Hayssi Warqqatey Goofatho ginxxo wogaaba odees.

1. 1
ARBBA MINCCE YUNBURSSE
DERETETHA SAYNISENNE ASATETHA KOLLOJEN
TOPHPHIYA DOONATANNE BILA-XUUFE
GOOFATHO DOONA TIMIRTTE KIFILE
GINXXO WOGA (POETRY ELGo-2065)
HEEDZANTHO LAYTHA GOOFATHO TAMARETAS GIIGIDA
MOOJULE
GIIGISIDAY
MARQOOSA IYAASU (AMU)
ZIIDA URGAAMO (ATTC)
ARBA MINCCE YUNBURSSE
CAAMO TASHE
2010 M.L.
ARBBA MINCCE, TOPHPHIYA

2. 2
Keso
Kaara Sinthe
Shemppo Isso………………………………………………………………………1
Ginxxo woga/Poetry)……………………………………………………………...1
Gelo………………………………………………………………………………………… …….1
1.1 Ginxxo Aybatethi……………………………………………………………………………..2
1.2 Ginxxo Kanddota……………………………………………………………………………...4
1.3 Ginxxo Doometha Taarike (The History of Poetry)…………………………………………14
1.3.1 Wuloha Bagga (Western) Meezenne 20tho
M.L. Palama………………………………...14
1.3.1.1 Medhdhanchatethanne qonccisethaqofata qofa (constructivism Vs expressivism)……15
1.3.1.2 Kifile Shaahotethinne siiqotethi qofa (Classism Vs Romanticism)……………………...15
1.3.1.3 Kubisimenne Qonccisetha qofa (Cubism Vs Expressionism)…………………………...15
1.4 Ginxxo Qommota (Genres/Taypes of Poetry)……………………………………………….16
1.4.1 Taarikiya Ginxxo (Narretive Poetry)…………………………………………………….16
1.4.2 Muuzunqa ginxxo (Lyric poetry)……………………………………………………….16
1.4.3 Diramma Ginxxo (Dramatic poetry)……………………………………………………..17
Shemppo Nam77a………………………………………………………………..18
Ginxxo Yarata (Elements of Poetry)…………………………………………………………..18
2.1 Kure (Stanza) ………………………………………………………………………………..18
2.2 Keso (Iamb/Syllable)………………………………………………………………………...19
2.3 Tura (Phrase)…………………………………………………………………………………20
2.4 Zira (Line)……………………………………………………………………………………21
2.5 Mixenne shoche (Rythem and Rhym)……………………………………………………….21
2.6 Eedo (Rythem)……………………………………………………………………………….21
2.7 Polo (Rhym)………………………………………………………………………………….22
2.8 Dinxxo ……………………………………………………………………………………….22
Shemppo Heedza…………………………………………………………………25
Bertte Gidida Ginxxo Istayleta (Major stylistic features of Poetry)……………………………..25
Markka Maxaafata……………………………………………………………………………..26

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SHEMPPO ISSO
GINXXO WOGA/POETRY
Gelo
Ha sima kaaraan ginxxo aybatethi shiiqana. Dumma dumma eranchati ginxxos immida qofatikka
paatettana. Ubbaape qassi Goofatho ginxxos aayo gidida saba kanddota,saba oyketethinne mixe
pali xeellana. Ginxxo yarata: kure, zira, tura, polo, siqimetehi, keso, eedonne dinxxo xeellana.
Issuwas issuwas malla immishe paattana.
Eranchati ginxxos immiya birshethata, qofatanne, oda zawata shiishana. Ginxxoy yeda xuufepe
dummatiya ogeta xeellana. Ubbaape tamaareti Goofatho ginxxo nashshidi ginxxoy waani
me77iyakko, waanidi oykkonna ixxiyakkonne mixey ay aazanaw bessiyakko malan shiqana.
Hessa gisho, tamareti barkkidi kushettanamela shoobboos.
Qopobata
Tamaareti ha sima kaaraa tamaari polishe:
• ginxxo aybatethi paattana.
• Goofatho ginxxo kanddota shaakki bessana.
• Goofatho ginxxo nashshaona; paattana.
• Goofatho sabanne ginxxo mixe dethan waani oykettiyakko qoncciana.
• qantha ginxxo xaafana. Xaafidi mixenne eedo naagidi nabbabana.
• ginxxon kure, zira,… malatiya qaalata billana.
• ginxxonmixe zhubatethi /me7o giigisana.
▪ Goofatho ginxxo hanotaa paatti odana.
▪ ginxxon mixes de7iya wolqqaa kathi xeellidi balata luulisana.
▪ ginxxo giddo yarata paatti odana; suure go7ettana.
• qantha ginxxo xaafana.
• ginxxon odota go7aa paatti odana; xaafishekka go7ettana.

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• ginxxo kanddotape denddidi nashshana.
• ginxxoy hara yeda xuufepe dummayiya mixeta kessi bessana;yiggi xeelana.
• ginxxo keson shaakki bessidi mixeta giigisana.
Barkketho
1. Goofatho yetha sabape ane nam77ata xaafidi odite. (Baaranche qoppite).
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2. Oykkiya saba shaakki ereetii? Ane sabape malla ekkidi waani giigdakko mallite.
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3. Ginxxoy yeda xuufepe waani/aybin dummatii?
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4. Ginxxo gaathan de7ia qaalata /yarata ane odite.
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1.1 Ginxxo Aybatethi (Definition of Poetry)
Dumma dumma eranchati panta era dethaninne panta meezetethan kattidi dumma dumma
birshetha immoosona.Hessatappe ginxxo aybatetha tillayi qonccisiya birshethata kaalliyayssan
xeelana:
• Samuel Tylor Coleridge giya bitaney gishe “ginxxoy keehi doorettida qaalati keehi
doorettida sinth-guye maaran uttidi shiiqiya bila xuufe qommo.”
• Mathew Arnold “Ginxxo keehi malara de7iyayssa, keehi malaaliyyssaanne keehippe suure
ogen yohota qoncciso oge; gujjidikka, ginxxoy issi asa de7o bornashos baaso gis.”
• P.B. Shelleygeetettiya bitaney birshishe, ginxxoy ufayettidanne keehi lo7oo guugen
mazgabettida dhoqqanne keehi ufayssiya didirxxata yagis.
• William Wordsworth gishe, ginxxoy eesotonnan pulttiya wolqqama gaatha qofa (feeling).
• Thomas Carlyle pa baggara qassi ginxxoy muuzinqatetha qofa yagis.

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• Qaalatan go7ettidi qaalata qonccisethi gis (Wallace Stevens)
• Walaka kaha girssata tillayidi qonccisethi gis (W.H.Auden).
• Wursethan, Samuel Johnson geetettiya bitaney gishe, ginxxoy gaason go7ettidi wallotethinne
tumatetha issipetetha naagidi medhdhida ba.
Dn. Gabayo Biraanuy odishe: doona go7etetha wogaape, muuziqa eedotethaape, asas
gaathi gelidi denthethiya hanotaape woy hiilla go7atapenne xaafanchchaa kahaape
gukkiya aatha qofaape denddidi eranchchati ginxxos dumma dumma qofa immoosona gis.
Dn. Asfa Zaruney qassi he macaraa binitethaara, pa wode eraara, wode go7etetha
ogiyara, xaafanchaa xeelo ginaara gathi xeellishin dumma dumma qofati imettis
gidosona.
Ha dumma dumma qofatas gaasoy aybee gishin:
1. Ginxoy binibaanne unddenna laythata pinnidi yidabaa gididayssa.
2. Woden woden denddiya xeelo ogeti/ginati he wodetas giigiya qofa immishe
gam7idayssa.
3. Xafanchata xeelo ogeynne entti ginxxos immiya birshshetha dummatethay,
4. Dumma dumma nabanchata bolla ehiya naaqoynne entti immiya birshshethay,
5. Ginxxo hankko yeda xuufetara gathi xeellishin immiya go7aynne medhoy.
6. Aahotethay, laameretetha kanddoy, era macara ubbaa bosherethiya gisho he hanotaara
qofa immishe gami77idayssi,
7. Hankko bila xuufe macaratape ginxxoy doonara (saban) nne xuufera shiiqeyssan daro
wode dere woga qonccisishe gam77ida gisho dumma dumma wogi de7iya dereti cora
birshethi immiya gisho dummatis.
Hayssadan, ubbay issimela qofa immanaw dandda7onna ixxikkone koxxiyabati de7oosona.
▪ Yeda xuufera gathi xeellishin daro ceega.
▪ Doonaranne (sabara) xaafon shiiqees.
▪ Yeda xuufemela dalgga besse oykkenna, (gaxape gaxa gakkenna).
▪ Qofa dalggisishe gade ekkenna, qanthara gidi aggaagees.
▪ Mal77onne gurzza qaala koyees.
Ginxxoy keson taybettidi, turan shaakettidi, ziran zattidi, kuren
makettidi, poloninne dinxxon qinxxettidi, mixen maxettidi, gurzzanne
mal77o qaalan shilottidi, muuzuqa eedon ilddiiqidi shiiqees.

6. 6
1.2 Ginxxo Kanddota (Characteristics of Poetry)
Asfa Zaruney (1991) odidamela: “ginxxoy issi qofa mal77ethidinne abbe immidi beso,
qofa minthidinne gitayidi shiisho wolqqi de7iya qorettida uuga mino (gurzza) qaalatan
daro qofa siqimi oykethi dandda7iyanne muuzuqa eedon asa wozana gaathi ellesi geliya
hiilla ooso. Ginxxoy pa medhuwan ase suukeyidi denthetho wolqqi de7ees”yaagis.
Ane ginxxo kare bagganne gaatha medhuwa denthidi xeelloos.
a. Ginxxos gaathaa xeellishin:
1. Qoro /doorettida/ qaala koyees.
2. Qawosa wogas haarettenna.
3. Qofa issipetethi de7iya ziran medhettees.
4. Siqimetetha kanddoy de7ees. (Aaaho qofa shiishi oykkees.)
5. Minjja kanddoy de7ees. (Qaala darotethi koyenna.)
6. Elleso kanddoy de7ees
7. Odota wudidi go7ettees
8. Dummatiya medhoynne yari de7ees
b. Ginxxos kare zawaa xeellishin:
1. Qanthara shiiqees.
2. Ziran makettees.
3. Turan shaakettees.
4. Dinxxeesenne polees
Nu tamaareti dethan dethan ginxxo xaafoninne nashon gakkanaada, hessadan, lo77o
nabbaabancha, lo77o xaafanchanne lo77o bor- nashaadde gidanaada udo koshshees. Yaatikko,
bollara paydo 1 pe paydo 7 gaso shiiqida ginxxo medho kanddota ane be7oos.

7. 7
1. Qofa issipetethi de7iya ziran medhettees (xaafettees)
Issi issi asati ginxxoy yeda xuufepe aybin dummatii giya wode ginxxos gaatha medhuwa
(giddobata) aggidi geeshsha (kare bagga) medhuwa kanche bolla qofa immoosona.
Ginxxoy dinxxidi polees; ziran zattees; nabbabishinikka sabamela eedoy de7ees. Hayssi ginxxo
kanddota wurssi qonccisonna ixxikkonne tuma. Dinxxida woy polida gisho kanche ginxxo
kandoy kumis gaanaw metees. Maarara uttida ginxxo zirata polishin issipetethi de7anaw bessees.
Goofatho yetha sabati ha ayfe qofaa /issipetethaa/ kunthenna. Ane kaallidi xeelloos.
1. Maatha qeesa hanggaaraa.
Bootha mulxxa badallaa,
Geeshsha tirra aarassaa,
2. Saynnope Saynno gakkanaw shaattonna bollaa,
Haahora beettiya gita orzzaama keethaa.
3. Daganthon xooniya assura dadaa,
Keetha achara mal77etho keelaa.
Ha bollara shiiqida ginxxoti Goofas yetha saba. Yethi gishin laale, baaranche, woy haraakka
gidanaw dandda7ees. Goofa saba wogan ha, heedzu ginxxotan issi metoykka, issi balikka baawa.
Ubbati qinxxi gidosona. Me77iday baawa. Egge sabikka baawa.
Mallas: 1 koyro ginxxoy heedzu zira oykkis. Zira issoy issoy qassi heedzu heedzu qaala oykkis.
Qaalatikka zhood- mooda gidenna. Guussaykka issoy adusse issoy qanthi gidenna. Issoy adusse
issoy qanthi gidiyakko sabay oykkibeennashin. Hayssikka luulo dinxxidayssa bessees.
Hanope attin qofa issipetethi baawa. Mallas, koyro ziray maatha bagga odees. Nam77antho ziray
badalla boothatethi odees. Heedzantho ziray qassi mala woy aarassatethi odes.
Nam77antho ginxxuwanikka suuretetha baggara metoy baawa. He ginxxoy nam77u zira oykkida
gidishin ginxxo issuwan issuwan qinxxi gida ichashu qaalati de7oosona. Qaalatikka ha77ikka
zhood- mooda gidokkona. Hessa gisho, sabay lo77o polettis. Hanikkonne koyro ziray issi asa

8. 8
bolla lo77otethi (mala gidanaw dandda7ees) odees. Ha uray ubba wode hilthitha geeshshi; he
geeshshatethaape denddidi be7in shaattenna woy kalssenna. Be7ada aggopa aggopa udees;
lo77ees. Nam77antho ziray harabaa odees. Asa bagga gidonna shin keethay gita eqaama gidida
gisho haahora maletteyssa nashshees. Hessa gisho, he ginxxuwan qofa issipetethi baawa.
Heedzantho sabaanikka Goofatho yetha saba baggara hantti keyenna. Qinxxi gidi polis woy
me77ibeennanne borssenna. Hanikkone, zira issoy assura dadi yashisiyabaa odees. Nam77anthoy
keetha matara giigisi keelida keelay waani lo77iyakko odes. Nam77atikka qofara
gahettibookkona. Heedzatanikka dinxxo, polo, mixe metoy baawa.
Hara baggara qassi ginxxuwas issipetethi de7idi dinxxonna aggikko, mixey paccikko
(me77ikko), qaalay zhood-mooda gidikko ha77ikka suuribeenna (luulibeenna) guussi. Ginxxoy
ubbata kunthidi beettanaw koshshees.
Mallas:
1. Nu maanaw malddo uythaa,
Usttanaw qeesa maathaa,
Togganaw para kooraa,
Uttana oydey allaaraa.
Bollara shiiqida ginxxwan qofa issipitethi de7eyssi geeshshi; shin, heedzantho ziray me77is.
Egge saba guussay hayssamela. Mixey gina gidenna guussi.
2. Ne maathaan shal77ida,
Ne oysaan kaa7ida,
Ne eessaakka agidi uyida.
3. Haathamela xillee,
Maatamela irxxee,
Wolamela daashshee,
Umaada dalgiyaree.
Bollara shiiqida ginxotan qofa issipetethi, suuretethi, de7eyssi qoncce gidikkonne wurssetha
zirati dinxxidi polibookkona. Woy saba wogan egge saba gidida gisho, ginxxoy (sabay)
oykkenna guussi.

9. 9
Qofa issipetethi de7iya zirati wolira oykettidi kuren diccees guussi. Kure guussay (xaafettida
ginxxon) nam77anne nam7upe dariya zirati wol gakkidi issi qofa aathiya ginxxo kifile guussi.
Hessikka, yeda xuufen daassi guussi. Daassi issi adarsso shaako gididi uuga meega qofati wol
gakkidi issi ayfe qofa kanche shiishi oykkiya kifile. Hessa gisho, kureranne daassara wolimela.
Kure, qofa issipetethi, mixenne zira hanota kaalliya ginxxuwape mallas xeelloos.
Ginxxoy Dn. Ziidda Urgaamoy “Abbay… Abbay…” gishe Abbaye shaafaa bagga xaafidayssape
qanthara ekettis.
Abbay… Abbay…
1. Abbay nees hoola woraabaa,
Nees maataa maganaa.
2. Ne sunthay ne wolqay,
Ne abbey ne garday,
Ne zaasey ne teemay,
Ne geesay ne qanthay.
Abbay nees hoola woraabaa,
Nees maataa maganaa.
3. Nu nena eeqida,
Nu nena sabbida,
Nu nena nashshida,
Sha77u laytha gaso…
Nu nena bonchida
Kushera bochonna…
Nuuni nees ziggida.
Abbay nees hoola woraabaa,
Nees maataa maganaa.
4. Parada ne boonna,

10. 10
Galoda ne gupa,
Uzzoda ne dozga.
5. Nu biittaa ne wooca,
Nu mithaa ne tookka,
Nu woraa ne qeexa,
Sudaane ne kalsa,
Gibxeta ne dhiikka,
Yaagidi yeddida,
Maatara anjida.
6. Entta muza, entta kalsa,
Entta dhiikka entta dicha,
Biittaa efa entta woyta,
Dee7isana gaso . . .
Entta barssa,
Entta tucca.
Abbay nees hoola worabaa,
Nees maataa maganaa.
7. Ne dhuussaa aggada,
Ne tuussaa dogada,
Allaga gidada
Kare ne xeellada.
Abbay nees hoola woraabaa,
Nees maataa maganaa,
Ne sunthay ne wolqay,
Ne abbey ne garday,
Ne zaasey ne teemay,
Ne geesay ne qanthay,
Ne gaychay ne worey,
Ne shoorey ne soossoy.
(Y.Z. Urgaamo, Okola 2003)

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Bollara shiiqida ginxxoy kuren kuren makettidi shiiqis. Kure issuwan issuwan issimela qofi
shaaketti shaaketti uttidayssa be7oos. Iya gaathaan qassi koyro nam77u zirati aadhdhi aadhdhi
gelon yetha soreda giigi uttis. Hayssi Abbaye shaafaa nuuni loythi akeekanaada udis.
Kumetha kure shaakuwa bessanaw paydoy imettis. Kumethan ginxxoy 8 kuren shaakettida
gidishin, hosppunthaan koyro kurey simmi gelida gisho7gidees.
Koyro kurey nam77anthuwara gahettidi Abbaye shaafaa wolqqaamatethaa bessees. Shaafay daro
wolqqaama. Oykkin simmenna; teqqin simmenna. Wolqqaama kanche gidenna. Dalggakka
dalgga. Adusse. Iya adussatethay Iya nashisis. Wolqqay, dalggatethay, sunthay, gitatethay…,
shiiqidi qassi teema immis. Daro ayanttis guussi. Tumapekka alamen Abbaye shaafa
nashshonnay baawa. Adussatethaan koyro kushe ekkis. Hessa gisho “nees hoola; woraaba;
maatee; maganaa;” gishe asay woossees; shoobbees.
Heedzantho kuriya xeellishin darobaa be7oos. Wolqqaama haathi dhawas maaddees. Daro kathi
muruutisidi issi dere kalssees; koshape ashshees. Muruutaape kare dere yeddikko miishe laame
dichees. Haraa qassi korontte wolqqa demison deriya go77ees. Korontte wolqqan darobay
oosettees.
Hanope attin, Abbaya shaafay hayssamela gita oosos maaddibeenna. Asay haathaas babbis.
Haathaas dorsse/deeshe shukkidi eeqees. Salo kessidi sabbees; nashshees. Sha77ura qoodettiya
laythata ubbaan boncheesepe attin, yayyeesepe attin, kushera bochanaw hara attin
dandda7ibeenna. Ubbara Abbayes ziggees.
Kure issuwa issuwa billi xeellikko hayssamela aaho qofa shiishi oykkis guussi. Hayssape
denddidi kurey issimela qofa shiishi oykkidayssa akeekoos. Hayssi ginxxo kanddotape issuwa.
Ginxxoy dinxxida gisho, mixey qinxxi gida gisho, kesoy maxettida gishonne eedoy mal77ida
gisho kanche issi polo qofa aathees guussi qassi gidenna.
Gabayo Biraanuy kure yaagees
“Kurey issi ginxxon zirati wol gakkidi medhdhiya qofa issipetethi woy
medho misatethi woy qofanne medho issipetethi de7iya zirata
daashshi. Kure medhoy oyddun shaakettanaw dandda7ees. Zirata

12. 12
keenan, dinxxon, mixeninne eedon. Ha oyddatape issoy woy nam77ay
gidanaw danda7ees.”
2. Ginxxoy Qoro Qaala Koyees
Ginxxo awssikka gidin qaalan medhettiya misile. Xaafanchaape koyettey issibaa. I be7ida ayfeen
harati be7anaada, Iyas ulo midabay nabbabanchata uluwa maanaada guussi. Hayssi polettidi
gaxa gakkanaw dandda7ey pa oosota, gaatha qofaanne malaa suure kessi bessanaw dandda7iya
gurzza qaalata woy misile medhdhiya qaalata dooridi (qori ekkidi) go7ettishina. Ginxxo
siqimetha, minjjanne elleso kanddotikka medhettey qaala naagettidi, qori ekkishina.
“Ginxxoy yeda xuufemela qaala zeri gade gathenna. Qofa shiishidi
siqimi oykkees. Siqimetethi, misile medhonne gurzzatethi medhdhey
he qorettidi doorettidi gelida qaalata. Ginxxoy beettida qaala ubbaa
buuri tuccenna. Hari attin issi ziran hanonna qaali gelishe ginxxuwa
mal77otethaan haathe qolees” gidoosona xaafe Asfa Zaruney.
Ginxxon coo qaalati: ashanqqonnayssati, gurzzonnayssati, qofa siqimi oykkonnayssati
maaddokkona. Ginxxos bol77o gidonnashin misha qaalati, qonccisiya qaalati, teematiya qaalati,
abbey de7iya qaalati, asa wozana dhiqalli keyiya qaalati koyettoosona.
3. Ginxxoy Siqimethi, Minjjanne Elleso Pala.
Siqimethi gishin qaalara gahettees. Ginxxos doorettida qoro qaali koyetttees. Qoro qaalati issi
yoho kanche oykkanaw bessenna. Pantta gaathan unddenna paydin wuronna qaalata siqimi
oykkidi he guutha qaalata billi yeddishin aaho qofata shiishi oykkidayssa kessi beso koshshees.
Issi oyddu ziratan xuntti wothida guutha ginxxo yeda xuufen laammishin ginxxuwa malay
dhayonna shin qonccisana giikko issi sintha warqate kumees.
Mallas:
1. Iiti iissidee,
Shaali shaallidee,
Shuchi dishin bohi kanthidee.

13. 13
Bollara paydo 1n shiiqida ginxxoy heedzu ziranne hosppun qaala oykkis. He qantha ginxxeen
aadhdhida kiitay dalgga. “Iita” gishin mali baynnabaa, be7ishin lo77onnabaa, cooshshana
haniyabaa, osha aaziyabaa gidi qopoos. Woy ase gidikko gene, qaxana, keehatethi baynna,
ashkketethi baynnaba ase gidi qopoos.
“Shaala” gishin nuus ellesidi wozanan geley beshe shaala, tukke oto, xaaro shaalanne h.h.m.
Hara baggara qassi “iitaranne” “shaalara” woli mela gididi beettoosona (kathi xeellishin guussi.)
Iitabay iissiyamela shaalikka shaallidi iissees.
Iita asi ase borees, kadhees, leqqees, zigirees, gene qopees, sunthi iissees, ubbara shemppo
wodhees. Shaalikka hessada geeyi uttidabaa iissees, moorees; ha nam77ata oosoykka iiso.
Shuchi qassi ubbay eroos. Zaalla, shaallo, naage. Hara baggara qassi minobaa. Asanikka
shuchamela mino/ xaalay dees. Bohi shuchada mino gidenna. Shuchi qoo7anaw (phalqqanaw)
waayethees. Bohi coo kushera naaqqikko, woy kawshshabaara dechikko tinchetti aggees. Hano
shin, mino shuchay de7ishin liiqo bohay ase kanthis /qoo7is/. Hessadan minoy, xaalay, gurzzay,
qaray de7ishin wolqqi baynna guuthay ase qohidi beettis. Ha ubbay ginxxo woy saba qaali
aymela minonne pa gaathan daro dalgga bessan birshshettana yohuwa suquno tamada siqimi
oykkidaakko bessees.
Minjjo baggara qassi ginxxoy qaala darotethi koyenna. Uuga, qorettida mal77o qaalatan qanthara
shiishees. Zerishe wode onggenna; aqo onggenna. Gaxape gaxa gathi dharccenna. Bollara
shiiqida heedzu ziranne hosppun qaalan xaafettida ginxxoy yeda xuufen xaafiyakke aymela
dalgganeekko akeekite.
Elleso baggara xeellishin: issoy nabbabo woga; nam77anthoy misile medho. Issi yeda xuufe
nabbaboy uraa nabbabo dandda7a koyees. Ginxxon, hara baggara, nabbabo hiillay ginxxuwa
kochaadan dummatees.
Ginxxo nabbabishin turatan de7iya kesotanne mixe bolla katidi polettees. Ginxxuwa kochaada
dummatiya eedo koyees. He eedoy moorettanaw bessenna. Shochaynne mixey naagettidi
nabbabettishina ayfe qofaykka (kiitay) suure aadhdhey.

14. 14
Misile medho baggara ginxxoy ellesi nabbabettidi gaanaw koyettidabay ellesi wuri aggees.
Gaanaw koyettidabaykka asa kahan ellesi beettees. Ays giikko ginxxo qaalatikka uuganne
siqimethi gidida gishossa.
Kaallidi shiiqida oyshota zorettidi zaarite.
1. Ginxxo kare baggaa (geeshsha baggaa) be7in beettiya medhotanne gaatha kanddota ane
geeshshidi odite.
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2. Ginxxon qofa issipetethi guussay ay guussee?
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3. Ginxxoy me77onna shin (mixe naagidi) dinxikko metoy wuris gaanaw
dandda7ettii?_______________________________________________________________
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4. Kaallidi shiiqida ginxxotan metoy aybee? Cugan tobbidi zaarite.
a. Zinnaare dancciya lasttiqe xeessaa,
Wololi woyshaan woddada wodhaa,
Galgali qoodhen koorada naaga.
b. Ne wogaa keehaara,
Ne duussaa giigaara,
Ne bonchada mokaara.
c. Dembbaa kuma moothaa,
Moothaan xeeta ussaa,
Ussaa kaalla galo maraa,
Maathayuyin wurenna.
5. Kure guussay ay guussee?

15. 15
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6. “Ginxxoy siqimethi” giya ginxxo kandduwa akeekidi kaalliya nam77u zira ginxxoy (sabay)
aathida kiitaa paattite.
1. Ashoy baynna masqqalaa,
Ishi baynna duulataa.
7. Heedzu woy oyddu qantha kure oykkida ginxxo xaafite.
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Odo
Odoy ginxxos tuussi. Ginxxo mal77ethiyabatape odoy sintha kushe ekkees. Ginxxos denddoy
yetha saba gidishin Goofatho sabati gidin ceeqo ererssati odon kaaxettidosona.
Mallas:
1. “Iit issidee,
Shaali shaalliidee,
Shuchi dishin bohi kanthidee” giya qantha (heedzu zira) ginxxuwa ekkidi xeelloos.
He ginxxoy issi “pathenna, laafa” gidi qofettida uray issi “gita asi, paxa asi” geetettida uraa bolla
daafa gathis. Ubbara wodhis geetettees. Hayssi tuma hanida taarike. He wode metoy gakkida
(hayqqida) uraa michiya yekkashe yaaga sabbasu gees.
He meto gathida uraa iita, iitapekka shaala gasu. Gujada qassi laafa gaanaw koyada ‘boha’gasu
Ha nam77u qaalatan mishiriya (asiya) asatho odon laammada laafethada, laafan qoodada
sabbashe yeekkasu.
Abbaye shaafaa bolla shiiqida ginxxuwanikka Abbayey Tophphe dere asaa bolla otorttis; pila
shi7is. Asaa zigisis. Asaykka eeqis. Koyidamela hanees gaanaw:
2. “parade ne boonna,

16. 16
Galoda ne guppa,
Uzzoda ne dozga” gis.
“parada” gishin paramela; “galoda” gishin galomela, “uzzoda” gishin uzzomela guussi. Hessa
gisho Abbay parara, galoranne uzzora gathi xeellis;geeddaris; qeelethis. Hessikka qeeletho odo.
He oduwan Abbay shaafay wallottidi oonikka bochonna paw koyidamela biittaa meeccishe,
mithaa dhiqallishe, shuchaa gonddorssishe beyssa bessees.
3. Mithi wori genthonna qonccee,
Salo gkkanaw takkadhdho paccee.
Ha nam77u zira ginxxuwan uraa wora mela giti genthanaw dandda7iboonna qonccenne uraa
geesatethaa dhoqqisidi salo gakkanw guuthi attida mela udidi shiishishin be7oos.
1.2 Ginxxo Doometha Taarike (The History of Poetry)
1.3.1 Wuloha Bagga (Western) Meezenne 20tho M.L. Palama
Haasayaninne muuzinqan aadhiya ginxxoy beni wode Giriketa drama gididi draama
giigisiyayssatas, odaawatas/qaaxiya kanddotas/ nne xeelanchatas giigidi dalga baaletan
shiiqiyayssa qonccisees.Giriketa qofan ginxxanchati ginxxota xaafiyay saloppe gidiya maade
wolqqanaa gidi ammanettoosona (supernatural assistance).Mallasikka Homerey illadenne
Odyssey geetettiya ginxxota qonccethan maadettidi xaafis gees. Soqraaxisey ha qofa minthishe
qassi, saloppe qonccana gaso ginxxanchas ginxxo wolqqi baawa yaagees.Girike Selte eranchati
qassi, ginxxanchati sharechotanne qeesetadan gidishin entana cayiya assi oonikka galba harggen
woykko lamxxen qohettees gidi dhoqqa bessi immoosona.
Girike dicha dethan erettiya asappe isso gidida Aristoteley gishe ginxxon iita didirxaa woy
baaxeta (tragedy) medho wolqqi koyro bessa oykkiyayssa gidishin qoncciso yarati bila-xuufen
kaalees yaagis. Issi artte hiillanchi woy xaafanchi quma kathiyanne injjineerey baaso misile
(design) giigisidi issi maashine medhidi pa beelappe lo77otetha qofa ekkanaw naagiya asaadan
gidanaw bessi giya oyshata ekkidi dendis.

17. 17
1.3.1.1 Medhdhanchatethanne qonccisethaqofata qofa (constructivism Vs expressivism)
Aristoteley issi artte hiillanchi woy xaafanchi medhdhancha gidishin qonccishanchatethi
(expressivism) kaallidi beetees guusan pa qofa wothis.Hessappe dendidayssan doloha qaaxon
dumma dumma giddo laytha (Medival) ammanon de7iya asata qofan laamettona ammano woga
(Scholasticism)-alame sima denddo wodeppe (Renaissance) doomin 19tho
M.L. gakkanaw de7iya
wodetan dendida qofa giddoyees.
Ha qofay asa na7a tumatetha, timirtte maaranne pilggetha oosota wudayidi 13tho
M.L.ppe
bidi
14tho
M.L. gakkanaw pudeha xaalane biitan doomettidi guyeppe kumetha Awropanne Ingliize
gakkida qofa. Giddo baykka, ammano (belief), hiillata (methods),hiilloha (plosophy) oothidi
sima denddo woy oorathatetha asa na7atetha (Renaissance humanism) gidoosona.
1.3.1.2 Kifile Shaahotethinne siiqotethi qofa (Classism Vs Romanticism)
Ha qofay dumma dumma artte oosota giigiso,shaahonne mal7etho hiillata bolla wudayees.Ikka
Girikeninne Oromen 18tho
M.L.ppe
bidi 19tho
M.L. giddon bila- xuufe (litrature),malaata
(painting),muuzunqqa (music),keeetha keexon (construction),bornashon taarike shiishoninne
pilggetha (criticism,histology and pilosophy) oosota bolla wudayida palama.
1.3.1.3 Kubisimenne Qonccisetha qofa (Cubism Vs Expressionism)
Paransaye bertte kataman 1907-1914 gakkanaw Pablo Pikassonne Jorjis Brakue geetettiya artte
hiillanchatan medhettidi ayfen xeelettiya keetha keexo ooratha woga gelisidoosona.19tho
M.L.ppe
bidi 20tho
M.L. gakkanaw gam7ida mata wode artte ooso demo geetettidi xeesettiya ha qofay,
qonccisanchati/artistteti/ yohotinne miisheti issi asa kaha giddon denthethiyaba gideyssa panta
buzo kaha girsatanne zaarota misile medhon bessanaw mallidoosona. Ha istayle woykko
qaaxuwan keehi eretiya artte eranchati koyro alame olappe sithatidi denddon qaaxxishe gam7ida
Jarmane artte hiillanchata, Awustraliya, paransayenne Ruusa.oykkees; he wodiyan artte
hiillanchati moron (distortion), wolqanthon (exaggerate), benithon (primitivism), tumayoninne
(fantasy) tillan (vivid) dummatiya ogetan go7ettidi poloosona.
Gidoppe attin wursethan ha nam77u palanthiya qofata issi oge ehidi ginxxo xaafoy medhonne
qonccisetha issi bolla oykees qiya qofan eqqidoosona (a work of literary or plastic art is at once
constructive and expressive, and that it must in fact be both).

18. 18
1.4 Ginxxo Qommota (Genres/Taypes of Poetry)
Ginxxo shaahoti heedza gidoosona. Hessatikka;Taarikiya Ginxxo, mazamure Ginxxonne
Diraama Ginxxo geetettoosona Issuwa issuwa denthidi ane xeelloos.
1.4.1 Taarikiya Ginxxo (Narretive Poetry)
Taarike odo bolla zemppida ginxxoy taarikiya ginxxo geetees. Ha ginxxuwa garssan odaawati
de7idi wolla kaalerettiyanne oykerettiya didirxxatethaa pa gaathan tukkidi iya wodhethaanne
kessaa bessiya ginxxo guussi. Taarikiya ginxxos dumma dumma malati de7oosona.Hessatikka:
a. Beni wode Taarike Xomoosiya Qaantha Ginxxo/Ballad/
Daro dirggiyanne qopponna medhettiya hanotati polettiya taarikiya ginxxo qommo. Ha ginxxoy
aybikka hiithe yeggonna qopponna kurthu gidi sinthe bees.Issi buzo didirxxatethi de7ikko
gidees. Daro wode zirati woy turati zaarethon xaafettoosona doona xallan issi qaalan geetettiya
balaadeti de7oosona qassi xuufenkka nabbabos shiiqiya baalade ginxxoti de7oosona.
b. Gooba Odaawa Nashshiya Ginxxo (Epic Poem)
Aduqqi ekkiya taarikiya ginxxo qommo Hessikka baaso undey issi donan nashettiya
didirxxxatetha bolla gidees. Daro wode luxida asatethi de7iya odaawi de7ees. Ha ginxxuwa
taarikey goba asa ola oosuwa yuushon gidees. Ha gooba olanchchay iya gakkida dhubeta
aadhdhidi iyaara eqettiya morkketa waati olidaakko denthidi taarikiya nashshon ginxxettees.
Hessa mala ginxxoti nu gaden ha7i gaso beettibeenna geetettees.
c. Mattumatetha Siiqo Goobatetha Ginxxo/Romance/
Kaha bochchiya qaalatan shiiqiya siiqo, ola goobatethi bessiya taarike oykkees. Ha ginxxo
qommoy yegelssatethas gita bessi immees. Besodey aybikka bochchonna medheta heera bolla
gidees.
1.4.2 Muuzunqa ginxxo (Lyric poetry)
Hayssi mazamure ginxxo geetettidayssi paranjethon lyric geetettees. Lirike geyssi qassi layer
geetettiya muuziqa miishe seunthappe gidees. Ha ginxxo qommoy yetha kanddo de7eyssa
bessees.Mazamure ginxxo malati kaalleyssata.
a.Soneete /sonnet/: paranjjeti guutha mazamure geyssa(little song) Ha ginxxoy 14 zirata
oykkees Hessappe darenna woy guuxxenna. Issi ziran qassi 10 kesoti de7oosona. keethe shocees;
keethe guphees muuziqa hiillaykka giigida mazamure mala oykkees Nu gaden ha zira xaafo
malay asaan meezetibeenna.

19. 19
b. Kayo Ginxxo (Elegy)-yeeho zeleelssi oykkees. Ha ginxxuwas baasoy Gaxare duussi gidishin
odaawatikka mehe henthanchchata. Issi issi wode hashetetha oosoy benttees. Ha ginxxoy daro
wode hayqida asatas shiiqiya eedoy de7iya yeeho yethi gidees.
1.4.3 Diramma Ginxxo (Dramatic poetry)
Hayssi issi odaawa doonaa qaaxuwa gaatha amuwa kandduwa uraappe demo oge bessees. Ha
ginxxuwan nu gaatha kahaa bochchey qofaa paatethaa bolla gidonnashen nuus shaaketti shiiqiya
odaawa bolla gidees.
Diraama ginxxo qoncciso ogeta/hiillata
Diraama ginxxota qoncciso ogeti/hiillati nam77an shaakettoosona.
Hessatikka:
a. Nibaabe kaha (Solilogue)-Issi odaaway pa kanchche xeelo dethaa bolla sissiya haasaya. Asi
genetethi, aadatethi, amotethi, ufayssa woso woy ufayssi dhayon denddidi qofan waaxettidi
haasayiya haasaya xeelo detha shiishikko. Issi odaaway pa xalla haasayshin beso guussi.
b. Pa yamera de7iyada aazisidi haasayo/ Paara haasay (Monologue)
Hayssi issi odaaway pa xalla gididi haasayishin nu hayzoos. Pa qofan kessidi wodhisi haasayees;
asi hayziya aqon woy pa xalla uttidi odettees; kooshe dhoqqisidi guussi.

20. 20
SHEMPPO NAM77A
GINXXO YARATA (ELEMENTS OF POETRY)
Barkketho
1. Ginxxo yarata guussay ay guussee?
2. Ginxxon:
▪ kurey
▪ ziri
▪ turi aybeekko paatti odite.
Ginxxo yarata gishin ginxxo giddon geliya dumma dumma yohota-guussi. He yarati issi ginxxon
paccishin ginxxoy pace gidees. He yarati ginxxoy suuridi polanaada tuussi gidida gisho
paccanaw koshshennanne dandda7enna. Hayssati baynna bessan ginxoy denddi eqqanaw
dandda7enna.
2.1 Kure (Stanza)
Ginxxon kaaleretti yiya zirati tookkida kiita gogethay eqqishin kure geetettees. (Kumetha kiitay
wurishin kurey medhettees). Ginxxo xaafanchchati pantta ginxxuwan kure bessaw zirata gela
kessi go7ettoosona hankkoti wurssethan mallata wothishin baggati qassi pace bessaa aggidi
aadhdhoosona.
Mallas:Kure xaafo ogeta
1) Gela kessa ogen kure bessishin
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21. 21
2) Kure Wurssethan malla woson ginxxoy xaafettishin
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3) Pacce bessi agon kure bessishin
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2.2 Keso/qalame (Iamb/Syllable)
Kesoy issi ustta kooshe woy issi usttaa gaason nabbabettiya qaala /kooshe/ suttupo. Ginxxo
gaathan kooshe dhoqqison nu xeegiya si7ettiya kooshe /pidale gidees.
▪ Kesoy phalqqerettanawnne shaakerettanaw dandda7onna wurssetha kooshe suttufo
(kooshila)
▪ Kesoy issi toho xeegettiya/geetettiya guutha kooshe shaaho.
▪ Kesoy daro wode issi ustta xalla, woy issi guttuminne issi usttiwoy nam77u
guttuminneissi ustti wol gakkidi mdhdhiya kooshe daashshi.
▪ Issi turan woy ziran de7iya kesota tayboy he ziraa woy turaa qanthatethaasinne
adussatethaas, mixesinne shochas, hessadan eedos xapho gididi maaddees.
Agga –giya gaalan *A* - pa xalla keso gidees A*gga = Ha qaalan nam77u kesoti de7oosona.
Koyro usttay pawkeso gidishin guttumay usttaara qassi hara keso gidees.
Mallas:kaallidi shiiqida yetha sabatan keso ane be7oos.

22. 22
Qommon imettida ginxxo zirata ane xeelloos. Keso paydoy aappunee?
Timirtte Tamaarada/eratethi demmana =6/6
Tawkka laamettada/ta gadiya go7ana =6/6
Nu sookko matee, =3/2=5 (Nu __ sook__ko // ma__tee)
Naatiro daashshee. =3/2=5 (Naa__ti__ro // daash__shee)
Kesoy qinxxi gida gisho ginxxoy lo77o dinxxis.
1. Maatha qeesa hanggaaraa, =4/3=7 (maa_tha_qee_sa // hang_gaa_raa)
Bootha mulxxa badallaa, =4/3=7 (boo_tha_mulx_xa //ba_dal_laa)
Geeshsha tirra aarassaa. =4/3=7(geesh_sha_tir_ra //aa-ras_saa)
2. Ne wogaa keehaara, =3/3=6 (ne_wo_gaa // kee_haa_raa)
Ne duussaa giigaaraa, =3/3=6 (ne_duus_sa // kee_haa_raa)
Ne boncho mokaara. =3/3=6 (ne_bon_cho //mo_kaa_raa)
2.3 Tura (Phrase)
Ginxxo issi ziran issi toho (issi shemppon) nabbabettiya qaalata shiiqo woykko qaalati (eqqiya)
bessi.
Mallas:
Maatha qeesa- hanggaraa,
Bootha mulxxa- badallaa,
Geeshsha tirra- aarassaa.
Ha ginxxoy usupun turan shaakettis.
. . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . .
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. . . . . .

23. 23
2.4 Zira(Line )
Ginxxo issi kumetha yafara.
a) 1ppe
4 gaso de7iya turatan kojettida ginxxos issi yafara.
b) Ginxxuwan qaalati sigettidi issi qofa/gaatha qofa qonccisiya yafara.
c) Mixeninne keson sigettidi kojettida ginxxos issi keethi gidi gizzanaas dandda7oos. Ha
qommo heedzataskka issi mali de7ees; shaakettokkona.
Ginxxo giddon zirata medhoy xaafanchchaa xaafo hiillaa mala dummatanaw dandda7oosona.
Issoti issoti xaafishe issi yafaran pidale,qaala woy tura wothidi aadhishin hankkoti qassi denddo
turanne kuushsha tura go7ettidi xafoosona
Qommora shiiqida ginxxoy usupun turaninne heedzu ziran shaakettis.
Mallas:
Timirtte tamaarada/eratethi demmana,
Tawkka laamettada/ta gadiya go7ana.
denddo turata kuushsha turata
2.5 Mixenne shoche (Rythem and Rhym)
Mixe gishin issi turan woy ziran de7iya kesota tayboy ginidi (qinxxi gidi) beeto. He wode turati
qinxxi gees. Turati qinxxi gishin zirati qinxxi gees. Yaansihin issi turaa nabbabana wodiyaranne
kaalleyssa nabbabana wodiyara gina gidees. Hessikka shocha suuretethi/ ginatethi gidees.
Mixeranne shochara shaaketti xeelettokkona. Issoy issuwa gaathan qoometti uttis. Ginxxoy
nabbabosikka qinxxi gidi injjetey mixey injjetishina. Hankkoode zhood- mooda gidees.
Oykkonna ginxxo guussay mixe bala guuussi
2.6 Eedo (Rythem)
Ginxxoy yeda xuufepe dummatiya kanddotape issoy eedo. Eedoy ginxxo nabbabishin de7iya
yethada haniya kooshe mal77o. Ginxxo coo zoddu udidi nabbabikko ayyanay qaarettees. Eedos
giigisey keso, mixenne shoche.

24. 24
2.7 Polo (Rhym)
Ginxxo zira issuwas issuwas wurssetha wolira misatiya pidaley woy kooshey polo geetettees.
2.8 Dinxxo
Ginxxon nam77antha heedzantha (ginxxuwada dummatanaw dandda7ee) ziray qinxxi gidi issi
kooshen woy pidalen makettidi wourishin dinxxo geetettees.
Mallas 1. Maatha qeesa- hanggaaraa, (-raa)
Bootha mulxxa- badalaa, (-laa)
Geeshsha tirra-aarassaa. (-saa) dinxxo
Qofiso
Goofatho ginxxo wogan Amaaratho ginxxo mela ubba wode issi kocha
pidalen dinxonnayssa loythidi akeekanaw bessees.
Mallas: a) Issimela kooshen dinxxishin:
1. Achaa aggi buuchaa menthiya zalla hallithaa,
Aawaa aggi na7aa wodhiya hargge nagaraa.
2. Oothonnay ogoro garxxoo,
Haronnay muxonna mittoo.
3. Bollara “dinxxo” garssan shiiqida mallaa gujidi xeellite.
B.Issi kocha pidalen dinxxishin:
1. Iiti iissidee,
shaali shaallidee,
shuchi dishin bohi kanthidee.
2. Sabbin shaattanddee,
Yeerin cuchanddee.
Polo

25. 25
➢ Keethe Dinxxis: koyro zirayinne gordda ziray issi peeshoppe keyikko issoy keethe
shociya/gorddiya gidishina.
Mallas:
Ufayssana gi wolqqa yarshshin,
Laame ehana gi gallas qamma oothin,
Aybikka baawa shempponna oothin.
➢ Keethe: ziraa wurssethan beettiya pidaliya
➢ Keethe shocis: ginxxos koyro ziray mixxettidi wurishin keethe shocis goos. Issi keethan
haasayettida zirati nam77a gidikko koyro ziraa qassi oydda gidikko koyro heedzata
guussi.
Mallas:
keetha shociya zira
Oothiday mo oothonnay mooppo,
Hara asa cawan hiza kaa7oppo. keethe shociya qaala
➢ Keethe guphis: Issi qommo pidalen (kooshen)
Wuriya zirata zatan wurssetha ziray mixxettidi wurshin keethe guphis/gorddis goos.
Mallas:
Qanthan danccada ta xeessa minthada,
dugetha wodhdhada pudetha keyada,
Gel kessa xoonada zanggaara pinnada,
Ekkonna simmikke Ufayssaa dankkada.
Keethe guphiya /gorddiya zira
➢ Keethe menthis: Ginxxuwa zirati adussenne qanthi gidon kojethay wobbenne qooma
gididayssappe denddidayssan nabbabos injjetonna atethi qassi gaatha kaha denthethos
dol77ishin keethe menthis goos. Hessikka bessey keso mixxetha paccetethay de7eyssa
gidees.

26. 26
➢ Keethi laalettis: Issi hiillan misatiya kooshen wurees geetetti qofettishin ziraa gordda
bolla koyro buussappe buutidi gogetha hiillaa yeggid keyishin keethe laallis goos.
-Koyro ziray odeyssappe nam77antho ziray perzzidi qofaninne pidalen
/kooshen/dummatethi medhdhishin guussi.
Shemppuwa Kuuyethi
Ginxxoy hankko xaafettida bila xuufetara gathi xeellishin ceega hiilla macara. Doonaranne
xuufera shiiqiyabaa gididayssan qassi denddoy bila xuufera gahettees. Ginxxoy yeda xuufeppe
dummatiya unddenna kanddoti de7eyssika qonccettis.
Ginxxoy yeda xuufeppe nam77u kanddotan guussaykka kare baggamedhoninne gaatha bagga
medhon dummatees. Kare bagga medhuwa xeellishin yeda xuufemela gaxape gaxa gakki
zerettenna. Qaammi qinxxettidi giigida ziran xaafettiya gisho ayfera be7idi shaakkanaw
dandda7ettees.
Gaatha medhuwa xeellishin qoro qaala koyeyssa. Bila xuufe ubbay qaala dooriya gidishin
ginxxoy dooron aadhdhees. Ginxxo qaalati misile medhdhiya gurzzanne uuga qaalan daro kiita
aathiya gidanaw bessees.
Ginxxoy yeda xuufemela guuthabaa denthidi daro qonccisanaw wodeynne bessi baaws. Ginxxo
qaalati al77onne ashanqqa. Ginxxoy pa wogaan siqimethi, minjjanne elleso. Minjjaan, uuga
qaalata, siqimetethaan pa gaathan daro qofata, ellesuwan qassi mixenne shoche naagidi
ginxxuwa kochaadan ellesidi eedon nabbabo oykkees.
Ginxxoy keson maxettidi, turan shaakettidi, ziran zattidi, poloninne dinxxon qinxxettidi,
muuzuqa ecdon ilddiiqidi, kuren makettidi shiiqiya hiilla.

27. 27
SHEMPPO HEEDZA
BERTTE GIDIDA GINXXO ISTAYLETA (MAJOR STYLISTIC FEATURES OF POETRY)
Tamaareto ha kaara bolla maxaafa ketha biidinne carkko gitetappe markkanddota wodhisi
nabbabidappe guye aliya akeeka demmidi shemoppo nam77an paatettida oyddu ginxxo qommota
maaran ginxxota dooridi mino bagganne dol77a bagga yaran yaran paattite paattite.

28. 28
Markka Maxaafata
ዘሪሁንአስፋው (2007)፡፡የስነፅሁፍመሰረታዊያን፡፡ንግድማተሚያቤት፣አዲስአበባ፣
ኢትዮጵያ፡፡
Kennedy X.J. (2002). Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry and Drama.
New York: Longman.
Kennedy X.J. and Dana G. (2002). Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry
and Drama. 5th
ed.New York: Longman.
Leech, G. N. 1969. A Linguistic Guide to Poetry. London: Longman.
Mayer, F. (1987). The discovery of Poetry. San Diago: Harcourt Brace and Jovanovich
Publishers
Melakneh Mengistu (2006). Fundamentals of Literature.Rev.4th
ed.Addis Ababa:
AAU,Ethiopia.
Parkins, G. & Parkins, B. (1999). The America Tradition in Literature. (Vol. 1) 9th
ed. Boston:
McGraw-Hill.
Potter, R. (1990). Globe Literature. New Jersy Globe Book Company.
Simpson, L. (1986). An Introduction to Poetry. (3rd ed) New York: St. Martin's
Press.
Scholes Robert and others. (1991). Elements of Literature. 4th.ed. New Delhi:
OxfordUniversity Press.