eutrophication which occurs slowly over time through natural processes, and cultural eutrophication which is accelerated by human activities like agricultural, domestic, and industrial waste discharge and results in algal blooms and hypoxic conditions. Management strategies include treating wastewater before discharge and removing excess algal biomass and nutrients from affected water bodies
1) Plants uptake water through both active and passive absorption mechanisms. Active absorption involves osmotic and non-osmotic theories while passive absorption relies on diffusion down a water potential gradient.
2) The cohesion-tension theory describes the long distance transport of water through plants. Transpiration causes evaporation from leaves which creates tension that pulls water up through the xylem.
3) Water potential measures the chemical energy of water, with pure water at 0 MPa and leaves at a lower potential than the atmosphere. This drives the upward movement of water through cohesive forces between water molecules.
This document discusses various parameters for water quality analysis including physical, chemical and biological parameters. It provides methods for analyzing parameters like turbidity, pH, BOD, COD and various metals. It also lists maximum allowable limits of substances in drinking water according to different standards. Microbiological parameters and their standards according to WHO and EU are also listed.
The document defines various dimensionless quantities used to express small concentrations, fractions, and sensitivities. It provides the SI units, named parts-per ratio, abbreviation or symbol, and scientific notation for measures like strain, sensitivity, mass fraction, mole fraction, stability, and more. Conversion between parts-per notation and scientific exponent notation is shown for quantities like parts per million, billion, and trillion.
This document discusses the mechanisms for nutrient uptake in plants. It describes two pathways - the apoplastic pathway through cell walls and extracellular spaces, and the symplastic pathway through plasmodesmata connecting plant cells. Active transport occurs through root cells, while passive transport involves transpiration pulling water and minerals up the xylem. Sugars are produced in leaves and transported through the phloem to other plant parts.
Soil erosion is a major global problem, with 75 billion tons of fertile soil lost annually worldwide. Wind erosion is a significant issue, removing 40% of Pakistan's soil over time. Several factors influence wind erosion, including soil texture, structure, protection by plants, rainfall, and wind force. Methods to control wind erosion include planting shelterbelts, increasing soil organic matter, strip cropping perpendicular to winds, leaving stubble barriers, and reducing tillage. Proper land management is key to reducing the effects of wind on soils.
The document discusses plant nutrition and soil fertility, explaining that plants have nutritional requirements for essential elements that must be supplied by the soil in balanced amounts for optimal growth. It defines macronutrients and micronutrients that are essential for plants, and describes the criteria for an element to be considered essential. Various fertilizers commonly available in Pakistan are also listed along with their nutrient contents.
This document discusses the mechanisms for nutrient uptake in plants. It describes two pathways - the apoplastic pathway through cell walls and extracellular spaces, and the symplastic pathway through plasmodesmata connecting plant cells. Active transport occurs through root cells, while passive transport involves transpiration pulling water and minerals up the xylem. Sugars are produced in leaves and transported through the phloem to other plant parts.
This document discusses the mechanisms for nutrient uptake in plants. It describes both passive and active transport pathways, including the xylem and phloem transport tissues. The apoplastic pathway involves transport through cell walls, while the symplastic pathway uses plasmodesmata to transport molecules between cells. Water and minerals are absorbed by roots and transported upward through the xylem, while sugars are transported downward through the phloem. A variety of physical processes, like transpiration, adhesion, cohesion, and tension work together to facilitate nutrient transport in plants.
This document discusses heavy metal pollution, specifically focusing on mercury pollution. It defines marine pollution and contamination, and how contamination is measured. It then discusses how mercury pollution occurs through bioaccumulation and biomagnification within marine ecosystems. Sources of mercury pollution discussed include atmospheric deposition, rivers, groundwater seepage, and deliberate discharge. Effects of mercury toxicity in humans and marine life are outlined, including specific examples like Minamata disease. High levels of mercury found in fish, marine mammals, and whale meat intended for human consumption are noted as a health concern.
Water pollution can come from various sources including municipal, industrial, and agricultural waste. Key pollutants include organic and inorganic materials, pathogens, excess nutrients, and thermal pollution. This can harm aquatic life and contaminate drinking water sources. Water quality standards and effluent discharge standards aim to classify water purity levels for different uses and limit pollution. Proper treatment and regulation of pollutant sources is needed to protect water resources and public health.
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Glossary
1. Z03_BRAD9383_14_SE_GLOS.QXD 8/14/07 2:42 AM Page 926
GLOSSARY OF SOIL SCIENCE TERMS1
A horizon The surface horizon of a mineral soil having acidity, total The total acidity in a soil. It is approxi-
maximum organic matter accumulation, maximum mated by the sum of the salt-replaceable acidity plus
biological activity, and/or eluviation of materials such the residual acidity.
as iron and aluminum oxides and silicate clays.
Actinomycetes A group of bacteria that form
abiotic Nonliving basic elements of the environment, branched mycelia that are thinner, but somewhat simi-
such as rainfall, temperature, wind, and minerals. lar in appearance to fungal hyphae. Includes many
members of the order Actinomycetales.
accelerated erosion Erosion much more rapid than
normal, natural, geological erosion; primarily as a result activated sludge Sludge that has been aerated and
of the activities of humans or, in some cases, of animals. subjected to bacterial action.
acid cations Cations, principally Al3+,
and Fe3+, H+, active layer The upper portion of a Gelisol that is
that contribute to H+ ion activity either directly or subject to freezing and thawing and is underlain by
through hydrolysis reactions with water. See also permafrost.
nonacid cations.
active organic matter A portion of the soil organic
acid rain Atmospheric precipitation with pH values less matter that is relatively easily metabolized by microor-
than about 5.6, the acidity being due to inorganic acids ganisms and cycles with a half-life in the soil of a few
(such as nitric and sulfuric) that are formed when oxides days to a few years.
of nitrogen and sulfur are emitted into the atmosphere.
adhesion Molecular attraction that holds the surfaces of
acid saturation The proportion or percentage of a two substances (e.g., water and sand particles) in contact.
cation-exchange site occupied by acid cations.
adsorption The attraction of ions or compounds
acid soil A soil with a pH value <7.0. Usually applied to the surface of a solid. Soil colloids adsorb large
to surface layer or root zone, but may be used to char- amounts of ions and water.
acterize any horizon. See also reaction, soil.
adsorption complex The group of organic and inor-
acid sulfate soils Soils that are potentially extremely ganic substances in soil capable of adsorbing ions and
acid (pH < 3.5) because of the presence of large amounts molecules.
of reduced forms of sulfur that are oxidized to sulfuric
aerate To impregnate with gas, usually air.
acid if the soils are exposed to oxygen when they are
drained or excavated. A sulfuric horizon containing the aeration, soil The process by which air in the soil is
yellow mineral jarosite is often present. See also cat clays. replaced by air from the atmosphere. In a well-aerated
soil, the soil air is similar in composition to the atmo-
acidity, active The activity of hydrogen ions in the
sphere above the soil. Poorly aerated soils usually con-
aqueous phase of a soil. It is measured and expressed as
tain more carbon dioxide and correspondingly less
a pH value.
oxygen than the atmosphere above the soil.
acidity, residual Soil acidity that can be neutralized by aerobic (1) Having molecular oxygen as a part of the
lime or other alkaline materials but cannot be replaced
environment. (2) Growing only in the presence of mo-
by an unbuffered salt solution.
lecular oxygen, as aerobic organisms. (3) Occurring
acidity, salt replaceable Exchangeable hydrogen and only in the presence of molecular oxygen (said of cer-
aluminum that can be replaced from an acid soil by an tain chemical or biochemical processes, such as aerobic
unbuffered salt solution such as KCl or NaCl. decomposition).
1 This glossary was compiled and modified from several sources, including Glossary of Soil Science Terms [Madison, Wis.: Soil Sci. Soc.
Amer. (1997)] Resource Conservation Glossary [Anheny, Iowa: Soil Cons. Soc. Amer. (1982)], and Soil Taxonomy [Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Agriculture (1999)].
926
2. Z03_BRAD9383_14_SE_GLOS.QXD 8/14/07 2:42 AM Page 927
aerosolic dust A type of eolian material that is very allophane A poorly defined aluminosilicate mineral
fine (about 1 to 10 µm) and may remain suspended in whose structural framework consists of short runs of
the air over distances of thousands of kilometers. Finer three-dimensional crystals interspersed with amorphous
than most loess. noncrystalline materials. Along with its more weathered
companion, it is prevalent in volcanic ash materials.
aggregate (soil) Many soil particles held in a single
mass or cluster, such as a clod, crumb, block, or prism. alluvial fan Fan-shaped alluvium deposited at the
mouth of a canyon or ravine where debris-laden waters
agric horizon A diagnostic subsurface horizon in
fan out, slow down, and deposit their burden.
which clay, silt, and humus derived from an overlying
cultivated and fertilized layer have accumulated. alluvium A general term for all detrital material
Wormholes and illuvial clay, silt, and humus occupy at deposited or in transit by streams, including gravel,
least 5% of the horizon by volume. sand, silt, clay, and all variations and mixtures of these.
agroforestry Any type of multiple cropping land-use Unless otherwise noted, alluvium is unconsolidated.
that entails complementary relations between trees alpha particle A positively charged particle (consisting
and agricultural crops. of two protons and two neutrons) that is emitted by
agronomy A specialization of agriculture concerned with certain radioactive compounds.
the theory and practice of field-crop production and soil aluminosilicates Compounds containing aluminum,
management. The scientific management of land. silicon, and oxygen as main constituents. An example
air-dry (1) The state of dryness (of a soil) at equilibrium is microcline, KAlSi3O8.
with the moisture content in the surrounding atmo- amendment, soil Any substance other than fertilizers,
sphere. The actual moisture content will depend upon such as lime, sulfur, gypsum, and sawdust, used to alter
the relative humidity and the temperature of the sur- the chemical or physical properties of a soil, generally
rounding atmosphere. (2) To allow to reach equilibrium to make it more productive.
in moisture content with the surrounding atmosphere.
amino acids Nitrogen-containing organic acids that
air porosity The proportion of the bulk volume of soil couple together to form proteins. Each acid molecule
that is filled with air at any given time or under a given contains one or more amino groups (—NH2) and at
condition, such as a specified moisture potential; usu- least one carboxyl group (—COOH). In addition, some
ally the large pores. amino acids contain sulfur.
albic horizon A diagnostic subsurface horizon from ammonification The biochemical process whereby
which clay and free iron oxides have been removed or ammoniacal nitrogen is released from nitrogen-
in which the oxides have been segregated to the extent containing organic compounds.
that the color of the horizon is determined primarily
by the color of the primary sand and silt particles ammonium fixation The entrapment of ammonium
rather than by coatings on these particles. ions by the mineral or organic fractions of the soil in
forms that are insoluble in water and are at least tem-
Alfisols An order in Soil Taxonomy. Soils with gray to porarily nonexchangeable.
brown surface horizons, medium to high supply of
bases, and B horizons of illuvial clay accumulation. amorphous material Noncrystalline constituents of soils.
These soils form mostly under forest or savanna vegeta- anaerobic (i) The absence of molecular oxygen.
tion in climates with slight to pronounced seasonal (ii) Growing or occurring in the absence of molecular
moisture deficit. oxygen (e.g., anaerobic bacteria or biochemical reduction
algal bloom A population explosion of algae in surface reaction).
waters, such as lakes and streams, often resulting in anaerobic respiration The metabolic process whereby
high turbidity and green- or red-colored water, and electrons are transferred from a reduced compound
commonly stimulated by nutrient enrichment with (usually organic) to an inorganic acceptor molecule
phosphorus and nitrogen. other than oxygen.
alkaline soil Any soil that has pH > 7. Usually applied andic properties Soil properties related to volcanic ori-
to the surface layer or root zone but may be used to gin of materials, including high organic carbon con-
characterize any horizon or a sample thereof. See also tent, low bulk density, high phosphate retention, and
reaction, soil. extractable iron and aluminum.
allelochemical An organic chemical by which one Andisols An order in Soil Taxonomy. Soils developed
plant can influence another. See allelopathy.
from volcanic ejecta. The colloidal fraction is domi-
allelopathy The process by which one plant may nated by allophane and/or Al-humus compounds.
affect other plants by biologically active chemicals
angle of repose The maximum slope steepness at
introduced into the soil, either directly by leaching or
which loose, cohesionless material will come to rest.
exudation from the source plant, or as a result of the
decay of the plant residues. The effects, though usually anion Negatively charged ion; during electrolysis it is
negative, may also be positive. attracted to the positively charged anode.
GLOSSARY 927
3. Z03_BRAD9383_14_SE_GLOS.QXD 8/14/07 2:42 AM Page 928
anion exchange Exchange of anions in the soil solu- regions annual precipitation is usually less than 25 cm.
tion for anions adsorbed on the surface of clay and It may be as high as 50 cm in tropical regions. Natural
humus particles. vegetation is desert shrubs.
anion exchange capacity The sum total of exchange- Aridisols An order in Soil Taxonomy. Soils of dry cli-
able anions that a soil can adsorb. Expressed as centi- mates. They have pedogenic horizons, low in organic
moles of charge per kilogram (cmolc/kg) of soil (or of matter, that are never moist for as long as three consec-
other adsorbing material, such as clay). utive months. They have an ochric epipedon and one
or more of the following diagnostic horizons: argillic,
anoxic See anaerobic. natric, cambic, calcic, petrocalcic, gypsic, petrogypsic,
anthropic epipedon A diagnostic surface horizon of salic, or a duripan.
mineral soil that has the same requirements as the mol-
lic epipedon but that has more than 250 mg/kg of P2O5
aspect (of slopes) The direction (e.g., south or north)
that a slope faces with respect to the sun.
soluble in 1% citric acid, or is dry more than 10 months
(cumulative) during the period when not irrigated. association, soil See soil association.
The anthropic epipedon forms under long-continued
cultivation and fertilization.
Atterberg limits Water contents of fine-grained soils
at different states of consistency.
antibiotic A substance produced by one species of liquid limit (LL) The water content corresponding
organism that, in low concentrations, will kill or to the arbitrary limit between the liquid and plastic
inhibit growth of certain other organisms. states of consistency of a soil.
Ap The surface layer of a soil disturbed by cultivation plastic limit (PL) The water content corresponding
or pasturing. to an arbitrary limit between the plastic and semi-
solid states of consistency of a soil.
apatite A naturally occurring complex calcium phos-
phate that is the original source of most of the phosphate autochthonous organisms Those microorganisms thought
fertilizers. Formulas such as [3Ca3(PO4)2] · CaF2 illustrate to subsist on the more resistant soil organic matter and lit-
the complex compounds that make up apatite. tle affected by the addition of fresh organic materials.
Contrast with zymogenous organisms. See also k-strategist.
aquic conditions Continuous or periodic saturation
(with water) and reduction, commonly indicated by autotroph An organism capable of utilizing carbon
redoximorphic features. dioxide or carbonates as the sole source of carbon and
obtaining energy for life processes from the oxidation
aquiclude A saturated body of rock or sediment that is of inorganic elements or compounds such as iron, sul-
incapable of transmitting significant quantities of fur, hydrogen, ammonium, and nitrites, or from radi-
water under ordinary water pressures. ant energy. Contrast with heterotroph.
aquifer A saturated, permeable layer of sediment or available nutrient That portion of any element or
rock that can transmit significant quantities of water compound in the soil that can be readily absorbed and
under normal pressure conditions. assimilated by growing plants. (“Available” should not
arbuscular mycorrhiza A common endomycorrhizal be confused with “exchangeable.”)
association produced by phycomycetous fungi and available water The portion of water in a soil that can
characterized by the development, within root cells, of be readily absorbed by plant roots. The amount of
small structures known as arbuscules. Some also form, water released between the field capacity and the per-
between root cells, storage organs known as vesicles. manent wilting point.
Host range includes many agricultural and horticultural
crops. Formerly called vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza B horizon A soil horizon, usually beneath the A or E
(VAM). See also endotrophic mycorrhiza. horizon, that is characterized by one or more of the
following: (1) a concentration of soluble salts, silicate
arbuscule Specialized branched structure formed within clays, iron and aluminum oxides, and humus, alone
a root cortical cell by endotrophic mycorrhizal fungi. or in combination; (2) a blocky or prismatic structure;
Archaea One of the two domains of single-celled and (3) coatings of iron and aluminum oxides that
prokaryote microorganisms. Includes organisms adapted give darker, stronger, or redder color.
to extremes of salinity and heat, and those that subsist Bacteria One of two domains of single-celled
on methane. Similar appearing, but evolutionarily dis- prokaryote microorganisms. Includes all that are not
tinct from bacteria. Archaea.
argillan A thin coating of well-oriented clay particles on bar A unit of pressure equal to 1 million dynes per
the surface of a soil aggregate, particle, or pore. A clay film. square centimeter (106 dynes/cm2). It approximates the
argillic horizon A diagnostic subsurface horizon char- pressure of a standard atmosphere.
acterized by the illuvial accumulation of layer-lattice base-forming cations (Obsolete) Those cations that
silicate clays. form strong (strongly dissociated) bases by reaction
arid climate Climate in regions that lack sufficient with hydroxyl; e.g., K+ forms potassium hydroxide (K+ +
moisture for crop production without irrigation. In cool OH). See nonacid cations.
928 Glossary
4. Z03_BRAD9383_14_SE_GLOS.QXD 8/14/07 2:42 AM Page 929
base saturation percentage The extent to which the broadcast Scatter seed or fertilizer on the surface of
adsorption complex of a soil is saturated with the soil.
exchangeable cations other than hydrogen and alu-
brownfields Abandoned, idled, or underused industrial
minum. It is expressed as a percentage of the total
and commercial facilities where expansion or redevelop-
cation exchange capacity. See nonacid saturation.
ment is complicated by real or perceived environmental
bedding (Engineering) Arranging the surface of fields contamination.
by plowing and grading into a series of elevated beds
buffering capacity The ability of a soil to resist
separated by shallow depressions or ditches for drainage.
changes in pH. Commonly determined by presence of
bedrock The solid rock underlying soils and the clay, humus, and other colloidal materials.
regolith in depths ranging from zero (where exposed
bulk blended fertilizers Solid fertilizer materials blended
by erosion) to several hundred feet.
together in small blending plants, delivered to the farm
bench terrace An embankment constructed across in bulk, and usually spread directly on the fields by truck
sloping fields with a steep drop on the downslope side. or other special applicator.
beta particle A high-speed electron emitted in bulk blending Mixing dry individual granulated fertil-
radioactive decay. izer materials to form a mixed fertilizer that is applied
promptly to the soil.
bioaccumulation A buildup within an organism of spe-
cific compounds due to biological processes. Commonly bulk density, soil The mass of dry soil per unit of
applied to heavy metals, pesticides, or metabolites. bulk volume, including the air space. The bulk vol-
ume is determined before drying to constant weight
bioaugmentation The cleanup of contaminated soils
at 105 °C.
by adding exotic microorganisms that are especially
efficient at breaking down an organic contaminant. A buried soil Soil covered by an alluvial, loessal, or other
form of bioremediation. deposit, usually to a depth greater than the thickness of
the solum.
biodegradable Subject to degradation by biochemical
processes. by-pass flow See preferential flow.
biological nitrogen fixation Occurs at ordinary temper- C horizon A mineral horizon, generally beneath the
atures and pressures. It is commonly carried out by cer- solum, that is relatively unaffected by biological activ-
tain bacteria, algae, and actinomycetes, which may or ity and pedogenesis and is lacking properties diagnos-
may not be associated with higher plants. tic of an A or B horizon. It may or may not be like the
material from which the A and B have formed.
biomass The total mass of living material of a speci-
fied type (e.g., microbial biomass) in a given environ- calcareous soil Soil containing sufficient calcium car-
ment (e.g., in a cubic meter of soil). bonate (often with magnesium carbonate) to effervesce
visibly when treated with cold 0.1 N hydrochloric acid.
biopores Soil pores, usually of relatively large diame-
ter, created by plant roots, earthworms, or other soil calcic horizon A diagnostic subsurface horizon of sec-
organisms. ondary carbonate enrichment that is more than 15 cm
thick, has a calcium carbonate equivalent of more than
bioremediation The decontamination or restoration of
15%, and has at least 5% more calcium carbonate
polluted or degraded soils by means of enhancing the
equivalent than the underlying C horizon.
chemical degradation or other activities of soil organisms.
biosequence A group of related soils that differ, one caliche A layer near the surface, more or less
cemented by secondary carbonates of calcium or mag-
from the other, primarily because of differences in
nesium precipitated from the soil solution. It may
kinds and numbers of plants and soil organisms as a
occur as a soft, thin soil horizon; as a hard, thick bed
soil-forming factor.
just beneath the solum; or as a surface layer exposed by
biosolids Sewage sludge that meets certain regulatory erosion.
standards, making it suitable for land application. See
sewage sludge.
cambic horizon A diagnostic subsurface horizon that
has a texture of loamy very fine sand or finer, contains
biostimulation The cleanup of contaminated soils some weatherable minerals, and is characterized by the
through the manipulation of nutrients or other soil alteration or removal of mineral material. The cambic
environmental factors to enhance the activity of nat- horizon lacks cementation or induration and has too
urally occurring soil microorganisms. A form of few evidences of illuviation to meet the requirements
bioremediation. of the argillic or spodic horizon.
blocky soil structure Soil aggregates with blocklike capillary conductivity (Obsolete) See hydraulic
shapes; common in B horizons of soils in humid regions. conductivity.
broad-base terrace A low embankment with such capillary fringe A zone in the soil just above the plane
gentle slopes that it can be farmed, constructed across of zero water pressure (water table) that remains satu-
sloping fields to reduce erosion and runoff. rated or almost saturated with water.
GLOSSARY 929
5. Z03_BRAD9383_14_SE_GLOS.QXD 8/14/07 2:42 AM Page 930
capillary water The water held in the capillary or chlorosis A condition in plants relating to the failure
small pores of a soil, usually with a tension >60 cm of of chlorophyll (the green coloring matter) to develop.
water. See also soil water potential. Chlorotic leaves range from light green through yellow
to almost white.
carbon cycle The sequence of transformations whereby
carbon dioxide is fixed in living organisms by photosyn- chroma (color) See Munsell color system.
thesis or by chemosynthesis, liberated by respiration
chronosequence A sequence of related soils that differ,
and by the death and decomposition of the fixing
one from the other, in certain properties primarily as a
organism, used by heterotrophic species, and ultimately
result of time as a soil-forming factor.
returned to its original state.
classification, soil See soil classification.
carbon/nitrogen ratio The ratio of the weight of
organic carbon (C) to the weight of total nitrogen (N) clay (1) A soil separate consisting of particles <0.002 mm
in a soil or in organic material. in equivalent diameter. (2) A soil textural class containing
>40% clay, <45% sand, and <40% silt.
carnivore An organism that feeds on animals.
clay mineral Naturally occurring inorganic material
casts, earthworm Rounded, water-stable aggregates of (usually crystalline) found in soils and other earthy
soil that have passed through the gut of an earthworm. deposits, the particles being of clay size, that is,
cat clays Wet clay soils high in reduced forms of sul- <0.002 mm in diameter.
fur that, upon being drained, become extremely acid claypan A dense, compact, slowly permeable layer in
because of the oxidation of the sulfur compounds and the subsoil having a much higher clay content than
the formation of sulfuric acid. Usually found in tidal the overlying material, from which it is separated by a
marshes. See acid sulfate soils. sharply defined boundary. Claypans are usually hard
catena A group of soils that commonly occur together when dry and plastic and sticky when wet. See also
in a landscape, each characterized by a different slope hardpan.
position and resulting set of drainage-related propri- climosequence A group of related soils that differ, one
eties. See also toposequence. from another, primarily because of differences in cli-
cation A positively charged ion; during electrolysis it mate as a soil-forming factor.
is attracted to the negatively charged cathode. clod A compact, coherent mass of soil produced artifi-
cation exchange The interchange between a cation cially, usually by such human activities as plowing and
in solution and another cation on the surface of any digging, especially when these operations are per-
surface-active material, such as clay or organic matter. formed on soils that are either too wet or too dry for
normal tillage operations.
cation exchange capacity The sum total of exchange-
able cations that a soil can adsorb. Sometimes called coarse fragments Mineral (rock) soil particles larger
total-exchange capacity, base-exchange capacity, or cation- than 2 mm in diameter. Compare to fine earth fraction.
adsorption capacity. Expressed in centimoles of charge coarse texture The texture exhibited by sands, loamy
per kilogram (cmolc/kg) of soil (or of other adsorbing sands, and sandy loams (except very fine sandy loam).
material, such as clay).
cobblestone Rounded or partially rounded rock or
cemented Indurated; having a hard, brittle consis- mineral fragments 7.5 to 25 cm (3 to 10 in.) in diameter.
tency because the particles are held together by
cementing substances, such as humus, calcium carbon- co-composting A method of composting in which two
ate, or the oxides of silicon, iron, and aluminum. materials of differing but complementary nature are
mingled together and enhance each other’s decompo-
channery Thin, flat fragments of limestone, sand- sition in a compost system.
stone, or schist up to 15 cm (6 in.) in major diameter.
cohesion Holding together: force holding a solid or
chelate (Greek, claw) A type of chemical compound in liquid together, owing to attraction between like mole-
which a metallic ion is firmly combined with an cules. Decreases with rise in temperature.
organic molecule by means of multiple chemical bonds.
collapsible soil Certain soil that may undergo a sud-
chert A structureless form of silica, closely related to den loss in strength when wetted.
flint, that breaks into angular fragments.
colloid, soil (Greek, gluelike) Organic and inorganic
chisel, subsoil A tillage implement with one or more matter with very small particle size and a correspond-
cultivator-type feet to which are attached strong knife- ingly large surface area per unit of mass.
like units used to shatter or loosen hard, compact lay-
ers, usually in the subsoil, to depths below normal colluvium A deposit of rock fragments and soil mate-
plow depth. See also subsoiling. rial accumulated at the base of steep slopes as a result
of gravitational action.
chlorite A 2:1:1-type layer-structured silicate mineral
having 2:1 layers alternating with a magnesium- color The property of an object that depends on the
dominated octahedral sheet. wavelength of light it reflects or emits.
930 Glossary
6. Z03_BRAD9383_14_SE_GLOS.QXD 8/14/07 2:42 AM Page 931
columnar soil structure See soil structure types. repeated compaction of the soil does not occur outside
the selected paths.
companion planting The practice of growing certain
species of plants in close proximity because one species convection The transfer of heat through a gas or solu-
has the effect of improving the growth of the other, tion because of molecular movement.
sometimes by positive allelopathic effects. cover crop A close-growing crop grown primarily for
compost Organic residues, or a mixture of organic the purpose of protecting and improving soil between
residues and soil, that have been piled, moistened, and periods of regular crop production or between trees
allowed to undergo biological decomposition. Mineral and vines in orchards and vineyards.
fertilizers are sometimes added. Often called artificial creep Slow mass movement of soil and soil material
manure or synthetic manure if produced primarily from down relatively steep slopes, primarily under the influ-
plant residues. ence of gravity, but facilitated by saturation with water
concretion A local concentration of a chemical com- and by alternate freezing and thawing.
pound, such as calcium carbonate or iron oxide, in the crop rotation A planned sequence of crops growing in
form of grains or nodules of varying size, shape, hard- a regularly recurring succession on the same area of
ness, and color. land, as contrasted to continuous culture of one crop
conduction The transfer of heat by physical contact or growing different crops in haphazard order.
between two or more objects. crotovina A former animal burrow in one soil horizon
that has been filled with organic matter or material
conductivity, hydraulic See hydraulic conductivity.
from another horizon (also spelled krotovina).
conservation tillage See tillage, conservation. crumb A soft, porous, more or less rounded natural
consistence The combination of properties of soil unit of structure from 1 to 5 mm in diameter. See also
material that determine its resistance to crushing and soil structure types.
its ability to be molded or changed in shape. Such crushing strength The force required to crush a mass
terms as loose, friable, firm, soft, plastic, and sticky of dry soil or, conversely, the resistance of the dry soil
describe soil consistence. mass to crushing. Expressed in units of force per unit
consistency The interaction of adhesive and cohesive area (pressure).
forces within a soil at various moisture contents as crust (soil) (i) physical A surface layer on soils, ranging
expressed by the relative ease with which the soil can in thickness from a few millimeters to as much as 3 cm,
be deformed or ruptured. that physical-chemical processes have caused to be
consociation See soil consociation. much more compact, hard, and brittle when dry than
the material immediately beneath it.
consolidation test A laboratory test in which a soil mass (ii) microbiotic An assemblage of cyanobacteria,
is laterally confined within a ring and is compressed with algae, lichens, liverworts, and mosses that commonly
a known force between two porous plates. forms an irregular crust on the soil surface, especially
constant charge The net surface charge of mineral on otherwise barren, arid-region soils. Also referred to
particles, the magnitude of which depends only on the as cryptogamic, cryptobiotic, or biological crusts.
chemical and structural composition of the mineral. cryophilic Pertaining to low temperatures in the range
The charge arises from isomorphous substitution and is of 5 to 15°C, the range in which cryophilic organisms
not affected by soil pH. grow best.
consumptive use The water used by plants in transpi- cryoturbation Physical disruption and displace-
ration and growth, plus water vapor loss from adjacent ment of soil material within the profile by the forces of
soil or snow, or from intercepted precipitation in any freezing and thawing. Sometimes called frost churning,
specified time. Usually expressed as equivalent depth it results in irregular, broken horizons, involutions,
of free water per unit of time. oriented rock fragments, and accumulation of organic
contour An imaginary line connecting points of matter on the permafrost table.
equal elevation on the surface of the soil. A contour cryptogam See crust (ii) microbiotic.
terrace is laid out on a sloping soil at right angles to
the direction of the slope and nearly level throughout crystal A homogeneous inorganic substance of defi-
its course. nite chemical composition bounded by planar surfaces
that form definite angles with each other, thus giving
contour strip-cropping Layout of crops in compara- the substance a regular geometrical form.
tively narrow strips in which the farming operations
are performed approximately on the contour. Usually crystal structure The orderly arrangement of atoms in
strips of grass, close-growing crops, or fallow are a crystalline material.
alternated with those of cultivated crops.
cultivation A tillage operation used in preparing land
controlled traffic A farming system in which all for seeding or transplanting or later for weed control
wheeled traffic is confined to fixed paths so that and for loosening the soil.
GLOSSARY 931
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cutans A modification of the texture, structure, or diatomaceous earth A geologic deposit of fine, gray-
fabric at natural surfaces in soil materials due to ish, siliceous material composed chiefly or wholly of
concentration of particular soil constituents; e.g. “clay the remains of diatoms. It may occur as a powder or as
skins.” a porous, rigid material.
cyanobacteria Chlorophyll-containing bacteria that diatoms Algae having siliceous cell walls that persist as
accommodate both photosynthesis and nitrogen fixa- a skeleton after death; any of the microscopic unicellular
tion. Formerly called blue-green algae. or colonial algae constituting the class Bacillariaceae.
They occur abundantly in fresh and salt waters and their
deciduous plant A plant that sheds all its leaves every remains are widely distributed in soils.
year at a certain season.
diffusion The movement of atoms in a gaseous mix-
decomposition Chemical breakdown of a compound ture or of ions in a solution, primarily as a result of
(e.g., a mineral or organic compound) into simpler their own random motion.
compounds, often accomplished with the aid of
microorganisms. dioctahedral sheet An octahedral sheet of silicate clays
in which the sites for the six-coordinated metallic atoms
deflocculate (1) To separate the individual compo- are mostly filled with trivalent atoms, such as A13+.
nents of compound particles by chemical and/or phys-
ical means. (2) To cause the particles of the disperse disintegration Physical or mechanical breakup or sep-
phase of a colloidal system to become suspended in the aration of a substance into its component parts (e.g., a
dispersion medium. rock breaking into its mineral components).
delineation An individual polygon shown by a closed disperse (1) To break up compound particles, such as
boundary on a soil map that defines the area, shape, aggregates, into the individual component particles.
and location of a map unit within a landscape. (2) To distribute or suspend fine particles, such as clay,
in or throughout a dispersion medium, such as water.
delivery ratio The ratio of eroded sediment carried out
of a drainage basin to the total amount of sediment dissolution Process by which molecules of a gas, solid,
moved within the basin by erosion processes. or another liquid dissolve in a liquid, thereby becom-
ing completely and uniformly dispersed throughout
delta An alluvial deposit formed where a stream or the liquid’s volume.
river drops its sediment load upon entering a quieter
body of water. distribution coefficient (Kd) The distribution of a
chemical between soil and water.
denitrification The biochemical reduction of nitrate
or nitrite to gaseous nitrogen, either as molecular nitro- diversion terrace See terrace.
gen or as an oxide of nitrogen. drain (1) To provide channels, such as open ditches or
density See particle density; bulk density. drain tile, so that excess water can be removed by sur-
face or by internal flow. (2) To lose water (from the soil)
desalinization Removal of salts from saline soil, usu- by percolation.
ally by leaching.
drain field, septic tank An area of soil into which the
desert crust A hard layer, containing calcium carbon- effluent from a septic tank is piped so that it will drain
ate, gypsum, or other binding material, exposed at the through the lower part of the soil profile for disposal
surface in desert regions. and purification.
desert pavement A natural residual concentration of drainage, soil The frequency and duration of periods
closely packed pebbles, boulders, and other rock frag- when the soil is free from saturation with water.
ments on a desert surface where wind and water action
has removed all smaller particles. drift Material of any sort deposited by geological
processes in one place after having been removed from
desert varnish A thin, dark, shiny film or coating of another. Glacial drift includes material moved by the
iron oxide and lesser amounts of manganese oxide and glaciers and by the streams and lakes associated with
silica formed on the surfaces of pebbles, boulders, rock them.
fragments, and rock outcrops in arid regions.
drumlin Long, smooth, cigar-shaped low hills of
desorption The removal of sorbed material from glacial till, with their long axes parallel to the direction
surfaces. of ice movement.
detritivore An organism that subsists on detritus. dryland farming The practice of crop production in
detritus Debris from dead plants and animals. low-rainfall areas without irrigation.
diagnostic horizons (As used in Soil Taxonomy): duff The matted, partly decomposed organic surface
layer of forest soils.
Horizons having specific soil characteristics that are
indicative of certain classes of soils. Horizons that duripan A diagnostic subsurface horizon that is
occur at the soil surface are called epipedons; those cemented by silica, to the point that air-dry fragments
below the surface, diagnostic subsurface horizons. will not slake in water or HCL. Hardpan.
932 Glossary
8. Z03_BRAD9383_14_SE_GLOS.QXD 8/15/07 4:59 PM Page 933
dust mulch A loose, finely granular or powdery condi- endotrophic mycorrhiza (endomycorrhiza) A symbiotic
tion on the surface of the soil, usually produced by association of the mycelium of fungi and roots of a
shallow cultivation. variety of plants in which the fungal hyphae penetrate
directly into root hairs, other epidermal cells, and occa-
E horizon Horizon characterized by maximum illuvia- sionally into cortical cells. Individual hyphae also
tion (washing out) of silicate clays and iron and alu-
extend from the root surface outward into the sur-
minum oxides; commonly occurs above the B horizon
rounding soil. See also arbuscular mycorrhiza.
and below the A horizon.
enrichment ratio The concentration of a substance
earthworms Animals of the Lumbricidae family that (e.g., phosphorus) in eroded sediment divided by
burrow into and live in the soil. They mix plant its concentration in the source soil prior to being
residues into the soil and improve soil aeration. eroded.
ecosystem A dynamic and interacting combination of Entisols An order in Soil Taxonomy. Soils that have
all the living organisms and nonliving elements (mat- no diagnostic pedogenic horizons. They may be found
ter and energy) of an area. in virtually any climate on very recent geomorphic
ecosystem services Products of natural ecosystems that surfaces.
support and fulfill the needs of human beings. Provision eolian soil material Soil material accumulated through
of clean water and unpolluted air are examples. wind action. The most extensive areas in the United
ectotrophic mycorrhiza (ectomycorrhiza) A symbiotic States are silty deposits (loess), but large areas of sandy
association of the mycelium of fungi and the roots of deposits also occur.
certain plants in which the fungal hyphae form a com- epiaquic (episaturation) A condition in which the soil
pact mantle on the surface of the roots and extend into is saturated with water due to a perched water table in
the surrounding soil and inward between cortical cells, one or more layers within 200 cm of the mineral soil
but not into these cells. Associated primarily with cer- surface, implying that there are also one or more unsat-
tain trees. See also endotrophic mycorrhiza. urated layers within 200 cm below the saturate layer.
edaphology The science that deals with the influence See also endoaquic.
of soils on living things, particularly plants, including epipedon A diagnostic surface horizon that includes
human use of land for plant growth. the upper part of the soil that is darkened by organic
effective cation exchange capacity The amount of matter, or the upper eluvial horizons, or both. (Soil
cation charges that a material (usually soil or soil col- Taxonomy.)
loids) can hold at the pH of the material, measured as equilibrium phosphorus concentration The concentra-
the sum of the exchangeable Al3+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and tion of phosphorus in a solution in equilibrium with a
Na+, and expressed as moles or cmol of charge per kg of soil, the EPC0 being the concentration of phosphorus
material. See cation exchange capacity. achieved by desorption of phosphorus from a soil to
effective precipitation That portion of the total pre- phosphorus-free distilled water.
cipitation that becomes available for plant growth or erosion (1) The wearing away of the land surface by
for the promotion of soil formation. running water, wind, ice, or other geological agents,
Eh In soils, it is the potential created by oxidation- including such processes as gravitational creep.
reduction reactions that take place on the surface of (2) Detachment and movement of soil or rock by
a platinum electrode measured against a reference water, wind, ice, or gravity.
electrode, minus the Eh of the reference electrode. esker A narrow ridge of gravelly or sandy glacial
This is a measure of the oxidation-reduction poten- material deposited by a stream in an ice-walled valley
tial of electrode-reactive components in the soil. See or tunnel in a receding glacier.
also pe.
essential element A chemical element required for the
electrical conductivity (EC) The capacity of a sub- normal growth of plants.
stance to conduct or transmit electrical current. In soils
or water, measured in siemens/meter (or often dS/m), eukaryote An organism whose cells each have a vis-
and related to dissolved solutes. ibly evident nucleus.
eluviation The removal of soil material in suspension eutrophic Having concentrations of nutrients optimal
(or nearly so) for plant or animal growth. (Said of algal-
(or in solution) from a layer or layers of a soil. Usually,
enriched bodies of water)
the loss of material in solution is described by the term
“leaching.” See also illuviation and leaching. eutrophication Nutrient enrichment of lakes, ponds,
and other such waters that stimulates the growth of
endoaquic (endosaturation) A condition or moisture
aquatic organisms, which leads to a deficiency of oxy-
regime in which the soil is saturated with water in all
gen in the water body.
layers from the upper boundary of saturation (water
table) to a depth of 200 cm or more from the mineral evapotranspiration The combined loss of water from a
soil surface. See also epiaquic. given area, and during a specified period of time, by
GLOSSARY 933
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evaporation from the soil surface and by transpiration fertilizer Any organic or inorganic material of natural
from plants. or synthetic origin added to a soil to supply certain ele-
ments essential to the growth of plants.
exchange capacity The total ionic charge of the
adsorption complex active in the adsorption of ions. fibric materials See organic soil materials.
See also anion exchange capacity; cation exchange
capacity. field capacity (field moisture capacity) The percentage
of water remaining in a soil two or three days after its
exchangeable ions Positively or negatively charged having been saturated and after free drainage has prac-
atoms or groups of atoms that are held on or near the tically ceased.
surface of a solid particle by attraction to charges of the
opposite sign, and which may be replaced by other fine earth fraction That portion of the soil that passes
like-charged ions in the soil solution. through a 2 mm diameter sieve opening. Compare to
coarse fragments.
exchangeable sodium percentage The extent to which
the adsorption complex of a soil is occupied by fine texture Consisting of or containing large quanti-
sodium. It is expressed as follows: ties of the fine fractions, particularly of silt and clay.
exchangeable sodium 1cmolc>kg soil2
(Includes clay loam, sandy clay loam, silty clay loam,
sandy clay, silty clay, and clay textural classes.)
cation exchange capacity 1cmolc>kg soil2
ESP = * 100
fine-grained mica A silicate clay having a 2:1-type lat-
tice structure with much of the silicon in the tetrahe-
exfoliation Peeling away of layers of a rock from dral sheet having been replaced by aluminum and with
the surface inward, usually as the result of expan- considerable interlayer potassium, which binds the
sion and contraction that accompany changes in layers together, prevents interlayer expansion and
temperature. swelling, and limits interlayer cation exchange capacity.
expansive soil Soil that undergoes significant volume fixation (1) For other than elemental nitrogen: the
change upon wetting and drying, usually because of a process or processes in a soil by which certain chemical
high content of swelling-type clay minerals. elements are converted from a soluble or exchangeable
external surface The area of surface exposed on the form to a much less soluble or to a nonexchangeable
top, bottom, and sides of a clay crystal. form; for example, potassium, ammonium, and phos-
phorus fixation. (2) For elemental nitrogen: process by
facultative organism An organism capable of both aer- which gaseous elemental nitrogen is chemically com-
obic and anaerobic metabolism. bined with hydrogen to form ammonia. See biological
fallow Cropland left idle in order to restore produc- nitrogen fixation.
tivity, mainly through accumulation of nutrients, flagstone A relatively thin rock or mineral fragment
water, and/or organic matter. Preceding a cereal grain 15 to 38 cm in length commonly composed of shale,
crop in semiarid regions, land may be left in summer slate, limestone, or sandstone.
fallow for a period during which weeds are controlled
by chemicals or tillage and water is allowed to accu- flocculate To aggregate or clump together individual,
mulate in the soil profile. In humid regions, fallow tiny soil particles, especially fine clay, into small
land may be allowed to grow up in natural vegetation clumps or floccules. Opposite of deflocculate or disperse.
for a period ranging from a few months to many years.
floodplain The land bordering a stream, built up of
Improved fallow involves the purposeful establishment
sediments from overflow of the stream and subject to
of plant species capable of restoring soil productivity
inundation when the stream is at flood stage. Sometimes
more rapidly than a natural plant succession.
called bottomland.
family, soil In Soil Taxonomy, one of the categories inter- flora The sum total of the kinds of plants in an area at
mediate between the great group and the soil series.
one time. The organisms loosely considered to be of
Families are defined largely on the basis of physical and
the plant kingdom.
mineralogical properties of importance to plant growth.
fluorapatite A member of the apatite group of miner-
fauna The animal life of a region or ecosystem. als containing fluorine. Most common mineral in
fen A calcium-rich, peat-accumulating wetland with phosphate rock.
relatively stagnant water.
fluvial deposits Deposits of parent materials laid down
ferrihydrite, Fe5HO8 # 4H2O A dark reddish brown by rivers or streams.
poorly crystalline iron oxide that forms in wet soils.
fluvioglacial See glaciofluvial deposits.
fertigation The application of fertilizers in irrigation foliar diagnosis An estimation of mineral nutrient
waters, commonly through sprinkler systems.
deficiencies (excesses) of plants based on examination
fertility, soil The quality of a soil that enables it to of the chemical composition of selected plant parts,
provide essential chemical elements in quantities and and the color and growth characteristics of the foliage
proportions for the growth of specified plants. of the plants.
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food web The community of organisms that relate to genesis, soil The mode of origin of the soil, with special
one another by sharing and passing on food substances. reference to the processes responsible for the develop-
They are organized into trophic levels such as producers ment of the solum, or true soil, from the unconsolidated
that create organic substances from sunlight and inor- parent material.
ganic matter, to consumers and predators that eat the pro-
genetic horizon Soil layers that resulted from soil-
ducers, dead organisms, waste products and each other.
forming (pedogenic) processes, as opposed to sedimen-
forest floor The forest soil O horizons, including litter tation or other geologic processes.
and unincorporated humus, on the mineral soil surface.
geographic information system (GIS) A method of
fraction A portion of a larger store of a substance overlaying, statistically analyzing, and integrating
operationally defined by a particular analysis or separa- large volumes of spatial data of different kinds. The
tion method. For example, the fulvic acid fraction of data are referenced to geographical coordinates and
soil organic matter is defined by a series of laboratory encoded in a form suitable for handling by computer.
procedures by which it is solubilized. Compare to pool. geological erosion Wearing away of the Earth’s surface
fragipan Dense and brittle pan or subsurface layer in by water, ice, or other natural agents under natural
soils that owes its hardness mainly to extreme density environmental conditions of climate, vegetation, and
or compactness rather than high clay content or so on, undisturbed by man. Synonymous with natural
cementation. Removed fragments are friable, but the erosion.
material in place is so dense that roots penetrate and gibbsite, Al(OH)3 An aluminum trihydroxide mineral
water moves through it very slowly. most common in highly weathered soils, such as Oxisols.
friable A soil consistency term pertaining to soils that gilgai The microrelief of soils produced by expansion
crumble with ease. and contraction with changes in moisture. Found in
frigid A soil temperature class with mean annual tem- soils that contain large amounts of clay that swells and
perature below 8° C. shrinks considerably with wetting and drying. Usually
a succession of microbasins and microknolls in nearly
fritted micronutrients Sintered silicates having total level areas or of microvalleys and microridges parallel
guaranteed analyses of micronutrients with controlled to the direction of the slope.
(relatively slow) release characteristics.
glacial drift Rock debris that has been transported by
fulvic acid A term of varied usage but usually referring to glaciers and deposited, either directly from the ice or
the mixture of organic substances remaining in solution from the meltwater. The debris may or may not be het-
upon acidification of a dilute alkali extract from the soil. erogeneous.
functional diversity The characteristic of an ecosystem glacial till See till.
exemplified by the capacity to carry out a large number
of biochemical transformations and other functions. glaciofluvial deposits Material moved by glaciers and
subsequently sorted and deposited by streams flowing
functional group An atom, or group of atoms, from the melting ice. The deposits are stratified and
attached to a large molecule. Each functional group
may occur in the form of outwash plains, deltas,
(e.g., —OH, —CH3, —COOH, etc.) has a characteristic
kames, eskers, and kame terraces.
chemical reactivity.
gleyed A soil condition resulting from prolonged sat-
fungi Eukaryote microorganisms with a rigid cell wall. uration with water and reducing conditions that mani-
Some form long filaments of cells called hyphae that
fest themselves in greenish or bluish colors throughout
may grow together to form a visible body.
the soil mass or in mottles.
furrow slice The uppermost layer of an arable soil to the
depth of primary tillage; the layer of soil sliced away from
glomalin A protein-sugar group of molecules secreted
by certain fungi resulting in a sticky hyphal surface
the rest of the profile and inverted by a moldboard plow.
thought to contribute to aggregate stability.
gabion Partitioned, wire fabric containers, filled with
stone at the site of use, to form flexible, permeable, and
goethite, FeOOH A yellow-brown iron oxide mineral
that accounts for the brown color in many soils.
monolithic structures for earth retention.
gamma ray A high-energy ray (photon) emitted dur- granular structure Soil structure in which the indi-
ing radioactive decay of certain elements. vidual grains are grouped into spherical aggregates
with indistinct sides. Highly porous granules are com-
Gelisols An order in Soil Taxonomy. Soils that have monly called crumbs. A well-granulated soil has the
permafrost within the upper 1 m, or upper 2 m if cry- best structure for most ordinary crop plants. See also
oturbation is also present. They may have an ochric, soil structure types.
histic, mollic, or other epipedon.
granulation The process of producing granular mate-
gellic materials Mineral or organic soil materials that rials. Commonly used to refer to the formation of soil
have cryoturbation and/or ice in the form of lenses, structural granules, but also used to refer to the pro-
veins, or wedges and the like. cessing of powdery fertilizer materials into granules.
GLOSSARY 935
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grassed waterway Broad and shallow channel, content and pieces of the hard layer do not slake in
planted with grass (usually perennial species) that is water. See also caliche; claypan.
designed to move surface water downslope without
harrowing A secondary broadcast tillage operation
causing soil erosion.
that pulverizes, smooths, and firms the soil in seedbed
gravitational potential That portion of the total soil preparation, controls weeds, or incorporates material
water potential due to differences in elevation of the ref- spread on the surface.
erence pool of pure water and that of the soil water.
heaving The partial lifting of plants, buildings, road-
Since the soil water elevation is usually chosen to be
ways, fenceposts, etc., out of the ground, as a result of
higher than that of the reference pool, the gravita-
freezing and thawing of the surface soil during the winter.
tional potential is usually positive.
heavy metals Those metals that have densities of 5.0
gravitational water Water that moves into, through, Mg/m or greater. Elements in soils include Cd, Co, Cr,
or out of the soil under the influence of gravity.
Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Mo, Pb, and Zn.
great group A category in Soil Taxonomy. The classes heavy soil (Obsolete in scientific use) A soil with a
in this category contain soils that have the same kind
high content of clay, and a high drawbar pull, hence
of horizons in the same sequence and have similar
difficult to cultivate.
moisture and temperature regimes.
hematite, Fe2O3 A red iron oxide mineral that con-
green manure Plant material incorporated with the tributes red color to many soils.
soil while green, or soon after maturity, for improving
the soil. hemic material See organic materials.
greenhouse effect The entrapment of heat by upper herbicide A chemical that kills plants or inhibits their
atmosphere gases, such as carbon dioxide, water vapor, growth; intended for weed control.
and methane, just as glass traps heat for a greenhouse.
herbivore A plant-eating animal.
Increases in the quantities of these gases in the atmo-
sphere will likely result in global warming that may heterotroph An organism capable of deriving energy
have serious consequences for humankind. for life processes only from the decomposition of
organic compounds and incapable of using inorganic
groundwater Subsurface water in the zone of satura- compounds as sole sources of energy or for organic
tion that is free to move under the influence of gravity,
synthesis. Contrast with autotroph.
often horizontally to stream channels.
histic epipedon A diagnostic surface horizon consisting
grus A sediment or soil material comprised of loose of a thin layer of organic soil material that is saturated
grains of coarse sand and fine gravel size composed of
with water at some period of the year unless artificially
quartz, feldspar and rock fragments. Produced from
drained and that is at or near the surface of a mineral soil.
rocks by physical weathering or selectively transported
by borrowing insects. Histosols An order in Soil Taxonomy. Soils formed from
materials high in organic matter. Histosols with essen-
gully erosion The erosion process whereby water accu- tially no clay must have at least 20% organic matter by
mulates in narrow channels and, over short periods,
weight (about 78% by volume). This minimum organic
removes the soil from this narrow area to considerable
matter content rises with increasing clay content to
depths, ranging from 1 to 2 ft to as much as 23 to 30 m
30% (85% by volume) in soils with at least 60% clay.
(75 to 100 ft).
horizon, soil A layer of soil, approximately parallel to
gypsic horizon A diagnostic subsurface horizon of sec- the soil surface, differing in properties and characteris-
ondary calcium sulfate enrichment that is more than
tics from adjacent layers below or above it. See also
15 cm thick.
diagnostic horizons.
gypsum requirement The quantity of gypsum required horticulture The art and science of growing fruits, veg-
to reduce the exchangeable sodium percentage in a soil
etables, and ornamental plants.
to an acceptable level.
hue (color) See Munsell color system.
halophyte A plant that requires or tolerates a saline
(high salt) environment. humic acid A mixture of variable or indefinite compo-
sition of dark organic substances, precipitated upon
hard armor Pertains to the use of hard materials (such acidification of a dilute alkali extract from soil.
as large stones or concrete) to prevent soil and stream
bank erosion by reducing the erosive force of flowing humic substances A series of complex, relatively high
water. See soft armor. molecular weight, brown- to black-colored organic sub-
stances that make up 60 to 80% of the soil organic matter
hardpan A hardened soil layer, in the lower A or and are generally quite resistant to ready microbial attack.
in the B horizon, caused by cementation of soil parti-
cles with organic matter or with such materials as humid climate Climate in regions where moisture,
silica, sesquioxides, or calcium carbonate. The hardness when distributed normally throughout the year,
does not change appreciably with changes in moisture should not limit crop production. In cool climates
936 Glossary
12. Z03_BRAD9383_14_SE_GLOS.QXD 8/14/07 2:42 AM Page 937
annual precipitation may be as little as 25 cm; in hot plant’s tissues. Often pertaining to concentrations of
climates, 150 cm or even more. Natural vegetation in heavy metals to 1% or more of the tissue dry matter.
uncultivated areas is forests.
hyperthermic A soil temperature class with mean
humification The processes involved in the decompo- annual temperatures >22°C.
sition of organic matter and leading to the formation
of humus.
hypha (pl. hyphae) Filament of fungal cells. Actinomycetes
also produce similar, but thinner, filaments of cells.
humin The fraction of the soil organic matter that is not
dissolved upon extraction of the soil with dilute alkali.
hypoxia State of oxygen deficiency in an environment
so low as to restrict biological respiration (in water, typ-
humus That more or less stable fraction of the soil ically less than 2 to 3 mg O2/L).
organic matter remaining after the major portions of
added plant and animal residues have decomposed.
hysteresis A relationship between two variables that
changes depending on the sequences or starting point. An
Usually it is dark in color.
example is the relationship between soil water content
hydration Chemical union between an ion or com- and water potential, for which different curves describe
pound and one or more water molecules, the reaction the relationship when a soil is gaining water or losing it.
being stimulated by the attraction of the ion or com-
igneous rock Rock formed from the cooling and solid-
pound for either the hydrogen or the unshared electrons
ification of magma that has not been changed appre-
of the oxygen in the water.
ciably since its formation.
hydraulic conductivity An expression of the readiness illite See fine-grained mica.
with which a liquid, such as water, flows through a solid,
such as soil, in response to a given potential gradient. illuvial horizon A soil layer or horizon in which mate-
rial carried from an overlying layer has been precipi-
hydric soils Soils that are water-saturated for long tated from solution or deposited from suspension. The
enough periods to produce reduced conditions and layer of accumulation.
affect the growth of plants.
illuviation The process of deposition of soil material
hydrogen bonding Relatively low energy bonding exhib- removed from one horizon to another in the soil;
ited by a hydrogen atom located between two highly usually from an upper to a lower horizon in the soil
electronegative atoms, such as nitrogen or oxygen. profile. See also eluviation.
hydrologic cycle The circuit of water movement from immature soil A soil with indistinct or only slightly
the atmosphere to the Earth and back to the atmo- developed horizons because of the relatively short time
sphere through various stages or processes, as precipita- it has been subjected to the various soil-forming
tion, interception, runoff, infiltration, percolation, processes. A soil that has not reached equilibrium with
storage, evaporation, and transpiration. its environment.
hydrolysis A reaction with water that splits the water immobilization The conversion of an element from
molecule into H+ and OH- ions. Molecules or atoms the inorganic to the organic form in microbial tissues
participating in such reactions are said to hydrolyze. or in plant tissues, thus rendering the element not
hydronium A hydrated hydrogen ion (H3O+), the form readily available to other organisms or to plants.
of the hydrogen ion usually found in an aqueous system. imogolite A poorly crystalline aluminosilicate mineral
hydroperiod The duration of the presence of surface with an approximate formula SiO2Al2O3 • 2.5H2O;
water in seasonal wetlands. occurs mostly in soils formed from volcanic ash.
hydroponics Plant-production systems that use nutri- impervious Resistant to penetration by fluids or by roots.
ent solutions and no solid medium to grow plants. improved fallow See fallow.
hydrostatic potential See submergence potential. Inceptisols An order in Soil Taxonomy. Soils that are
hydrous mica See fine-grained mica. usually moist with pedogenic horizons of alteration of
parent materials but not of illuviation. Generally, the
hydroxyapatite A member of the apatite group of direction of soil development is not yet evident from
minerals rich in hydroxyl groups. A nearly insoluble the marks left by various soil-forming processes or the
calcium phosphate. marks are too weak to classify in another order.
hygroscopic coefficient The amount of moisture in a induced systemic resistance Plant defense mecha-
dry soil when it is in equilibrium with some standard nisms activated by a chemical signal produced by a rhi-
relative humidity near a saturated atmosphere (about zosphere bacteria. Although the process begins in the
98%), expressed in terms of percentage on the basis of soil, it may confer disease resistance to leaves or other
oven-dry soil. aboveground tissues.
hyperaccumulator A plant with unusually high capac- indurated (soil) Soil material cemented into a hard
ity to take up certain elements from soil resulting in mass that will not soften on wetting. See also consis-
very high concentrations of these elements in the tence; hardpan.
GLOSSARY 937
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infiltration The downward entry of water into the soil. Koc The distribution coefficient, Kd, calculated based
on organic carbon content. Koc ϭ Kd/foc where foc is
infiltration capacity A soil characteristic determining
the fraction of organic carbon.
or describing the maximum rate at which water can
enter the soil under specified conditions, including the kame A conical hill or ridge of sand or gravel
presence of an excess of water. deposited in contact with glacial ice.
inner-sphere complex A relatively strong (not easily kandic horizon A subsurface diagnostic horizon hav-
reversed) chemical association or bonding directly ing a sharp clay increase relative to overlying horizons
between a specific ion and specific atoms or groups of and having low-activity clays.
atoms in the surface structure of a soil colloid.
kaolinite An aluminosilicate mineral of the 1:1 crys-
inoculation The process of introducing pure or mixed tal lattice group; that is, consisting of single silicon
cultures of microorganisms into natural or artificial tetrahedral sheets alternating with single aluminum
culture media. octahedral sheets.
inorganic compounds All chemical compounds in Ksat Hydraulic conductivity when the soil is water sat-
nature except compounds of carbon other than carbon urated. See also hydraulic conductivity.
monoxide, carbon dioxide, and carbonates.
k-strategist An organism that maintains a relatively
insecticide A chemical that kills insects. stable population by specializing in metabolism of
resistant compounds that most other organisms can-
intergrade A soil that possesses moderately well-
not utilize. Contrast with r-strategist. See also autochtho-
developed distinguishing characteristics of two or more
nous organisms.
genetically related great soil groups.
interlayer (mineralogy) Materials between layers labile A substance that is readily transformed by micro-
within a given crystal, including cations, hydrated organisms or is readily available for uptake by plants.
cations, organic molecules, and hydroxide groups or lacustrine deposit Material deposited in lake water
sheets. and later exposed either by lowering of the water level
internal surface The area of surface exposed within a or by the elevation of the land.
clay crystal between the individual crystal layers. land A broad term embodying the total natural envi-
Compare with external surface. ronment of the areas of the Earth not covered by
interstratification Mixing of silicate layers within the water. In addition to soil, its attributes include other
structural framework of a given silicate clay. physical conditions, such as mineral deposits and
water supply; location in relation to centers of com-
ionic double layer The distribution of cations in the merce, populations, and other land; the size of the
soil solution resulting from the simultaneous attrac- individual tracts or holdings; and existing plant cover,
tion toward colloid particles by the particle’s negative works of improvement, and the like.
charge and the tendency of diffusion and thermal
forces to move the cations away from the colloid sur- land capability classification A grouping of kinds of soil
faces. Also described as a diffuse double layer or a dif- into special units, subclasses, and classes according to their
fuse electrical double layer. capability for intensive use and the treatments required
for sustained use. One such system has been prepared
ions Atoms, groups of atoms, or compounds that are by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service.
electrically charged as a result of the loss of electrons
(cations) or the gain of electrons (anions). land classification The arrangement of land units
into various categories based upon the properties of
iron-pan An indurated soil horizon in which iron the land or its suitability for some particular purpose.
oxide is the principal cementing agent.
land forming Shaping the surface of the land by scrap-
irrigation efficiency The ratio of the water actually ing off the high spots and filling in the low spots with
consumed by crops on an irrigated area to the amount precision grading machinery to create a uniform,
of water diverted from the source onto the area. smooth slope, often for irrigation purposes. Also called
isomorphous substitution The replacement of one land smoothing.
atom by another of similar size in a crystal lattice land-use planning The development of plans for the
without disrupting or changing the crystal structure uses of land that, over long periods, will best serve the
of the mineral. general welfare, together with the formulation of ways
isotopes Two or more atoms of the same element that and means for achieving such uses.
have different atomic masses because of different num- laterite An iron-rich subsoil layer found in some
bers of neutrons in the nucleus. highly weathered humid tropical soils that, when
joule The SI energy unit defined as a force of 1 newton exposed and allowed to dry, becomes very hard and
applied over a distance of 1 meter; 1 joule ϭ 0.239 calorie. will not soften when rewetted. When erosion removes
the overlying layers, the laterite is exposed and a vir-
Kd See distribution coefficient, Kd. tual pavement results. See also plinthite.
938 Glossary